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Primary Metals Table of Contents Industry Overview Steel Making Industry Ferrous & Non-Ferrous Foundries Aluminum Smelting & Refining Copper Processing Lead Processing Zinc Processing Glossary

) Bassemer ve Thomas elik yntemleri. b ) Smens Martin elik retim yntemleri. c ) Elektrik ark ve elektrik endksiyon elik retim yntemleri. d ) Pota ierisinde elik retim yntemleri. e ) Oksijenli konverter elik retim yntemleri. f ) Vakum elik retim yntemleri.

Most steel is produced using one of four methods: Bessemer converters, openhearth furnaces, basic oxygen furnaces, and electric furnaces. The basic oxygen process is the most efficient, while the Bessemer and open-hearth methods have become obsolete. Electric furnaces are used to produce high quality steels from selected steel scrap, lime, and mill scale (an iron oxide that forms on the surface of hot steel and falls off as black scale).

The primary flow-sheet is broken down further into two streams; the KOBM (Basic Oxygen Steelmaking) Stream, and the EAF (Electric Arc Furnace) Stream. The KOBM Stream uses primarily iron ore, coal, and limestone as feed materials; whereas the EAF Stream produces steel mostly from recycled scrap. KOBM (Temel Oksijen elik retiminde) Ak ve EAF (Elektrik Ark Oca) Ak; birincil ak sayfalk iki derenin iine daha aa krlm. KOBM ay bata demir cevheri, kmr ve yem malzemesi olarak kireta kullanr; EAF ay, ounlukla geri dnml hurda elik reten oysa.

2 The Steel Making Industry

Background Steel is an alloy of iron usually containing less than 1% carbon. It is used most frequently in the automotive and construction industries. Steel can be cast into bars, strips, sheets, nails, spikes, wire, rods or pipes as needed by the intended user. Based on statistics from The 1992 Census of Manufacturing, 1,118 steel manufacturing facilities currently exist in the United States. Steel production is a $9.3 billion dollar industry and employs 241,000 people. The process of steelmaking has undergone many changes in the 20th century based on the political, social and technological atmosphere. In the 1950s and 1960s, demand for high quality steel encouraged the steelmaking industry to produce large quantities. Large, integrated steel mills with high capital costs and limited flexibility were built in the U.S. (Chatterjee, 1995). Integrated steel plants produce steel by refining iron ore in several steps and produce very high quality steel with well controlled chemical compositions to meet all product quality requirements. The energy crisis of the 1970s made thermal efficiency in steel mills a priority. The furnaces used in integrated plants were very efficient; however, the common production practices needed to be improved. The large integrated plants of the 1950s and 1960s tended to produce steel in batches where iron ore was taken from start to finish. This causes some equipment to be idle while other equipment was in use. To help reduce energy use, continuous casting methods were developed. By keeping blast funraces continually feed with iron ore, heat is used more efficiently. As environmental concerns have gained importance in the 1980s and 1990s, regulations have become more stringent, again changing the steelmaking industry. In 1995, compliance with environmental requirements was estimated to make up 20-30% of the capital costs in new steel plants (Chatterjee, 1995). Competition has also increased during the period do to decreasing markets and increasing foreign steel production plants. The competition has forced steelmaking facilities to reduce expenses and increase quality. To meet these changing needs, just-in-time technology has become more prominent and integrated steel plants are being replaced with smaller plants, called mini-mills, that rely on steel scrap as a base material rather than ore. Mini-mills will never completely replace integrated steel plants because they cannot maintain the tight control over chemical composition, and thus cannot consistenly produce high quality steel. Mini-mills have a narrower production line and cannot produce the specialty products produced by integrated plants. Although technology continues to improve, in the mid 1990s, mini-mills captured less than half of the quality steel market. Steel Production from Iron Ore Steel production at an integrated steel plant involves three basic steps. First, the heat source used to melt iron ore is produced. Next the iron ore is melted in a furnace. Finally, the molten iron is processed to produce steel. These three steps can be done at one facility; however, the fuel source is often purchased from off-site producers. Cokemaking Coke is a solid carbon fuel and carbon source used to melt and reduce iron ore. Coke

production begins with pulverized, bituminous coal. The coal is fed into a coke oven which is sealed and heated to very high temperatures for 14 to 36 hours. Coke is produced in batch processes, with multiple coke ovens operating simultaneously. Heat is frequently transfered from one oven to another to reduce energy requirements. After the coke is finished, it is moved to a quenching tower where it is cooled with water spray. Once cooled, the coke is moved directly to an iron melting furnace or into storage for future use. Ironmaking During ironmaking, iron ore, coke, heated air and limestone or other fluxes are fed into a blast furnace. The heated air causes the coke combustion, which provides the heat and carbon sources for iron production. Limestone or other fluxes may be added to react with and remove the acidic impurities, called slag, from the molten iron. The limestoneimpurities mixtures float to the top of the molten iron and are skimmed off, see Figure 1, after melting is complete. Sintering products may also be added to the furnace. Sintering is a process in which solid wastes are combined into a porous mass that can then be added to the blast furnace. These wastes include iron ore fines, pollution control dust, coke breeze, water treatment plant sludge, and flux. Sintering plants help reduce solid waste by combusting waste products and capturing trace iron present in the mixture. Sintering plants are not used at all steel production facilities. Steelmaking with the Basic Oxide Furnace (BOF) Molten iron from the blast furnace is sent to a basic oxide furnace, which is used for the final refinement of the iron into steel (Figure 1). High purity oxygen is blown into the furnace and combusts carbon and silicon in the molten iron. The basic oxide furnace is fed with fluxes to remove any final impurities. Alloy materials may be added to enhance the characteristics of the steel. The resulting steel is most often cast into slabs, beams or billets (USEPA, 1995). Further shaping of the metal may be done at steel foundries, which remelt the steel and pour it into molds, or at rolling facilities, depending on the desired final shape. BOF Pollution Sources and Prevention Opportunities Different types of pollution result from the different steps in steel production. Below, the pollution sources and the possible pollution prevention opportunities are discussed for each process. Pollution Sources and Prevention for Cokemaking Coke production is one of the major pollution sources from steel production. Air emissions such as coke oven gas, naphthalene, ammonium compounds, crude light oil, sulfur and coke dust are released from coke ovens. Emissions control equipment can be used to capture some of the gases. Some of the heat can be captured for reuse in other heating processes. Other gases may escape into the atmosphere.

Figure 1: The Steel Making Process (EPA, 1995) Water pollution comes from the water used to cool coke after it has finished baking. Quenching water becomes contaminated with coke breezes and other compounds. While the volume of contaminated water can be great, quenching water is fairly easy to reuse. Coke breezes and other solids can usually be removed by filtration. The resulting water can be reused in other manufacturing processes or released. Reducing Coke Oven Emissions Pollution associated with coke production is best reduced by decreasing the amount of coke used in the iron melting process. The smaller the volume of coke produced, the smaller the volume of air and water emissions. However, process modifications in actual coke production are not widely available and are very expensive. One fairly economical method of reducing coke oven pollution is to reduce the levels of coke used in blast furnaces. A portion of the coke can be replaced with other fossil fuels without retrofitting the furnace. Pulverized coal can be substituted for coke at nearly a 1:1 and can replace 25 - 40% of coke traditionally used in furnaces (USEPA, 1995). Pulverized coal injection is used worldwide to reduce coke use and, thus, coke emissions (Chatterjee, 1995). Pulverized coal injection may affect the final steel products. Pulverized coal may reduce gas permeability of the metal and unburnt coal particles may accumulate in the furnace, decreasing efficiency. Thus, it may not be possible to substitute pulverized coal for coke in the production of high quality steel. Other alternative fuels such as natural gas, oil or tar/pitch can be used to replace coke using similar process modifications. The reduction in emissions is proportional to the reduction in coke use. Air and water emissions may also be reduced by using a non-recovery coke battery. In traditional plants, by-products are recovered from the blast furnace. In non-recovery batteries, coke oven slag and other by-products are sent to the battery where they are combusted. This technique consumes the by-products, eliminating much of the air and water pollution. Non-recovery coke batteries do require replacement or retrofitting of traditional coke ovens. This process modification does reduce pollution, but can be expensive. A third method for reducing coke oven emissions is the Davy Still Autoprocess. The process uses water to remove ammonia and hydrogen sulfide from coke oven emissions prior to cleaning of the oven. Cokeless Ironmaking Cokeless ironmaking procedures are currently being studied and, in some places, implemented. One such procedure is the Japanese Direct Iron Ore Smelting (DIOS) process (Figure 2). The DIOS process produces molten iron from coal and previously melted ores. In this process, coal and other ores can produce enough heat to melt ore, replacing coke completely (USEPA, 1995).

In addition to reducing coke use, the DIOS process could cut the costs of molten iron production by about 10%, reduce emissions of carbon dioxide by 5 - 10% and increase flexibility by improving the starting and stopping capabilities of the steel mill (Furukawa, 1994). However, the DIOS process remain very expensive and requires extensive process modification. In 1995, this method was still being tested and economic feasibility will be determined from those tests. The HISmelt process, named after the HISmelt Corporation of Australia, is another cokeless iron melting process being tested. In this process, ore fines and coal are manipulated to melt iron ore. In 1993, the process could produce eight tons of iron ore per hour using ore directly in the smelter. Process modifications are expected to increase the efficiency to 14 tons per hour. Commercial feasibility studies were performed in 1995. Midrex is expected to be the U.S. distributor of the process. A final cokeless iron melting process is the Corex or Cipcor Process. This process also manipulates coke to produce the heat required to melt iron. A Corex plant is operational in South Africa. Posco of Korea has a Corex plant operating at 70% capacity in 1996 and is expected to continue progress (Ritt, 1996). India is also expected to build a plant in 1997. The process integrates coal desulfurization, has flexible coal-type requirements, and generates excess electricity that can be sold to power grids (USEPA, 1995). Further testing is being conducted to determine actual commercial feasibility in the U.S. Figure 2. The DIOS Process (Furukawa, 1994) Iron Carbide Steel Production Plants Iron carbide production plants can be an alternative to the Basic Oxide Furnace. These plants use iron carbide, an iron ore that contains 6% carbon rather than 1.5-1.8% of regular iron ore . The additional carbon ignites in the presence of oxygen and contributes heat to the iron melting process, reducing energy requirements (Ritt, 1996). While these types of plants do not reduce pollution on site, they do reduce the electricity requirement for steel production, reducing polution from the power plant. Pollution Sources and Prevention in Ironmaking Slag, the limestone and iron ore impurities collected at the top of the molten iron, make up the largest portion of ironmaking by-products. Sulfur dioxide and hydrogen sulfide are volatized and captured in air emissions control equipment and the residual slag is sold to the construction industry. While this is not a pollution prevention technique, the solid waste does not reach landfills. Blast furnace flue gas is also generated during ironmaking. This gas is cleaned to remove particulates and other compounds, allowing it to be reused as heat for coke furnaces or other processes. Cleaning gas for reuse can produce some air pollution control dust and water treatment plant sludge, depending on the method used. The dust can be reused in sintering processes or landfilled. Pollution Sources and Prevention in the BOF Slag is a major component of the waste produced in BOFs. Because of its composition, this slag, unlike that from the blast furnace, is best used as an additive in the sintering

process. As its metallic content is lower, it does not make a good raw material for the construction industry. Hot gases are also produced by the BOF. Furnaces are equipped with air pollution control equipment that contains and cools the gas. The gas is quenched and cooled using water and cleaned of suspended solids and metals. This process produces air pollution control dust and water treatment plant sludge. Steel Production from Scrap Metals Steelmaking from scrap metals involves melting scrap metal, removing impurities and casting it into the desired shapes. Electric arc furnaces (EAF) are often used (Figure 1). The EAFs melt scrap metal in the presence of electric energy and oxygen. The process does not require the three step refinement as needed to produce steel from ore. Production of steel from scrap can also be economical on a much smaller scale. Frequently mills producing steel with EAF technology are called mini-mills. Pollution Sources and Material Recovery Gaseous emissions and metal dust are the most prominent sources of waste from electric arc furnaces. Gaseous emissions are collected and cleaned, producing EAF dust or sludge. The remaining gas contains small quantities of nitrogen oxide and ozone and is usually released. The EAF dust or sludge composition varies depending on the type of steel being manufactured. Common components include iron and iron oxides, flux, zinc, chromium, nickel oxide and other metals used for alloys. If the dust or sludge contains lead or cadmium, it is listed as a hazardous waste (RCRA K061) (USEPA, 1995). In 1996, 500kg of EAF dust were produced for each tonn (UK weight measurements) of crude steel production. In the United Kingdom, 70% of that dust is sold to other companies, 20% is recycled in-plant and 10% is landfilled. Although it is a relatively small proportion of the total volume of waste, the landfilled EAF dust amounts to 50 kg per tonne of crude steel produced (Strohmeier, 1996). Recycling and recovery of EAF dust can be difficult because of the alkalinity and heavy metal (zinc and lead) content. The dust can be landfilled, but, because of the fine nature, it may leach into ground water. Several processes have been developed to recover the zinc, lead and other heavy metals from EAF dust. Although not pollution prevention, metal recovery is almost always profitable if the zinc content of the dust is 15 - 20% of the total volume. It can be marginally profitable with lower levels of zinc. Other metals such as chromium and nickel can also be reclaimed and sold. After the heavy metals have been removed, the dust is composed primarily of iron and iron oxides and may be remelted. If the metal content is sufficient, the dust can be reused in the blast furnaces. If it is not sufficient, the dust can be sold to other industries for use as raw materials in bricks, cement, sandblasting or fertilizers. Energy Optimizing Furnaces (EOF) EOF was developed to replace the electric arc and other steelmaking furnaces. The EOF is an oxygen steelmaking process. Carbon and oxygen react to preheat scrap metal, hot metal and/or pig iron. These furnaces reduce capital and conversion costs, energy

consumption and environmental pollution, while increasing input flexibility (Chattergee, 1995). Steel Forming and Finishing After the molten metal is released from either the BOF, EAF or EOV, it must be formed into its final shape and finished to prevent corrosion. Traditionally, steel was poured into convenient shapes called ingots and stored until further shaping was needed. Current practices favor continuous casting methods, where the steel is poured directly into semifinished shapes. Continuous casting saves time by reducing the steps required to produce the desired shape. After the steel has cooled in its mold, as further detailed in Chapter 3, continued shaping is done with hot or cold forming. Hot forming is used to make slabs, strips, bars or plates from the steel. Heated steel is passed between two rollers until it reaches the desired thickness. Cold forming is used to produce wires, tubes, sheets and strips. In this process the steel is passed between two rollers, without being heated, to reduce the thickness. The steel is then heated in an annealing furnace to improve the ductile properties. Cold rolling is more time consuming, but is used because the products have better mechanical properties, better machinability, and can more easily be manipulated into special sizes and thinner gauges. After rolling is completed, the steel pieces are finished to prevent corrosion and improve properties of the metal. The finishing process is detailed in the Pollution Prevention and the Metal Finishing Industry manual. Pollution Sources and Prevention from Steel Forming The primary wastes produced in the metal forming process include contact water, oil, grease, and mill scale. All are collected in holding tanks. The scale settles out and is removed. It can be reused in sintering plants or, if the metal content is sufficient, may be sold as a raw material elsewhere. The remaining liquid leaves the process as waste treatment plant sludge. As the waste results in a small portion of pollution produced by steelmaking, pollution prevention and process modification opportunities are not a priority. References Chatterjee, Amit. "Recent Developments in Ironmaking and Steelmaking." Iron and Steelmaking. 22:2 (1995), pp. 100-104. Frukawa, Tsukasa. "5000 Daily Tons of Direct Iron-Ore Smelting by 2000." New Steel. 10:11 (November, 1994), pp. 36-38. McManus, George, ed. "Replacing Coke With Pulverized Coal." New Steel. 10:6 (June, 1994), pp. 40-42. Ritt, Adam. "DRI comes to the Gulf Coast." New Steel. January, 1996, pp. 54-58. Strohmeier, Gerolf, and John Bonestell. "Steelworks Residues and the Waelz Kiln

Treatment of Electric Arc Furnace Dust." Iron and Steel Engineering. April, 1996, pp. 8790. U.S. Department of Commerce. 1992 Census of Manufacturers Blast Furnaces, Steel Works and Rolling and Finishing Mills. 1992. USEPA. "Profile of the Iron and Steel Industry." EPA/310-R-95-010, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, D.C., September 1995. Annotated Bibliography Andres, A. and J.A. Irabien. "The Influence of Binder / Waste Ratio on Leaching Characteristics of Solidified / Stabilized Steel Foundry Dust." Environmental Technology. 15 (1994), pp. 343-351. This article discusses effective methods for steel dust stabilization. Andres, A., et al. "Long-term Behavior of Toxic Metals in Stabilized Steel Foundry Dust." Journal of Hazardous Waste Materials. 40 (1995): pp. 31-42. This study describes the leaching properties of heavy metals in steel dust. Berry, Brian. "Hoogovens Means Blast Furnaces And Clean Air." New Steel. December, 1994. pp. 26-30. Pulverized coal injection, particularly in Holland, are discussed. McManus, G.J. "The Direct Approach to Making Iron." Iron Age. July, 1993. pp. 20-23. Direct ironmaking, Corex plants and other alternatives to the BOF are discussed. Mohla, Prem. "New Ductile Iron Process Meets the Challenge of the 1990's Head On." Foundry Management and Technology. 121:4 (April, 1993), pp. 52-56. Discusses alternative production processes to help reduce pollution. Schriefer, John. "Hot Iron Without Coke - And Blast Furnaces." New Steel. August, 1995, pp. 50-52. Corex, direct iron-ore smelting and HISmelt processes are all alternatives to the coke oven and blast furnace. Examples are discussed in this article. Case Study Metal Recovery from Electric Arc Furnace Dust Case Study: CS616 North Carolina Department of Natural Resources and Community Development, July, 1989 The Florida Steel Company of Charlotte, North Carolina produces significant amounts of baghouse dust with a high zinc from their steel smelting operations. The air pollution control system on their electric arc furnaces capture the zinc-rich dust. Rather than disposal, the furnace dust is sent directly to a zinc smelter for metal recovery. At this writing, 2700 tons per year were sent to the zinc smelter for recovery at a cost of $61 per ton. By allowing the zinc to be reused, Florida Steel saves $130,000 per year over the cost of landfilling.

Iron And Steel Manufacturing Processes Steel making is a complicated processes involving many stages and yielding thousands of by-products. Steel can be produced either from steel scrap or iron. The process used for the manufacturing of iron& steel has a bearing on the cost of production & the quality of the steel produced. The Iron Making process The first step in the steel making process is producing iron from iron ore. The process is called the iron-making process. Three different methods can be used for the production of iron from Iron ore. They are: 1. 2. 3. Coke-Ovens -Sinter-Blast Furnace (BF) Route Direct Reduction Technique

Smelting Reduction Technologies Coke-oven-Sinter-BF route is used by integrated steel plants that produce steel from iron ore. In this process, the iron ore is first subjected to a sintering process. Sintering is the technology for agglomeration of iron ore fines into useful Blast Furnace burden material. Simultaneously coke is prepared in coke ovens from coal. The treated iron from the sintering plant is fed in to the Blast furnace along with coke. The blast furnace basically does the function of converting iron oxide in to liquid iron. Coke is used as a reducing agent as well as fuel. The output from the furnace is the pure iron in molten stage, which is called hot metal. The hot metal output from the Blast furnace is either directly fed in to the Basic Oxygen Furnace or used for producing pig iron. Pig iron- definition- Liquid iron from blast furnace solidified in moving metal moulds of a "Pig Casting Machine". Named long ago when molten iron was poured through a trench in the ground to flow into shallow earthen moulds and arrangement looked like newborn pig sucklings.

1. Coke-oven-Sinter-BF route

2. Direct Reduction Technique The Direct reduction technique is an alternative to the Blast furnace technique. Iron ore is first crushed and reduction agents remove the impurities and oxygen. The reduction agents used in this process are coal and gas. Reducing gases used here are carbon monoxide, hydrogen and their mixture, which are generally found in natural gas. This produces 97.0 percent pure iron, which is called, solid Sponge Iron or direct reduced iron or hot briquetted iron. It is used as substitute for steel scrap in Electric Arc Furnaces. 3. Smelting Reduction Technique Smelting reduction technique is the third technique used for the production of iron from iron ore. Here the hot metal (liquid iron) is produced from iron ore in two steps. Ores are partly reduced in the first step and then final reduction and melting, takes place in the second stage. Different processes are used for smelting. COREX technique is the latest process used for smelting. Here coal is directly used in a melter gesifier as an energy carrier & reducing agent, thereby

eliminating the need for a Blast Furnace, Sinter Plant & Coke Ovens. The other smelting techniques are Hismelt, Ausmelt, Romelt, Plasmasmelt and The Direct Iron Smelting Reduction (DIOS) The Steel Making Process The second stage in iron and steel making is the steel making process. Generally two types of techniques are adopted for steel making. They are the Basic Oxygen Furnace (BOF) type and Electric arc furnace (EAF) type. Basic Oxygen Furnace Technique (BOF) The Basic oxygen furnace is used for producing steel from the refined iron. Hot metal from the Blast furnace, which is a pear shaped furnace or reduced iron from the smelting plant is fed in to the Basic Oxygen Furnace (BOF) after pre-treatment to remove undesired elements like sulfur, silicon or phosphorous. Molten Steel in liquid form is obtained. Impurities go out in gaseous form and as slag. The liquid steel produced here is called crude steel. Electric Arc Furnace (EAF) Steel scrap or Pig iron or Sponge iron is used as the raw material in this process. Here the raw material is melted using heat generated with the aid of an electric arc produced by graphite electrodes. Here again the output is crude steel. The crude steel produced from the above said processes are either used for producing ingots or fed in the continuous casting process cycle. Ingot-definition- Molten steel cast in vertical cast iron moulds intended for rolling after heating in two stages i.e. in a primary mill and then in a finishing mill. Crude Steel To Finished Steel In the Continuous Steel Casting process, liquid steel is directly cast into semifinished products, which eliminates the need for primary rolling of ingots. The crude steel or liquid steel is poured into a reciprocating refractory-lined receptacle, called a Tundish. Below the Tundish are water-cooled copper moulds of desired size. The steel solidified in the moulds is slowly pulled out to produce an "endless" strand, which is gas-cut to desired lengths. This steel is called semi-finished steel. The semi-finished steel is fed in to re-rolling mills to get finished steel products. Finished steel products are classified in to two types: 1. Finished Carbon Steel As per the International Iron & Steel Institute (IISI), Finished Carbon steel is defined as steel that has properties made up mostly of the element carbon, and which relies on the carbon content for structure. Finished Carbon steel can be further classified in to three types: a) Long products b) Flat products and c) Other carbon steel products. Long products are Bars, rods, channels, angles and other structural materials. They are used in the construction and engineering industry and, to some extent, in the manufacturing sector.

Flat products consist mainly of sheets, coils and plates. They may be hot-rolled, cold-rolled or galvanized and find use mainly in automobile, shipbuilding and the white goods/consumer durables sectors. 2. Finished Alloy Steel Alloy steel is defined as a material containing Iron, carbon (less than 2.0 percent), Silicon, Manganese plus Alloy elements like Chromium, Vanadium, Molybdenium, Tungsten, Nickel, Lead, Naboium, Copper etc. Alloy steels can be further classified into two categories: a) Stainless Steel And b) Alloy Steels. Stainless steel is alloy steel that contains more than 10.0 percent chromium, with or without other alloying elements. Stainless steel has special properties like high level of corrosion resistance and the ability to maintain its strength at high temperatures. Influence of Elements in Steel

Demir Ve elik malat lemleri elik yapmnda, pek ok aamalar ve binlerce rn verimi ieren karmak bir sre. elik, ya elik hurda ya da demirden imal edilebilmektedir.Demir ve elik retimi iin kullanlan sre, retim ve retilen elik kalite maliyet bir yatak vardr. Demir sreci yapma elik alma srecinde ilk adm, demir cevherinden demir retimi yapmaktadr. Bu sre, demir-verme sreci denir. Demir cevherinden demir retimi iin farkl yntem kullanlabilir. Bunlar: 1. Kok-Frnlar Sinter-Yksek Frn (BF) Rota 2. Dorudan Kltme Teknii 3. Eritme Azaltma Teknolojileri 1. Coke-frn-Sinter-BF rota Kok frn Sinter-BF yol, demir cevherinden elik reten entegre elik tesislerinde kullanlr. Bu srete, ilk demir cevheri sinterleme ilemine tabi tutulur. Sinterleme faydal 'Yksek Frn' yk malzeme iine demir cevheri ylma teknolojidir. Ayn zamanda kok kmr kok frnlarnda hazrlanmtr. Yksek frn sinterleme tesisi tedavi demir, kok kmr ile birlikte beslenir. Yksek frn temelde sv demir iin demir oksit dntrme fonksiyonu.Coca-Cola, indirgeyici bir ajan olarak hem de yakt olarak kullanlr. Frndan kt erimi aamasnda saf demir, scak metal denir. Yksek frn scak metal k dorudan Temel Oksijen Frn beslenen ya da 'pik demir retimi iin kullanlr.

Yksek frn pik demir-definition-Sv demir, metal kalplar "Pik Dkm Makinesi" hareketli katlam. Ak s toprak kalplar iine erimi demir topraa bir siper zerinden dklr ve dzenlenmesi, yeni doan domuz sucklings gibi grnyordu iken uzun zaman nce Named. 2. Dorudan Kltme Teknii Dorudan azaltma teknii, Yksek frn teknii iin bir alternatif. Demir cevheri ilk ezilmi ve kirliliklerin azaltlmas ajanlar ve oksijen ortadan kaldrr.Bu srete kullanlan azaltma ajanlar, kmr ve doal gaz. Burada kullanlan indirgenmi gazlar, karbon monoksit, hidrojen ve bunlarn karm, genellikle doal gaz bulundu. Bu 97.0 olarak adlandrlan yzde saf demir, kat Snger Demir veya dorudan indirgenmi demir veya scak briketlenmi demir retir. Elektrik Ark Ocaklar elik hurda iin yedek olarak kullanlr. 3. Eritme Kltme Teknii Eritme azaltma teknii, demir cevherinden demir retimi iin kullanlan nc bir tekniktir. Burada scak metal (sv demir) iki admda demir cevheri retilmektedir. Cevherleri ilk adm ksmen azaltlm ve daha sonra son azaltlmas ve erime, ikinci aamada gerekleir. Eritme farkl sreler iin kullanlr. Corex teknii, eritme iin kullanlan en son bir sretir. Burada kmr bylece Yksek Frn, Sinter Plant & Coke Frnlar ihtiyacn ortadan kaldrarak dorudan, eritici gesifier bir enerji tayc ve indirgeyici ajan olarak kullanlr. Dier eritme teknikleri, Plasmasmelt Ausmelt Romelt ve Demir Eritme Azaltma (DIOS) Hismelt elik Sreci Demir ve elik yapmnda ikinci bir aama elik verme sreci. Genellikle iki tr teknikler elik yapmak iin kabul edilmitir. Temel Oksijen Frn (BOF) tipi ve elektrik ark oca (EAF) tipi vardr. Temel Oksijen Frn Teknii (BOF) Temel oksijen frn, rafine demir elik retmek iin kullanlr. Armut eklinde bir frn veya indirgenmi demir izabe tesisi olan Yksek frn, scak metal, kkrt, silikon veya fosfor gibi istenmeyen eleri kaldrmak iin n tedaviden sonra Temel Oksijen Frn (BOF) beslenir. Sv formda Erimi elik elde edilir. Safszlklar gaz ve cruf gibi kyorum. Burada retilen sv elik, ham elik denir. Elektrik Ark Ocakl (EAO) elik hurda veya Pik demir veya Snger demir, bu srete hammadde olarak kullanlr. Burada hammadde, grafit elektrotlar tarafndan retilen bir elektrik ark yardm ile oluturulan s ile eritilir. Burada tekrar k ham elik. Yukardaki retilen ham elik sreleri ya, srekli dkm ilemi dngs kle veya beslendii retimi iin kullanlr syledi. Yani iki aamadan sonra bir ilkretim bitirme deirmen deirmen ve stma sonra hadde ynelik dikey dkme demir kalplara Kle tanmna Erimi elik dkm. Biten elik Ham elik Srekli elik Dkm sreci, sv elik dorudan kle birincil haddeleme iin ihtiyac ortadan kaldran yar mamul rnler, dkme. Ham elik veya sv elik pistonlu refrakter astarl bir priz dklr, bir Tandi denir. Tandi Aada istenen

byklkte su soutmal bakr kalplar. elik kalp katlam yava yava istenilen boylarda gaz kesilir "sonsuz" bir iplikik retmek iin ekilir. Bu elik yar mamul elik denir. Yar mamul elik mamul elik rnleri almak iin fabrikalar yeniden haddeleme beslenir. Bitmi elik rnleri iki tr olarak snflandrlr: 1. Biten Karbon elik Uluslararas Demir ve elik Enstits (IISI) ba olarak, Karbon elik, karbon elementi bulunan ounlukla oluan zelliklere sahip elik olarak tanmlanr ve bu yap iin karbon ierii dayanmaktadr tamamland. Biten Karbon elik, eit olabilir: a) Uzun rnler b) Daire rn ve c) Dier karbon elik rnleri. Uzun rnler, Barlar, ubuklar, kanallar, kebent ve dier yap malzemeleri. Bunlar inaat ve mhendislik sektrnde kullanlan ve bir dereceye kadar imalat sektrnde. Yass rnler ounlukla levhalar, rulo ve plakalar oluur. Onlar, scak haddelenmi, souk haddelenmi ve galvanizli ve arlkl olarak otomotiv, gemi ina ve beyaz eya / tketici dayankl tketim mallar sektrlerinde kullanm alan bulmaktadr. 2. Biten Alaml elik Alaml elik bir malzeme ieren Demir, karbon (yzde 2.0 daha az), Silikon, krom, vanadyum, Molybdenium, tungsten, nikel, kurun, Naboium, Bakr vb gibi Manganez art Alam elemanlar olarak tanmlanmtr. Alaml elikler daha iki kategoriye ayrlabilir: a) Paslanmaz elik ve b) Alaml elikler. Paslanmaz elik ile ya da dier alam elementlerinin yzde 10,0 daha fazla krom ieren alaml elik. Paslanmaz elik, yksek korozyon direnci ve yksek scaklklarda gcn korumak iin yetenek dzeyi gibi zel zellikleri vardr. elik Elemanlarnn Etkisi

Influence of Elements in Steel Alloy steel has different Elements in addition to Iron (Fe) in it. This is the reason the term "ALLOY" steel. Different elements added to Iron gives steel different characteristics. This is required to give steel different properties which are required for different applications.

These Elements are responsible in making steel Mild, Hard, Spring, Die, Tool and so on for various requirements in different industry and home. Below is the list of elements required for ALLOY steel. Aluminum Boron Calcium Carbon Lead Cerium Chromium Cobalt Nickel Tantalum

Columbiu Copper Hydrogen m Niobium

Manganes Molybdenu e m Silicon Sulphur

Nitroge Phosphoru Seleniu n s m Tin

Tellurium Aluminum (Al)

Titanium Tungsten Vanadium

Zirconium

As a deoxidizer, up to 0.05% aluminum may be added to steel. For increasing fine grain characteristics or sub-zero impact properties, up to 010% may be added. Nitriding steels contain about 1% aluminum for promoting a high surface hardness when heated in ammonia. Still larger additions made to heat resisting steels promote resistance to scaling. Approximately 5% added to chromium steel increases electrical resistivity. Boron (B) The addition of about 0.003 % of boron confers increased harden ability to steels in the quenched and tempered condition. Further, it has been found that the addition of 0003% boron to low carbon, 050% molybdenum steel in the normalized condition doubles the yield strength and gives a 30% increase in tensile strength, but the advantage due to boron is very slight when molybdenum is less than 0.35% causes difficulty in forging. As much as 2% may be added to steels used in nuclear engineering. Calcium (Ca) This metal in the form of calcium silicide is sometimes added to steel as a deoxidizer and degasefier. Carbon (C) Carbon is essential in steels which have to be hardened by quenching and for example, in austenitic manganese steel which is required to have high resistance to wear. The maximum hardness obtainable in any carbon steel is a function of the carbon content which may vary up to about 2% according to the purpose for which the steel is to be used. It occurs in varying forms according to the percentage present, and the heat treatment to which the steel has been submitted. (See allotropy and transformation range). Cast irons usually contain from about 1.8% to 4.5% carbon, present either as free carbon (graphite) and/or combined carbon (cementite), the varying distribution of the carbon between these two forms considerably influencing the strength and hardness. (See also Carbon Steel). Cerium (Ce) A metal of the rare earth class which in many respects resemble the alkali metals. The hot working properties of high alloy corrosion- and heat-resistant steels maybe improved by the addition of cerium, whilst in cast iron, cerium acts as a deoxidizer and desulphurizer but when the sulphur content has been reduced to a value of about 0015%, the cerium enters into solution in the cast iron and functions as a powerful carbide stabilizer. In amounts above 002%, cerium is the operative factor in the production of nodular graphite structures in cast iron.

Chromium (Cr) As an alloying element in steel, chromium increases the hardenability and in association with high carbon gives resistance to abrasion and wear. 4%is present in high speed steel and up to 5% is present in hot die steels. In Structural steels it may be present in amounts up to about 3 %. Simple chromium-carbon steels are used for ball bearings having high elastic limit and high uniform hardness due to the uniform distribution of the hard carbide particles, but for most structural purposes chromium is used in conjunction with up to 4 % nickel and small amounts of molybdenum or vanadium. Chromium is unique in its effect on resistance to corrosion and scaling and is an essential constituent in all stainless steels, e.g., stainless cutlery steels contain 12% to 14% chromium, whilst in steels of the austenitic corrosion-resisting type, 18% chromium is associated with 8% nickel, and small amounts of other elements. In heat-resisting steels, chromium is present in amounts up to 30%, and it is an important element in many of the highly alloyed heat-resisting materials, whose iron contents are so low that they cannot be regarded as steel. Chromium is also used as an alloying addition to high duty cast irons. Cobalt (Co) In some steels used for nuclear engineering cobalt is an undesirable impurity, even in amounts as small as 002%. Unlike most other alloying elements cobalt reduces hardenability. It raises the red hardness of steel and this is the reason for adding 5% to 10% cobalt to certain types of high speed steels, developed for the specific purpose of cutting exceptionally hard materials. Heat resisting alloys with high cobalt contents have been developed for use in gas turbines. Cobalt is added to the extent of up to 40 % to magnet steels requiring high coercive force and it is used in electrical- resistance alloys. In the sintered hard metals Cobalt acts as the binding metal. Columbium (Cb) (See Niobium) Copper (Cu) The addition of about 0.20% copper to low carbon steel may increase its resistance to atmospheric corrosion by as much as 20% to 30%. In amounts of about 050% copper appreciably increases the tensile and yield strengths. The addition of increasing amounts of copper leads to defects in rolling. High yield point structural steels containing copper, in association with chromium and appreciable percentages of silicon and phosphorus have been developed. Copper is also added to some stainless steels to improve corrosion resistance. Hydrogen (H) Hydrogen in steel is an undesirable impurity which is introduced from moisture in the atmosphere or the charge during melting. If a large amount of hydrogen is present in the liquid steel, some may be liberated on freezing giving an unsound ingot, evolution of hydrogen subsequently when the solid steel cools may cause hair line cracks. Hydrogen can be reduced to safe proportions by casting in vacuum or by prolonged annealing. It may also be introduced into steel by electrolytic action or by pickling and may then cause brittleness. Lead (Pb) The addition of about 025% lead improves machinability. It also causes a reduction in fatigue strength, ductility and toughness but this only becomes serious in the transverse direction and at high tensile levels. In creep resisting alloys very small amounts of lead may be harmful.

Manganese (Mn) Manganese fulfils a variety of functions in steel. (a) It is used as a deoxidizing agent in nearly all steels.(b) It forms manganese sulphide inclusions which in the ingot are spherical. In the absence of manganese sulphur forms interdendritic films of iron sulphide causing brittleness at forging temperature (hot shortness). (c) It effectively increases harden ability and up to 1.5% is added for this purpose. (d) In larger amounts it is used to stabilize austenite, as in 14% manganese steel. Molybdenum (Mo) Molybdenum is used very widely because of its powerful effect in increasing hardenability and also because in low alloy steels it reduces susceptibility to temper brittleness. It forms stable carbides, raises the temperature at which softening takes place on tempering and increases resistance to creep. In high speed steel it can be used to replace approximately twice its weight of tungsten. The corrosion resistance of stainless steel is improved by molybdenum additions. Nickel (Ni) The addition of nickel, in amounts up to 8% or 10 %, to low carbon steel, increases the tensile strength and considerably raises the impact resistance. 9% nickel steels are useful at very low temperatures. In engineering steels it is widely used, often with chromium and molybdenum. High nickel increases resistance to corrosion, and in combination with chromium, is used in the austenitic corrosion-resisting steels. Certain iron-nickel alloys have unique properties. 25% nickel steel is practically non-magnetic. Alloys with about 36% nickel have very low coefficients of expansion, whilst with 50% to 785% nickel, alloys are obtained having very high magnetic permeability in low fields. An alloy containing 29% nickel, 17% cobalt is used for sealing with certain borosilicate glasses. Niobium (Nb) The metal is also known as columbium. It occurs in association with tantalum, to which it is closely related. Niobium is a strong carbide-forming element and as such is added to certain austenitic corrosion-resistant steels of the 18/8 chromium-nickel type for the prevention of intercrystalline corrosion. Where niobium is used as the stabilizer, it is usually specified that it should be present in an amount at least 8 times that of the carbon content. Further, niobium is often used as a constituent of the electrodes used in the welding of such steels. Niobium is added to heat-resisting steels and enhances creep strength. In small amounts, of the order of 005%, it increases the yield strength of mild steel. Nitrogen (N) Nitrogen can combine with many metals to form nitrides and is thus applied to the case hardening of steel, the usual source for this purpose being ammonia. The incorporation of nitrogen in austenitic chromium-nickel steels stabilizes the austenite and increases the strength. In carbon steels it has an influence on creep. (See Abnormal Steels) Phosphorus (P) Although it has been used to increase the tensile strength of steel and to improve resistance to atmospheric corrosion, phosphorus is usually regarded as an undesirable impurity because of its embrittling effect. In most British specifications the maximum permitted is 005 %, but in steel for nitriding it may be restricted to a maximum of 002 % since during the nitriding treatment phosphorus has a temper embrittling effect. Selenium (Se)

A metalloid closely resembling sulphur in its properties. It is sometimes added to steels to the extent of 02 % to 03 % to improve machinability. Silicon (Si) Silicon is a powerful deoxidizer, and as such is used in steel making processes in amounts up to about 08%. When used as an alloying element, silicon in small percentages will increase the tensile strength and yield point of structural steels. It is used in amounts of 15% to 2% in silicon-manganese spring steels and ultra-high tensile steels due to its effect in raising the limit of proportionality and resistance to tempering. Up to 4% in heat resisting steels improves scale resistance owing to the formation of a protective layer (see also Ihrigizing). The higher the silicon, the higher the temperature at which protection against further atmospheric oxidation is given. Water vapour and carbon dioxide, however, attack the layer. Alloys of iron and silicon, containing 15% of the element, are used as acid-resisting materials, but have the properties of cast irons rather than of steels. Carbonfree alloys with up to 4% silicon have a high electrical resistance and low hysteresis loss, and are used as transformer steels. In cast iron, silicon not only serves as a deoxidizer but also has a marked graphitizing effect, thus improving machinability. Sulphur (S) A non-metal, which combines with iron to form iron sulphides, in which form its effect is to make the steel red short but combined with manganese its influence is less injurious. In steel the sulphur content is usually specified as less than 0.05 % but it may be added deliberately to improve machinability. Tantalum (Ta) This metal is associated with niobium and is very similar to it chemically. As an alloying addition to steel, niobium is preferred. Tellurium (Te) Tellurium is added to steel either alone or together with selenium to promote machinability. It is a powerful carbide stabilizer and has been also added to cast iron where it is said to increase the depth of chill and to prevent shrinkage. It may be added in small amounts to the molten iron or by the use of cores dipped or painted with washes containing tellurium in suspension. Tin (Sn) Owing to its good resistance to corrosion in many conditions, the major use of tin is in the form of coatings for steel and copper alloys. It is an undesirable impurity in steel giving rise to temper brittleness, but is less harmful than phosphorus. Titanium (Ti) The principal use of titanium is to stabilize carbon by forming titanium carbide. In austenitic stainless steels it is used in this way to prevent inter crystalline corrosion, the titanium addition being at least four times the carbon content. It is also added to low carbon steels to prevent blistering during vitreous enameling. Titanium carbide is used with tungsten carbide in the manufacture of hard metal tools. Tungsten (W) The effect of the addition of this metal to steel is to increase the strength at normal and elevated temperatures. Owing to the hardness of tungsten carbide and its influence on secondary hardening, tungsten is used as the main alloy addition in high speed tool steels, molybdenum being its only substitute. In addition, tungsten finds considerable application in general tool steels, die and precipitation hardening steels. It has found a useful

application in valves and other steels required for use at high temperatures. Tungsten is an essential constituent in the sintered hard metals. Vanadium (V) The presence of vanadium in steel raises the temperature at which grain coarsening sets in and under certain conditions increases the hardenability. It also lessens softening on tempering and confers secondary hardness on high speed and other steels. Vanadium carbide is intensely hard and as much as 5% vanadium may be added to high speed and high chromium tool steel where it improves abrasion resistance. Vanadium is an important constituent in many types of steel, for widely varying applications, e.g., nitriding, heatresistance, tools, wearing plates and other fully hardened parts. In conjunction with molybdenum, vanadium has a marked effect in enhancing creep resistance. Zirconium (Zr) Zirconium acts as a deoxidizing element in steel and combines with the sulphur.

Iron And Steel Manufacturing Processes Original Text: The addition of about 0.003 % of boron confers increased harden ability to steels in the quenched and tempered condition. Alternatif evirileri gster

elik Elemanlarnn Etkisi Alaml elik, Demir (Fe), iinde ek olarak farkl Elements vardr. Bu nedenle dnem "ALAIM" elik. Demir eklenen farkl unsurlar elik farkl zellikler verir. Bu, farkl uygulamalar iin gerekli olan elik farkl zellikler vermek iin gereklidir. Bu Elements elik Hafif, Sert, Bahar, Die, Alet ve bylece eitli ihtiyalar iin farkl sanayi ve ev yapmnda sorumludur. Aada ALAIM elik iin gerekli unsurlarn listesi aadadr.

Alminyum Bor

Kalsiyum

Karbon Kurun Selenyum

Seryum Manganez Silikon

Krom Molibden Kkrt

Kobalt Nikel Tantal

Kolombiyu Bakr Hidrojen m Niyobyum Azot Tellr Alminyum (Al) Fosfor Kalay

Titanyum

Tungsten Vanadyum

Zirkonyum

Bir oksijen giderici olarak,% 0.05 'ye kadar alminyum elik eklenebilir. Ince taneli veya sfrn etki zellikleri,% 0,10 artrlmas iin ilave edilebilir. Nitrasyon elikleri, yksek bir yzey sertlii tevik etmek iin amonyak, stldnda yaklak% 1 alminyum ierir. Hala byk eklemeler Isya dayankl elikler lekleme diren gelitirmek iin yapt. Yaklak% 5 krom elik elektrik diren artar ekledi. Bor (B) Bor yaklak% 0.003 ek su verilmi ve sl ilem grm durumda elikler sertlemesine yetenei artar baheder. Ayrca,% 0.003 bor dk karbonlu Ayrca, normalize edilmi durumda% 0,50 molibden elik akma dayanm iki katna ve ekme gc% 30 art verir bulundu, ancak bor nedeniyle avantaj olmutur ok az molibden. geldiinde% 0,35 daha az dvme zorluk neden olur. % 2 kadarn nkleer mhendislik kullanlan elikler iin ilave edilebilir. Kalsiyum (Ca) eklinde kalsiyum silisid Bu metal bazen bir oksijen giderici ve degasefier olarak elik eklenir. Karbon (C) Karbon elikleri, anmaya kar yksek diren olmas gerekir stenitik manganl elik, sl ilem ve rnein sertletirilmi olmas esastr.Herhangi bir karbon elik elde edilebilecek maksimum sertlik, karbon ieriinin bir fonksiyonu elik kullanlacak amacna gre yaklak% 2 kadar deiebilir. Bu yzde gnmze gre farkl biimlerde ortaya kar ve sl ilem elik teslim olmutur. (Alotropi ve dnm aralk). Dkme demirler genellikle % 1.8, serbest karbon (grafit) ve / veya kombine karbon (sementit), karbon gc ve sertlik nemli lde etkileyen bu iki form arasnda deien datm olarak% 4,5 karbon ierir. (Karbon elik de baknz). Seryum (Ce) Nadir toprak snf alkali metaller pek ok adan benzeyen bir metal. Belki seryum ilave tarafndan gelitirilmi yksek alaml korozyona ve sya dayankl elikler scak alma zellikleri, dkme demir, oksijen giderici ve desulphurizer seryum eylemler iken ancak kkrt ierii 0.015 yaklak bir deeri drld, % seryum gl bir karbr sabitleyici olarak dkme demir ve ilevleri zm girer. % 0.02 stnde tutarlar, seryum, nodler grafit yaplarn demir dkm retim operatif bir faktrdr. Krom (Cr) , Krom, elik alam eleman olarak sertleebilirlik artrr ve yksek karbon ile birlikte anma ve anma direnci verir. % 4, yksek hz elii ve% 5 kadar scak kalp elikleri. Yapsal elikler yaklak% 3' kadar miktarda mevcut olabilir. Basit krom-karbon elikleri, yksek elastik limit ve sert karbr paracklarnn tekdze dalm nedeniyle yksek niforma sertlii olan bilyal rulmanlar iin kullanlr, ancak ou yapsal amal krom% 4 nikel ve az miktarda molibden birlikte kullanlr. veya vanadyum. Krom, korozyon

ve lekleme diren zerindeki etkisi esizdir ve tm paslanmaz elikler, rnein, paslanmaz atal elikler% 12% 14 krom ieren nemli bir bileenidir ostenitik elikler, korozyona dayankl tip,% 18 krom ederken % 8 nikel, ve kk miktarlarda dier unsurlar ile ilikili. Is direnli eliklerin, krom,% 30'a varan miktarda ve yksek alaml sya dayankl malzemeler, elik gibi kabul edilemez olduu kadar dk demir ierii pek ok nemli bir unsurdur. Krom da yksek grev dkme demirler bir alam ek olarak kullanlr. Kobalt (Co) Nkleer mhendislik kobalt iin kullanlan baz elikler% 0,02 gibi kk miktarlarda bile istenmeyen bir kirlilik. Aksine dier alam elementlerinin kobalt sertleebilirlik azaltr. Bu elik krmz sertlik ykseltir ve bu son derece sert malzemelerin kesme belirli bir ama iin gelitirilmi, yksek hz elikleri belirli trde,% 5 ila% 10 kobalt eklemek iin nedeni budur. Isya dayankl alamlar yksek kobalt ierii ile gaz trbinleri iin gelitirilmitir. Kobalt yksek zorlayc kuvvet gerektiren mknats elikler% 40 kadar lde eklenir ve elektrik diren alamlar kullanlr.Sinterlenmi sert metaller Kobalt balayc metal gibi davranr. Kolombiyum (Cb) (Bkz Niyobyum) Bakr (Cu) Ayrca dk karbonlu elik,% 0.20 ile ilgili bakr,% 30'a kadar% 20 olarak atmosferik korozyona kar direnci artrabilir. % 0.50 hakknda miktarlarda bakr ekme ve akma dayanmna kayda deer artar. Bakr artan miktarlarda ek haddeleme hatalarna yol aar. Yksek verim noktas bakr ieren yap elikleri, krom ve kayda deer oranda silisyum ve fosfor ile birlikte gelitirilmitir. Bakr ayrca baz paslanmaz eliklerin korozyon direncini artrmak iin eklendi. Hidrojen (H) Hidrojen elik istenmeyen safszlk erime srasnda atmosfere ya da arj nemden tantld. Byk bir miktarda hidrojen sv elik varsa, baz dondurma bir rk kle, hidrojen evrimi, daha sonra kat elik souduktan sa izgisi atlamasna neden olabilir vererek kurtuldu olabilir.Hidrojen vakum dkm veya uzun sreli tavlama gvenli oranlarda azaltlabilir. Ayn zamanda elik iine elektrolitik eylem ya da dekapaj tarafndan tantlacak ve daha sonra krlganlk neden olabilir. Kurun (Pb) Yaklak% 025 kurun ek ilenebilirlik gelitirir. Yorulma dayanm, sneklik ve tokluk ama bu sadece ters ynde ve yksek gerilme seviyelerinde ciddi olur da bir azalmaya neden olur. Srnme dayanml alamlar kurun ok az miktarda zararl olabilir. Manganez (Mn) Manganez yerine getirir elik fonksiyonlar eitli. (A) neredeyse tm elikler deoksidasyon ajan olarak kullanlr. (B) kle kresel manganez slfr inklzyonlar oluturur. Yokluunda manganez kkrt, demir slfr interdendritic filmler dvme scakl (scak darl) krlganlk neden oluturur. (C) etkin bir ekilde sertlemesine yeteneinizi artrr ve% 1,5 kadar, bu ama iin eklenir. (D) byk miktarda% 14 manganl elik gibi, stenit stabilize etmek iin kullanlr. Molibden (Mo) Molibden ayrca, dk alaml elikler, krlganlk temper duyarll azaltr, nk artan sertleebilirlik gl etkisi nedeniyle ok yaygn kullanlan ve. Bu, kararl karbrler oluturur, yumuama temperleme yer alr ve srnme direnci artrr scakl

ykseltir. Yksek hz kullanlabilir. Paslanmaz gelitirilmitir. Nikel (Ni)

elii, tungsten arl yaklak iki kat yerine elik korozyon direnci, molibden Yklenenler tarafndan

Dk karbonlu elik iin% 8 veya% 10, miktarda nikel Ayrca, ekme mukavemeti artar ve darbe dayanmn nemli lde ykseltir. % 9 ok dk scaklklarda nikel elikleri yararldr. Mhendislik elikleri yaygn krom ve molibden ile sk sk kullanlr. Yksek nikel korozyona kar direnci artrr ve krom ile birlikte, korozyona direnli eliklerin ostenitik kullanlr. Baz demir-nikel alamlar, benzersiz zellikleri var. % 25 nikel elik pratik manyetik olmayan. Yaklak% 36 nikel Alamlar,% 50 -% 78.5 nikel iken genileme ok dk katsaylar, dk alanlarda ok yksek manyetik geirgenlii olan, alamlar elde edilir. % 29 nikel ieren bir alam,% 17 kobalt, baz borosilikat camlar szdrmazlk iin kullanlr. Niyobyum (Nb) Bu metal ayn zamanda Kolombiyum olarak bilinir. Yakndan ilikili olduu iin, tantal ile birlikte oluur. Niyobyum gl bir karbr oluturucu esi ve tane snr korozyonu nlemek iin 18 / 8 krom-nikel tip baz stenitik korozyona dayankl elikler gibi eklenir. Niyobyum sabitleyici olarak kullanlan yerlerde, genellikle bir miktar karbon ierii en az 8 kez de mevcut olmas gerektii belirtilir. Ayrca, niyobyum, genellikle, bu tr eliklerin kaynanda kullanlan elektrotlar bir kurucu olarak kullanlr. Niyobyum sya dayankl elikler ve srnme gc artrr. Kk miktarlarda, srayla% 0.05, hafif elik akma dayanm artar. Azot (N) Azot nitridler oluturmak iin birok metaller ile birletirmek ve bylece elik sementasyon, her zamanki kaynak bu amala amonyak uygulanr.Ostenitik krom-nikel elikleri azot dahil stenit stabilize ve kuvvetini artrr. Karbon elikleri, snme zerine etkisi vardr. (Anormal elikler) Fosfor (P) elik ekme dayanmn artrmak ve atmosferik korozyona kar direnci artrmak iin kullanlyor olmasna ramen, fosfor genellikle embrittling etkisi nedeniyle istenmeyen bir safszlk olarak kabul edilir. ou ngiliz zellikleri izin verilen maksimum 005%, ancak tedavi nitrasyon fosfor srasnda bu yana% 0.02, maksimum kstlanm olabilir nitrrleme iin elik bir fke embrittling etkisi vardr. Selenyum (Se) Bir madene yakn zellikleri kkrt benzer. Bazen ilenebilirlii artrmak iin% 0.3-% 0.2 'lik lde eliklere ilave edilir. Silikon (Si) Silikon gl bir oksijen giderici, ve elik,% 0,8 miktarda sreleri gibi kullanlr. Bir alam eleman olarak kullanld zaman, kk yzdeler silikon yap eliklerinin ekme mukavemeti ve akma artacaktr. Temperleme orantllk ve diren snr ykselterek etkisi nedeniyle silikon-manganl yay elikleri ve ultra-yksek ekme elikler% 1,5 -% 2 miktarlarda kullanlr. Isya dayankl elikler% 4 lekli direnci nedeniyle koruyucu bir tabaka oluumu (ayrca Ihrigizing baknz) gelitirir. Yksek silikon, yksek scaklk daha fazla atmosferik oksidasyona kar koruma verilir. Su buhar ve karbon dioksit, ancak, katman saldr. % 15 eleman ieren demir ve silisyum, Alamlar asit dayankl malzeme olarak kullanlr, ancak yerine eliklerin, dkme demirlerin zellikleri vardr. Karbon iermeyen% 4'e kadar silikon alamlar yksek bir elektrik direnci ve dk histerezis

kayb ve trafo elikler olarak kullanlmaktadr. Dkme demir, silisyum, bylece ilenebilirlii iyiletirmek deil, sadece bir oksijen giderici olarak hizmet vermektedir ayn zamanda belirgin bir graphitizing etkiye sahiptir. Kkrt (S) , Demir, demir slfitler formu olan etkisi oluturmak iin birletirir olmayan bir metal, elik krmz ksa ama manganez etkisi ile birlikte daha az zararldr. elik genellikle kkrt ierii% 0.05 'den az olarak belirtilmi ancak bu ilenebilirlii artrmak iin kastl olarak ilave edilebilir. Tantal (Ta) Bu metal, niyobyum ile ilikili ve kimyasal olarak ok benzer. elik alam ek olarak, niyobyum tercih edilir. Tellr (Te) Tellr ilenebilirlik tevik etmek iin selenyum ile tek bana veya birlikte elik eklenir. Gl bir karbr sabitleyici ve ayn zamanda, souk derinliini artrmak ve bzlme nlemek iin syledi demir dkm eklenmitir. Bu, az miktarda erimi demir ya da sspansiyon tellr ieren ykama ile daldrma veya boyal ekirdek kullanm ile ilave edilebilir. Kalay (Sn) Birok koullarnda korozyona kar iyi bir diren sayesinde, kalay en nemli kullanm, elik ve bakr alamlar iin kaplama eklinde. elik fke krlganlk sebebiyet veren istenmeyen bir kirlilik, ancak fosfor daha az zararl. Titanyum (Ti) Balca kullanm titanyum, karbon oluturan titanyum karbr stabilize etmek iin. stenitik paslanmaz elikler aras kristal korozyon, titanyum ek karbon ierii en az drt kez olmak nlemek iin bu ekilde kullanlr. Ayn zamanda dk karbon elikleri vitreus emaye srasnda kabarma nlemek iin eklenir. Titanyum karbr, tungsten karbr sert metal aralar imalatnda kullanlr. Tungsten (W) Ayrca bu metal elik etkisi, normal ve yksek scaklklarda gcn artrmak iin. Tungsten karbr sertlii ve ikincil sertleme zerindeki etkisi sayesinde ana alam ek olarak yksek hz takm elikleri, sadece yedek olmak molibden, tungsten kullanlr. Buna ek olarak, tungsten, genel takm elikleri, kalp ve ya sertletirme elikleri nemli uygulama bulur. Bu yksek scaklklarda kullanm iin gerekli olan vana ve dier elikler yararl bir uygulama bulmutur. Tungsten sinterlenmi sert metaller nemli bir bileenidir. Vanadyum (V) Vanadyum elik varl, belirli koullar altnda tanecik kabalamas setleri sertleebilirlik artan scaklk ykseltir. Ayrca temperleme yumuatma ve yksek hz ve dier elikler ikincil sertlik baheder azaltr. Vanadyum karbid youn sabit ve yksek hz ve anma direnci artrr, yksek krom takm elii kadar% 5 olarak vanadyum eklenebilir. Vanadyum, birok elik trleri nemli bir bileenidir, yaygn olarak deien uygulamalar, rnein, nitrrleme, s direnci, aralar, anma plakalar ve dier tam sertletirilmi paralar. Molibden ile birlikte, vanadyum, srnme direnci arttrmak belirgin bir etkiye sahiptir. Zirkonyum (Zr) Zirkonyum, elik bir deoksidasyon unsur olarak hareket eder ve kkrt ile birleir.

Demir Ve elik malat lemleri Original Text: As much as 2% may be added to steels used in nuclear engineering. Alternatif evirileri gster