f-Chart Method

April 12, 2010

The f-Chart Method for Solar Collectors

Larry Caretto Mechanical Engineering 496ALT

Outline
Review heat exchangers Solar collector performance equations Derivation of f-chart method Demonstration of f-chart results Main reference: Duffie and Beckman, Solar Engineering of Thermal Processes, Wiley, 2006 See http://www.fchart.com/ for f-chart software information

Alternative Energy
April 12, 2010

Heat Exchangers
Used to transfer energy from one fluid to another
U = overall heat transfer coefficient, W/m2K
Tmax Tmax

One fluid, the hot fluid, is cooled while the other, the cold fluid, is heated May have phase change: temperature of one or both fluids is constant Simplest is double pipe heat exchanger
Parallel flow and counter flow

More complex designs may be used

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Figure 11-1 from engel, Heat and Mass Transfer

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Compact Heat Exchangers III

Shell-and-Tube Exchanger

Counter flow exchanger with larger surface area; baffles promote mixing
Figure 11-3 from engel, Heat and Mass Transfer
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Figure 11-4 from engel, Heat and Mass Transfer

ME 483 Alternative Energy Engineering II

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April 12, 2010

Shell and Tube Passes II

Shell and Tube Passes III

Tube flow has three complete changes of direction giving four tube passes

Tube flow has one complete change of direction giving two tube passes
Figure 11-5(a) from engel, Heat and Mass Transfer
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Figure 11-5(b) from engel, Heat and Mass Transfer

Shell flow changes direction to give two shell passes 8

Effectiveness-NTU Method
Analysis approach for heat exchangers when not all temperatures are known
Based on ratio of actual heat transfer to maximum possible heat transfer Maximum possible temperature difference for one fluid, Tmax is Th,in Tc,in Subscripts c and h for cold and hot Only one fluid, the one with the smaller value & of mcp, can have Tmax & & Define Cc = (mcp)c and Ch = (m cp)h
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Effectiveness,
= & Q
& Q
max

Cmin (Th.in Tc ,in )

& Q

Cmin = min (Ch , Cc ) NTU = UA / Cmin

In effectiveness-NTU method we find , & & then find Q = Q max & Use CminTmax to find Qmax
C1T1 = C2T2 or T2 = C1T1/C2 If T1 = Tmax and C1/C2 > 1, T2 > Tmax CminTmax is maximum heat transfer without impossible T < Tc,in or T > Th,in
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Effectiveness Equations
Double pipe parallel flow

More Effectiveness Equations

Shell and tube
One shell pass and 2, 4, 6, tube passes
1+ c 2 1+ c 2

1 e

NTU (1+ c )

UA NTU = Cmin

c=

1

Cmin Cmax

1+ c

Double pipe counter flow

1 e NTU (1c ) 1 ce NTU (1c )

C c = min Cmax

1 + e NTU = 21 + c + 1 + c 2 1 e NTU

Any geometry with c = 0

= 1 e
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NTU

NTU =

UA Cmin
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Figures from Figure 11-26 from engel, Heat and Mass Transfer

Figure from Figure 11-26 from engel, Heat and Mass Transfer

ME 483 Alternative Energy Engineering II

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April 12, 2010

Find
Example chart for finding effectiveness from NTU = UA/Cmin and Cmin/Cmax ratio For NTU = 1.5 and Cmin/Cmax .7 = 0.25, = ?
Figure 11-26 from engel, Heat and Mass Transfer
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Chart
From chart for counter flow: NTU = 2.5 Cmin/Cmax = 0.16 = 0.89

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Basic Collector Performance

Energy balance on collector Useful energy gain = solar energy input adsorbed by collector losses by heat transfer to ambient Look at variation throughout year to get overall performance
Detailed hour-by-hour computer analysis for large installations Simplified f-chart method for residences
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Flat Plate Collector

k = absorber thermal conductivity 2L = distance between outside of flow tubes D = flow tube outer diameter t = absorber plate thickness w = distance between flow tube centerlines = 2L + D

Di = flow tube inner diameter

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Useful Energy Gain

Qu = rate of useful heat into collector Ac = collector area Ha = solar energy absorbed = Hi Uc = collector overall heat-loss coefficient Tf,in = inlet collector fluid temperature Ta = ambient temperature FR = collector heat removal factor

Heat Removal Factor, FR

Ac and Uc defined on previous chart & (mc p )c = product of mass flow rate and heat capacity of collector fluid F = collector efficiency factor Tf,out = outlet collector fluid temperature F ' AcU c Energy balance & mc p & (mc p )c on collector fluid c FR = 1 e Q = mc T AcU c & p c f ,out T f ,in u

Qu = Ac FR H a U c (T f ,in Ta )
Hottel-Willier-Bliss equation

)(

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ME 483 Alternative Energy Engineering II

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April 12, 2010

FR/F' Chart

Collector Efficiency Factor

F'= Thermal resistance between absorber plate and ambient Thermal resistance between collector fluid and ambient 1 Uc F'= 1 1 1 w + + U c (2 LF + D ) C B hc ,iDi

0.95

0.9

0.85

FR/F'

0.8

F = tanh(mL)/mL m2 = Uc/tk, t, k = absorber plate thickness, thermal conductivity CB = bond conductance = kBwB/kB hc,i = flow tube internal heat transfer coefficient
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0.75

0.7

0.65

0.6 1 10

& (mc p )c Ac F 'U c

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100

F-chart Water Heating Only

System with Solar Air Heating

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F-Chart Water and Space Heating

& & Qu = c (mc p )min (T f ,out Tw,in ) = (mc p )s (Tw,out Tw,in )

c = heat-exchanger effectiveness Tf,out Tf,in Tw,out (S)torage fluid loop (C)ollector fluid loop

Tw,in
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& mc p min = & & min mc p s , mc p

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[( ) ( ) ]
c

http://starfiresolar.com/db2/00144/starfiresolar.com/_uimages/solardiagramallred.jpg

ME 483 Alternative Energy Engineering II

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April 12, 2010

& Qu = (mc p )c (T f ,out T f ,in ) T f ,in = T f ,out

Qu = Ac FR H a U c (T f ,in Ta )

Combine Equations

& Qu = c (mc p

Heat Exchanger ) (T T ) T = T
min f ,out w,in f ,out

w,in

& + Qu c (mc p )min

AFU Qu 1 c R c = Ac FR H a Ac FRU c T f ,out Ta & mc p c

Eliminate Tf,in in favor of Tf,out Qu Ta Qu = Ac FR H a Ac FRU c T f ,out & (mc p )c

Qu & c p )c (m

Substitute into previous Qu equation, rearrange, and define FR

AFU Qu 1 c R c = Ac FR H a Ac FRU c (T f ,out Ta ) & (mc p )c & = Ac FR H a Ac FRU c Tw,in + Qu c (mc p )min Ta

AFU AFU Qu 1 c R c + c R c = Ac FR H a Ac FRU c (Tw,in Ta ) & & (mc p )c c (mc p )min

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Qu = Ac FR' [H a U c (Tw,in Ta )]

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F'R/FR Chart

Heat Exchanger II
' FR

AFU Ac FRU c = FR 1 c R c + & & c mc p mc p c min

A F U mc p & = FR 1 + c R c & & mc p c mc p c

( (

)c 1 )min 1
F'R/FR

0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3

ratio = 0.9 ratio = 0.8 ratio = 0.7 ratio = 0.6 ratio = 0.5 ratio = 0.4 ratio = 0.3 ratio = 0.2 ratio = 0.1

FR/FR about 0.97 (Hodge for water) If Tw,out > Tmax = 100oC, water is vented Define Qd as solar heat delivered
max (mc p ) (Tw,out Tw,in ),0 Tw,out Tmax & s Qd = (mc ) (T T ) Tw,out > Tmax & p s max w,in

ratio = & c mc p min

( ) & (mc p )c

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& (mc p )c Ac FRU c

100
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Storage Tank Energy Change

dT Mc p s = Qd QL,s Qw,s QTL dt

f-chart Method Development

dTs dt = Qd dt QL, s dt Qw, s dt QTL dt dt t t t t t 0 For a long time period, the initial = QS

Mcp = mass * cp for storage tank liquid QL,s = space heating supplied by solar Qw,s = water heating supplied by solar QTL = storage tank heat loss t = time f-chart method integrates this equation over some time period (1 month)
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Mc p

transient term is negligible The tank loss warms the house and contributes to the home heating load The last three integrals are the total energy supplied by solar, Qs
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ME 483 Alternative Energy Engineering II

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f-chart Method Development II

0 = Qd dt Qs
t

f-chart Method Development III

The absorbed solar radiation, Ha, is the incident radiation, Hi, times the factor
is the fraction transmitted through the glass cover(s) is the fraction absorbed

Qs = Qd dt
t

f =

Qs 1 = Qd dt D D
t

D = total energy demand f = fraction of total supplied by solar Use the definition of Qs, total energy supplied by solar from previous slide
f = Qs 1 1 = Qd dt = Ac FR' [H a U c (Tw,in Ta )]dt D D t D t
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Set Ha = Hi and multiply the last term, top and bottom, by Tref - Ta T T Q A F' f = s = c R H i U c (Tref Ta ) w,in a dt D D t Tref Ta
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f-chart Method Development IV

Cannot evaluate integral because of the dependence of Ts on other variables
Use engineering judgment to identify important variables and form empirical parameters based on f equation

What are X and Y?

X=
Y=
' Ac FR U c Tref Ta dt D t
' Ac FR D

(
t

H i dt

f =

Ac FR' D

H idt
t

Tw,in Ta Ac FR' tU c (Tref Ta ) Tref Ta dt D

X=
' Ac FR U c Tref Ta dt D t
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Y=

' Ac FR D

H i dt

X is ratio of reference collector loss to total heating load Y is ratio of absorbed solar energy to total heating load
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f-chart Method Development V

Integrate X and Y to get averages
Y=
' Ac FR D

f-chart Method Development VI

Y=
' FR ( )n Ac FR H i ,total FR ( )n D

H i dt =
t

' Ac FR A F ' H i dt = c R H i ,total D D t

Y F ' H i ,total = FR ( )n R Ac FR ( )n D

X=

X=

' Ac FR A F'U U c Tref Ta dt = c R c Tref Ta D D

' FR Ac FRU c Tref Ta t FR D

F ' t X Tref Ta = FRU c R FR D Ac

Rearrange equations to introduce factors FRUc and FR()n available from standard collector test results
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()n = value of the product for normal radiation measured in tests Hi,total is available from NREL data for t = 1 month
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ME 483 Alternative Energy Engineering II

f-Chart Method

April 12, 2010

Collector Efficiency Equations

From March 22-24 lecture
Efficiency

1 0.9 0.8 0.7

Solar Collector Efficiency Tests

intercept = FR ( )n
1-cover, black 1-cover, selective 2-cover, black 2-cover, selective

Qu = Ac FR H i ( )n FRU c (T f ,in Ta )

& Qu = (mc p )c (T f ,out T f ,in )

0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 0 0.05 0.1

Plot of versus (Tf,in Ta)/Hi is straight line with slope = FRUc and intercept FR()n
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T T Q = u = FR ( )n FRU c f ,in a H Ac H i i

Qu = FR ( )n Ac H i T T FRU c i a Hi

slope = FRU c
0.15

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Sample Rating Sheet

Sample Rating Sheet II

slope = FRUc intercept = FR()n

http://www.builditsolar.com/References/Ratings/SRCCRating.htm

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f-Chart

Back to f Equation
Had equation for f depending on factors like X and Y Form empirical relationship between f, X, and Y This is basis for f-chart method For water heating: f = 1.029Y 0.065X 0.245Y2 + 0.0018X2 + 0.0215Y3 Klein, Beckman and Duffie developed method and software
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3.0

2.5

2.0

f = 0.9 f = 0.8 f = 0.7 f = 0.6 f = 0.5 f = 0.4 f = 0.3 f = 0.2 f = 0.1

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
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ME 483 Alternative Energy Engineering II

f-Chart Method

April 12, 2010

Computing X (dimensionless)
F ' t X = Ac FRU c R Tref Ta FR D

Computing Y (dimensionless)
FR()n from intercept of collector test FR/FR computed or assumed = 0.97 Ratio / ( )n = 0.94 (October March), = 0.90 (April September) or computed Hi,total is available from NREL data for t = 1 month (convert to J/m2) D is heating demand J
F ' H i ,total Y = Ac FR ( )n R FR ( )n D

Ac = collector area (m2)

Ac = collector area (m2)

FRUc (W/m2K) from slope of collector test data FR/FR computed or assumed = 0.97 Usual averaging period, t = 1 month, converted to seconds D = heating demand for averaging period (J) Tref = 100oC; Ta from NREL data
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NREL Data
National Renewable Energy Laboratory Collector data for 1961-1990 for 360 individual months and monthly averages
Available for variety of collectors
Flat plate collector data for several angles

NREL Solar Data

1961-1990 measured data for 239 sites
56 sites measured; other had some modeled data

1991-2005 update for 1,454 locations

99% of sites contain modeled data Van Nuys Airport is in this update, but LAX is only LA site in original data set Data format different from 1961-1990 data

TMY3 data: Typical Meteorological Year

Hourly data on radiation components Compute resultant for given collector geometry
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TMY3 data: Typical Meteorological Year

Hourly data on radiation components Compute resultant for given collector geometry

http://www.nrel.gov/rredc/solar_data.html
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NREL Collector Types 61-90

Data available at different tilt levels for flat-plate collectors facing south
Horizontal (0o) Latitude 15o Latitude Latitude + 15o Vertical (90o)
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NREL Collector Types 61-90 II

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ME 483 Alternative Energy Engineering II

f-Chart Method

April 12, 2010

NREL Collector Types 61-90 III

NREL 1961-1990 LAX Average

SOLAR RADIATION FOR FLAT-PLATE COLLECTORS FACING SOUTH AT A FIXED-TILT (kWh/m2/day) Percentage Uncertainty = 9 Tilt(deg) Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year 0 Average 2.8 3.6 4.8 6.1 6.4 6.6 7.1 6.5 5.3 4.2 3.2 2.6 4.9 Minimum 2.3 3.0 4.0 5.5 5.7 5.6 6.4 6.1 4.4 3.8 2.7 2.1 4.7 Maximum 3.3 4.4 5.6 6.8 7.2 7.7 8.0 7.0 5.8 4.5 3.6 3.0 5.1 Lat - 15 Average 3.8 4.5 5.5 6.4 6.4 6.4 7.1 6.8 5.9 5.0 4.2 3.6 5.5 Minimum 2.9 3.6 4.5 5.8 5.7 5.4 6.3 6.3 4.7 4.4 3.4 2.7 5.2 Maximum 4.6 5.7 6.4 7.3 7.3 7.3 7.9 7.2 6.6 5.6 4.9 4.3 5.7 Lat Average 4.4 5.0 5.7 6.3 6.1 6.0 6.6 6.6 6.0 5.4 4.7 4.2 5.6 Minimum 3.3 3.8 4.7 5.6 5.4 5.0 5.9 6.1 4.8 4.7 3.7 3.0 5.3 Maximum 5.4 6.4 6.7 7.2 6.8 6.7 7.3 7.0 6.7 6.0 5.6 5.0 5.9 Lat + 15 Average 4.7 5.1 5.6 5.9 5.4 5.2 5.8 6.0 5.7 5.5 5.0 4.5 5.4 Minimum 3.4 3.8 4.5 5.2 4.8 4.4 5.2 5.5 4.5 4.7 3.9 3.1 5.1 Maximum 5.9 6.6 6.6 6.7 6.1 5.8 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.1 6.0 5.4 5.7 90 Average 4.1 4.1 3.8 3.3 2.5 2.2 2.4 3.0 3.6 4.2 4.3 4.1 3.5 Minimum 2.9 3.0 3.1 2.9 2.3 2.1 2.3 2.8 2.9 3.5 3.2 2.7 3.3 Maximum 5.2 5.4 4.5 3.6 2.7 2.3 2.5 3.2 4.1 4.7 5.2 5.0 3.7

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LAX Solar Radiation 1961-1990

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Flat-plate titted at latitude = 34

Radiation (kWh/m /day)

Fchart Input data screen

30-year average Individual years
http://rredc.nrel.gov/solar/old_data/nsrdb/redbook/sum2/23174.txt

http://rredc.nrel.gov/solar/old_data/nsrdb/redbook/mon2/23174.txt
0 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Month

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Sample Fchart Output

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ME 483 Alternative Energy Engineering II

f-Chart Method

April 12, 2010

Adjustments
Adjust X for storage capacity, M, in L/m2 X = X(75/M)1/4 Adjust Y for load heat exchanger factor, Z: Y = Y(0.39 + 0.65e-0.139/Z)
L = heat exchanger effectiveness mass flow times heat capacity and UA factors defined previously

Another Adjustment
For systems with only water heating
Tw = water temperature to household Tm = cold water supply temperature Ta = monthly average ambient temperature

Multiply X by correction factor, CF, below

CF = 11.6 + 1.18Tw + 3.86Tm 2.32Ta 100 Ta
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& Z = L mc p

)min (UA)L

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ME 483 Alternative Energy Engineering II

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