Bipolar Junction Transistors

Prepared by: Armando V. Barretto

Bipolar Junction Transistors
Bipolar junction transistors (BJTs) are three terminal semiconductor devices
which could be used to amplify signals.
The term bipolar reflects the fact that holes and electrons participate in the
injection process into oppositely polarized material.
It was introduced on December 23, 1947 by Walter H. Brattain and John
Bardeen at Bell Telephone Laboratories.
The advantages of transistors are:
Smaller and lightweight
No heater requirements (unlike vacuum tubes)
More power efficient than vacuum tubes because it absorbs less power and
does not need a heating element
Rugged construction and are therefore less prone to damage
It can operate upon power up because it does need to be warmed-up before
it operates (unlike vacuum tubes).
It can operate with lower voltages.
It is cheaper because the materials used are abundant and less expensive.
Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJT)
The two basic types of bipolar junction transistor are NPN and PNP transistor.
NPN and PNP transistors could be constructed using Silicon, Germanium, or
GaAs as the base material.
The three layers / terminals of a BJT are the emitter (E), base (B), and
collector (C).
The emitter layer is heavily doped, the collector is lightly doped, and the base
is lightly doped.
The less doped a material is, the less is its conductivity or the higher is its
resistance.
The emitter and collector layers are wider than the base layer.
Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJT)
The construction and schematic symbol of an NPN transistor are shown below.
The construction is similar to two diodes whose anodes are connected but its
operation is quite different.
Just like in a semiconductor diode, the majority carriers in the n-type material are
electrons and the majority carriers in the p-type material are holes.
Through the application of biasing voltages and /or signals, the emitter-base
junction and collector-base junction can be made forward or reverse biased, but
the required biasing is dependent on the application for which the transistor is
used.
The direction of the arrow in the emitter is the same as the direction of
conventional current flow in the emitter.
Construction of
NPN Bipolar Junction Transistor
N P
Emitter (E) Collector (C)
N
Base (B)
0.001 in.
0.150 in.
Emitter-base junction Collector - base junction
C
E
B
Schematic Symbol of
NPN Bipolar Junction Transistor
NPN Not pointing in
Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJT)
The construction and schematic symbol of a PNP transistor are shown below.
The construction is similar to two diodes whose cathodes are connected but its
operation is quite different.
Just like in a semiconductor diode, the majority carriers in the n-type material
are electrons and the majority carriers in the p-type material are holes.
Through the application of biasing voltages and /or signals, the emitter-base
junction and collector-base junction can be made forward or reverse biased, but
the required biasing is dependent on the application for which the transistor is
used.
The direction of the arrow in the emitter is the same as the direction of
conventional current flow in the emitter.
Construction of
PNP Bipolar Junction Transistor
N P
Emitter (E) Collector (C)
P
Base (B)
0.001 in.
0.150 in.
Emitter-base junction Collector - base junction
C
E
B
Schematic Symbol of
PNP Bipolar Junction Transistor
PNP pointing in
Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJT)
Below is an NPN transistor with typical biasing voltages applied between the
emitter and the base, and between the collector and the base.
The biasing voltages make the emitter-base junction forward biased while the
collector-base junction reversed biased.
Since the emitter-base junction is forward biased, there will be electron flow
(majority carrier) from the emitter to the base.
Since the base layer is very thin and has low conductivity (few majority carriers),
electrons from the emitter will not contribute much to the base current but
instead, the electrons will move on into the collector layer and will be attracted
towards the positive terminal of the battery between the collector and the base.
The result is that the emitter current is almost equal to the collector current and
there will be relatively low base current.
C E
C B E
I I
I I I
~
+ =
NPN Bipolar Junction Transistor With Biasing Voltages
N
P E C
N
B
C
E
B
-
+
-
-
-
-
-
+
+
-
- -
-
-
-
-
-
+
+
+
+
Electrons
(majority carrier)
Hole
(minority carrier)
Electrons
(majority carrier)
Hole
(majority carrier)
-
-
- - - -
-
-
- -
Stream of electrons moving
from emitter to collector
I
B
I
C
I
E
I
E
I
E
C E
C B E
I I
I I I
~
+ =
Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJT)
Below is a PNP transistor with typical biasing voltages applied between the
emitter and the base, and between the collector and the base.
The biasing voltages make the emitter-base junction forward biased while the
collector-base junction reversed biased.
Since the emitter-base junction is forward biased, there will be hole flow
(majority carrier) from the emitter to the base.
Since the base layer is very thin and has low conductivity (few majority carriers),
holes from the emitter will not contribute much to the base current but instead,
the holes will move on into the collector layer and will be attracted towards the
negative terminal of the battery between the collector and the base.
The result is that the emitter current is almost equal to the collector current and
there will be relatively low base current.
C E
C B E
I I
I I I
~
+ =
PNP Bipolar Junction Transistor With Biasing Voltages
P
N E C
P
B
E
-
+ -
+
+
-
-
-
-
-
+
+
+
+
Holes
(majority carrier)
Electrons
(minority carrier)
Holes
(majority carrier)
Electrons
(majority carrier)
-
-
Stream of holes moving
from emitter to collector
I
B
I
C
I
E
I
E
I
E
C E
C B E
I I
I I I
~
+ =
+ +
+
+
+
+ +
+
+
+
+
+
+
C
E
B
I
C
I
B
Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJT)
For both NPN and PNP transistors, the electron flow is opposite to the
conventional current flow.
The emitter current (I
E
) is equal to the sum of the base current (I
B
) and
collector current (I
C
).
Typical values of base current are in the range of microamperes if the
emitter and collector currents are in the miliampere range.
The collector current is comprised of majority carriers and minority
carriers.
The collector current due to the minority carriers is the leakage current
(I
CO
).
The leakage current (I
CO
) is present as long as the voltage supply between
the base and collector is present with the indicated polarity, even if the
voltage supply between the base and emitter is removed.
The leakage current (I
CO
) is temperature sensitive and it increases when the
temperature of the device increases.
current leakage collector I I
current collector I I I
CO Cminority
Cminority majority C C
= =
= + =
C E C B E I I I I I ~ + =
Common Base Transistor Configuration
The three transistor configurations usually used are the common base, common
emitter, and common collector configuration.
Each configuration has its own characteristics, advantages, and disadvantages.
Below is a common base NPN transistor configuration.
The base is common to the output (Vo) and the input (Vi), and the base is
usually closest to or connected to the ground.
The input is between the base and the emitter while the output is between the
base and the collector.
The input is usually at the left side of the circuit while the output is usually at
the right side of the circuit.
The base-emitter junction is forward biased and the collector-base junction is
reverse biased.
Vo=V
cb
Vi = V
be
Zi
Zo
Common Base NPN Transistor Configuration
R
C
R
E
C E
C B E
I I
I I I
~
+ =
I
B
I
C
I
E
I
E
N N P
C E
B
B
E C
I
E
I
B
I
C
V
EE
V
CC
V
CC
V
EE
R
E
R
C
Common Base Transistor Configuration
Below is a common base PNP transistor configuration.
The base is common to the output (Vo) and the input (Vi), and the base is
usually closest to or connected to the ground.
The input is between the base and the emitter while the output is between
the base and the collector.
The base-emitter junction is forward biased and the collector-base junction
is reverse biased.
Vo=V
cb
Vi = V
be
Zi Zo
R
C
R
E
V
EE
V
CC
C E
C B E
I I
I I I
~
+ =
I
B
I
C
I
E
I
E
P P N
C E
B
B
E C
R
E
R
C
Common Base PNP Transistor Configuration
V
EE
V
CC
Common Base Transistor Configuration
The emitter current is equal to the sum of the base current and collector
current.
The flow of current on the circuit follows the conventional current flow
(opposite to electron flow).
Note that the polarity of the voltage supplies establishes conventional current
flow , both in the base-emitter loop and base-collector loop.
Conventional current exits from positive (+) terminal of voltage supplies
and enters the negative (-) terminal of the supply.
For all transistor configurations whether NPN or PNP, the following could help
in determining the correct polarity of voltage supplies to make the emitter-base
junction forward biased and the collector-base junction reverse biased:
The conventional current flow at the emitter must follow the direction of
the arrow of the emitter.
The conventional current flow of the base and collector current must agree
with the direction of emitter current. If emitter current is going out of the
transistor, the base and collector current must be going inside the transistor,
and vice versa.
The polarity of the batteries must be in such a way that the current must be
coming out from the positive terminal and must be entering the negative
terminal.
C E C B E I I I I I ~ + =
Common Base Transistor Configuration
Below is a characteristic curve for the input side of a common base transistor
configuration.
The input current is the emitter current (I
E
) while the input voltage is the
voltage between the base and the emitter (V
BE
).
The curve shows values of the input current (I
E
) and input voltage (V
BE
) for
various values of output voltage (collector-base voltage - V
CB
).
The curve resembles that of a diode. V
CB
has small effect on the value of I
E
.
I
E
(mA)
V
BE
(V)
Knee voltage
Base-emitter junction
forward biased
Reverse biased
0.6 0.4 0.2
V
BE
base-emitter voltage (input voltage)
I
E
emitter current (input current)
Common Base NPN / PNP Transistor Configuration Input Characteristic Curve
V
CB
=1 v
V
CB
=10 v
V
CB
=20 v
0.7
Common Base Transistor Configuration
Below is a characteristic curve for the output side of a common base transistor
configuration.
Ic (mA)
V
CB
(volts)
I
CBO
I
E
= 0
I
E
= 4 mA
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Active
region
Cutoff
region
DC load line
I
E
= 2 mA
I
E
= 6 mA
I
E
= 8 mA
I
E
= 10 mA
I
E
= 12 mA
I
E
= 14 mA
Saturation
region
Common Base Transistor Configuration Output Characteristic Curve
1
V
CB
collector-base voltage (output voltage)
I
C
collector current (output current)
I
E
emitter current (input current)
Common Base Transistor Configuration
The output characteristic curve shows the relationship between the output
current (I
C
), output voltage (V
CB
), and input current (I
E
).
The curve shows that the output current (I
C
) is approximately equal to the input
current (I
E
).
When the input current (I
E
) is equal to zero, the collector current is equal to the
reverse saturation current for common base (I
CBO
= I
CO
). This is due to the
presence of minority carriers.
The common base transistor configuration has three regions: active region,
saturation region, and cutoff region.
The biasing of the transistor in the various regions are:
Active region - emitter-base junction is forward biased.
collector-base junction is reverse biased.
Saturation region - emitter-base junction is forward biased.
collector-base junction is forward biased.
Cutoff region - emitter-base junction is reverse biased.
collector-base junction is reverse biased.
Common Base Transistor Configuration
In the active region:
The emitter current is approximately equal to the collector current.
As the emitter current increases, the collector current also increases by
approximately the same amount.
The emitter current is the sum of the base and collector currents.
The base-emitter voltage (V
BE
) is approximately 0.7 volt for Si , 0.3 volt for
Ge, and 1.2 v for GaAs. (similar to forward biased diode).
The collector-base voltage (V
CB
) has negligible effects on the output current
(I
C
).
The lower end boundary is defined by I
E
= 0 and the output current (I
C
) =
I
CBO
= leakage current for common base.
For low and mid power transistors, I
CBO
is usually very small (lower than
microampere range) that it can be ignored. For high power transistors, I
CBO
could be in the microampere range.
I
CBO
is temperature sensitive and it increases rapidly as the temperature of
the transistor increases.
Common base transistor amplifiers are typically operated in the active
region to achieve linear response (output waveform similar to input
waveform except for amplitude levels).
Common Base Transistor Configuration
In the saturation region:
The region is defined by the region to the left of V
CB
= 0 v wherein the base-
collector junction is forward biased.
Both the base-emitter and base-collector junctions are forward biased.
In the cutoff region:
The collector current is practically equal to zero ampere.
It is the area where Ic = I
CBO .
Both base-emitter and base-collector junctions are reverse biased.
A transistor can be made to switch between saturation and cutoff especially in
digital applications wherein transistors are used as switch.
Example: Given the NPN transistor amplifier with the characteristic curve in the
preceding slides, determine the following:
a. Collector current when I
E
= 4 microamperes
b. Base-emitter voltage when V
CB
= 10 v
Based on the output characteristic curve, when I
E
= 4 microamperes, I
C
is
approximately equal to 4 microamperes.
Based on the input characteristic curve, when V
CB
= 10 v, V
BE
is approximately
equal to 0.7 volt.
Common Base Transistor Configuration
In the dc mode, the output current (I
C
) and the input current (I
E
) are related by a
parameter called alpha (o) which could be computed as:
The value of alpha (o) is always less than 1 but is approximately equal to 1,
since I
C
is always less than I
E
but the two are approximately equal.
Typical values of alpha given in specification sheets are in the range of 0.9 to
0.998.
The value of alpha could be different at different points in the characteristic
curve since it is not exactly linear.
The value of alpha is defined only for the majority carriers, and if the minority
carriers are considered, the value of the collector current (I
C
) can be computed
as:
current emitter dc I
current collector dc I : where
gain current dc r transisto base common dc alpha
I
I

E
C
E
C
dc
=
=
= = =
mA. 0 is current emitter en current wh collector
ion configurat base common for current leakage collector I : where
I I I
CBO
CBO E dc C
=
=
= +
Common Base Transistor Configuration
In the ac mode, the change in output current (AI
C
) and the change in input
current (AI
E
) when the collector-base voltage is constant, are related by a
parameter called alpha ac (o
ac
) which could be computed as:
For amplifying ac signals, alpha ac (o
ac
) is used to determine the change in
output current (AI
C
) given a change in input current (AI
E
).
For most situations, the value of o
dc
is close to, or the same as o
ac
.
current emitter in change I
current collector in change I : where
factor ion amplificat circuit short base, common ac alpha
I
I

E
C

constant V
E
C
ac
CB
= A
= A
= =
A
A
=
=
Amplifiers
An amplifier is a device or circuit which usually increases the amplitude of a
signal. The signal is usually a voltage or current, or both.
An amplifier could amplify an input voltage, an input current, or input
power.
In many cases, the input current, input voltage, and input power could be
amplified by the same device/circuit at the same time.
In some amplifiers, only the voltage and power, or the current and power are
amplified.
The gain of an amplifier is the ratio of the output signal and the input
signal.
I
I
= input current I
O
= output current
V
I
= input
voltage
V
O
=output
voltage
Power in = (V
I
)(I
I
) Power out = (V
O
)(I
O
)
Signal
source
Load Amplifier
Amplifiers
The voltage gain of an amplifier can be computed as:
The current gain of an amplifier can be computed as:
The power gain of an amplifier can be computed as:
The power gain, current gain, and voltage gain are related by the following
equation:
gain power
power Input
power Output
P
Po
A
I
P = = =
gain power ) )(A (A
) )(I (V
(Vo)(Io)
power input
power output
P
Po
A I V
I I I
P = = = = =
gain voltage
age Input volt
tage Output vol
Vi
Vo
Av = = =
gain current
current Input
current Output
I
Io
A
I
I = = =
Amplifiers
Amplifiers can be made of several stages, each stage having its own gain.
The overall gain of an amplifier with multiple stages is equal to the product
of the gain of each stage.
gain current overall or Total
current Input
current Output
) )...(A )(A (A
I
Io
A
gain voltage overall or Total
age Input volt
tage Output vol
) )...(A )(A (A
Vi
Vo
Av
In I2 I1
I
IT
Vn V2 V1 T
= = = =
= = = =
Common Base Transistor Amplifier
Below is a common base amplifier using an NPN Transistor.
I
E
, I
C
, and I
B
are the emitter current, collector current, and base current
respectively. These currents have dc components and ac components.
Only the dc component is present when there is no ac input signal (Vs).
V
BE
, V
CE
, and V
CB
are the voltages between the base and emitter, collector and
emitter, and collector and base respectively. These voltages have dc component
and ac component.
Only the dc component is present when there is no ac input signal (Vs).
Ii is the ac input current which is equal to the ac emitter current (Ie).
Io is the ac output current which is equal to the ac collector current (Ic).
I
B
I
C
Zi
Zo
Common Base Amplifier Circuit Using NPN Transistor
R
C
Vs =
Source
voltage
R
E
V
EE
Ii = Ie
C
Io = I
c
V
O
= Output
voltage
V
CC
I
E
E
B
V
BE
V
CB
V
CE
I
CQ
ac component
dc component
I
EQ
0 mA
0 mA
dc component
ac component
I
E
I
C
C
1
Common Base Transistor Amplifier
Zi is the input impedance and Zo is the output impedance of the amplifier.
C
1
eliminates the dc component of the voltage between the collector and the
base. The output voltage (Vo) only includes the ac component of the voltage
between the base and collector (V
CB
).
The impedance of a capacitor can be computed as:
For dc signals, frequency is equal to zero and the impedance of a capacitor is
equal to infinity.
Thus, when a composite signal consisting of ac signals and dc signals is fed to
the capacitor, dc signals will not appear across the output, and only ac signals
will appear at the output. Low frequency signals will be attenuated by the
capacitor.
farad in e capacitanc C
hz in signal of frequency f : where
ohms in capacitor of impedance
fC j2
1
Zc
=
=
= =
t
Common Base Transistor Amplifier
The figure below shows the voltages and current when the input signal (Vs) is
equal to 0 volt or when there is no input signal.
With no ac input signal, only dc voltages and dc currents are present in the
circuit.
I
EQ
,I
CQ
, and I
BQ
are the quiescent emitter current, quiescent collector current,
and quiescent base current respectively.
V
BEQ
, V
CEQ
, and V
CBQ
are the quiescent base-emitter voltage, quiescent
collector-emitter voltage , and quiescent collector-base voltage respectively.
The letter Q stands for quiescent (no input ac signal).
I
BQ
I
CQ
Zi Zo
Common Base Amplifier Circuit Using NPN Transistor
R
C
R
E
V
EE
C
V
O
= Output
voltage
V
CC
I
EQ
E
B
I
EQ
I
CQ
V
BEQ
V
CBQ
V
CEQ
I
E
I
C
0 mA
0 mA
C
1
-
+
+
-
- +
Common Base Transistor Amplifier
The quiescent emitter current is equal to the sum of the quiescent collector
current and quiescent base current.
The quiescent base-emitter voltage (V
BEQ
) is typically around 0.7 volt for
Si, 0.3 volt for Ge, and 1.2 v for GaAs .
The quiescent collector-emitter voltage is equal to the sum of the quiescent
base-emitter voltage and quiescent base-collector voltage.
CQ EQ CQ BQ EQ I I I I I ~ + =
rs transisto GaAs for volts 1.2
rs transisto Ge for volt 0.3
rs transisto Si for volt 0.7 VBEQ
=
=
=
rs) transisto GaAs (for V 1.2
rs) transisto Ge (for V 0.3
rs) transisto Si for ( V 0.7
V V V
CBQ
CBQ
CBQ
CBQ BEQ CEQ
+ =
+ =
+ =
+ =
Common Base Transistor Amplifier
When the input signal (Vs) is present, it adds to or
subtracts from the dc supply voltage (V
EE
).
The varying voltage of the input signal causes changes
in the emitter current, collector current, base-
collector voltage, and emitter-collector voltage.
V
AB
Io = Ic
I
CQ
I
CQ
Ii = Ie
I
EQ
I
EQ
Vs
Zo
Common Base Amplifier Circuit Using NPN Transistor
Vs =
Source
voltage
A
B
V
AB
0 v
V
EE
0 v
Vs
0 A
Input current
Output current
I
BQ
I
CQ
Zi Zo
R
C
R
E
V
EE
C
V
O
= Output
voltage
V
CC
I
EQ
E
B
V
BE
V
CB
V
CE
C
1
-
+
+
-
- +
Vs is
superimposed
on V
EE
.
0 A
Common Base Transistor Amplifier
During the positive half of the input signal, the voltage between points A and B
(V
AB
) is lower (less negative relative to ground). Less carriers (holes ) will be
attracted towards the negative terminal of the batteries making the emitter
current less than its value when there is no input signal.
During the negative half of the input signal, the voltage between points A and
B (V
AB
) is higher (more negative relative to ground). More majority carriers
(holes ) will be attracted towards the negative terminal of the batteries making
the emitter current more than its value when there is no input signal.
The decrease and increase in the emitter current follows the waveform of the
input signal (Vs). If Vs is a sine wave, the waveform of the changes in current
is also a sine wave.
When the emitter current is increasing, the collector current is also increasing,
and vice versa.
The input current (I
E
) is in phase with the output current (I
C
).
Although the currents and voltages are varying, the emitter current is still equal
to the sum of the collector current and base current, and the collector current
is approximately equal to the emitter current.
C E C B E I I I I I ~ + =
Common Base Transistor Amplifier
When the input signal (Vs) is becoming
more positive, V
AB
is decreasing, I
E
is
decreasing, I
C
is decreasing, voltage across
R
C
(V
RC
) is decreasing, collector-base
voltage (V
CB
) is increasing, output voltage
(Vo) is increasing (becoming more
positive).
When Vs is becoming more positive, the
output voltage (Vo) is also becoming more
positive. The output voltage (Vo) is in
phase with the input signal (Vs).
I
C
Vs
Output voltage (V
O
) is in phase with the
input signal (Vs)
I
E
V
CB
+
V
AB
V
RC
V
AB
Vs
0 v
V
EE
0 v
Vs
Vs is
superimposed
on V
EE
.
V
CBQ
0 v
V
CB
Vo Vo
0 v
Unfiltered
output voltage
Filtered output
voltage
base and collector across voltage V
R across voltage V where
V V Vcc
CB
C RC
CB RC
=
=
= +
Common Base Transistor Amplifier
Below is a common base amplifier using a PNP Transistor .
The polarity of the supply voltages are reversed compared to those of common
base amplifier using NPN transistor.
The directions of the quiescent emitter current, collector current, and base
current are opposite to those using NPN transistor.
The conditions and operation of this amplifier are similar to the one using an
NPN transistor, except the polarity of voltages and direction of currents.
Common Base Amplifier Circuit Using PNP Transistor
I
B
I
C
Zi
Zo
R
C
Vs =
Source
voltage
R
E
V
EE
Ii = Ie
C
Io = I
c
V
O
= Output
voltage
V
CC
I
E
E
B
V
BE
V
CB
V
CE
I
CQ
ac component
dc component
I
EQ
0 mA
0 mA
dc component
ac component
I
E
I
C
C
1
Common Base Transistor Amplifier
The characteristics of a common base amplifier are:
Low input impedance (Zi) - Typically 10 ohms to 100 ohms
High output impedance (Zo) - Typical values are 50 kohm to megaohm range.
AC current gain (Ic / Ie) is equal to alpha ac (o
ac
) which is less than one but close to
one.
DC current gain (I
C
/ I
E
) is equal to alpha dc (o
dc
) which is less than one but close to
one.
If Rc is significantly larger than the input impedance (Zi), the voltage gain (Vout / Vin =
Vce / Vbe) is greater than 1. The voltage gain can be computed as:
Output voltage is in phase with input voltage.
emitter and base between voltage ac Vbe
emitter and collector between voltage ac Vce
impedance input ac Zi : where
gain voltage
Zi
R
Zi
R
V
V
Vi
Vo
Av
C C ac
be
ce
=
=
=
= ~ = = =
gain current ac
Ie
Ie
Ie
Ic
Ii
Io
(ac) Ai ac
ac
= = = = =
gain current dc
I
I
I
I
Ii
Io
Ai dc
E
E dc
E
C
= = = = =
Common Base Transistor Amplifier
The voltage amplifying action was produced by transferring a current I from a low
resistance (Zi) to a high resistance circuit. Transistor = transfer + resistor
Example: Given Zi = 50 ohms, Rc = 5 kohm, determine the voltage gain of the
common base amplifier in the preceding slides.
gain voltage 100
50
5,000
Zi
R
Zi
R
V
V
Vi
Vo
Av
C C ac
be
ce
= = = ~ = = =
Common Emitter Transistor Configuration
C1
V
BE
V
CE
C
E
B
V
O
= Output
voltage
Vs =
Source
voltage
Zi
Zo
R
B
I
i
I
B
I
E
I
C
Common Emitter Amplifier Using NPN Transistor
Below is a common emitter configuration using an NPN transistor.
The emitter is common to the output (Vo) and the input (Vi), and the emitter is
usually closest to or connected to the ground.
The input is between the base and the emitter while the output is between the
emitter and the collector.
N
P
N
C
E
B
V
CB
V
BB
V
CC
= 10 v
I
C
I
E
I
B
R
C
=
1,000
ohms
Common Emitter Transistor Configuration
C1
V
BE
V
CE
C
E
B
V
O
= Output
voltage
R
C
=
1,000
ohms
V
CC
= -10 v
Vs =
Source
voltage
Zi
Zo
R
B
I
i
I
B
I
E
I
C
Common Emitter Amplifier Using PNP Transistor
Below is a common emitter configuration using a PNP transistor.
The supply voltages have opposite polarity compared to the supply voltages of the
common emitter configuration using an NPN transistor.
The directions of the currents are opposite to those of the currents in a common
emitter configuration using an NPN transistor.
N
P
P
C
E
B
V
CB
V
BB
I
C
I
E
I
B
Common Emitter Transistor Configuration
The emitter current is equal to the sum of the base current and collector
current.
The flow of current on the circuit follows the conventional current flow
(opposite to electron flow).
Note that the polarity of the voltage supplies establishes conventional current
flow , both in the base-emitter loop and emitter-collector loop.
Conventional current exits from positive (+) terminal of voltage supplies
and enters the negative (-) terminal of the supply.
For all transistor configurations whether NPN or PNP, the following could help
in determining the correct polarity of voltage supplies to make the emitter-base
junction forward biased and the collector-base junction reverse biased:
The conventional current flow at the emitter must follow the direction of
the arrow of the emitter.
The conventional current flow of the base and collector current must agree
with the direction of emitter current. If emitter current is going out of the
transistor, the base and collector current must be going inside the transistor,
and vice versa.
The polarity of the batteries must be in such a way that the current must be
coming out from the positive terminal and must be entering the negative
terminal.
B C E C C E C B E I I I I I I I I I | o = = ~ + =
Common Emitter Transistor Configuration
Common emitter is the most frequently encountered transistor configuration.
Below is a characteristic curve for the input side of a common emitter
transistor configuration.
The input current is the base current (I
B
) while the input voltage is the voltage
between the base and the emitter (V
BE
).
The curve shows values of the input current (I
B
) and input voltage (V
BE
) for
various values of output voltage (collector-emitter voltage - V
CE
).
The curve resembles that of a diode. V
CE
has small effect on the value of I
B
.
I
B
(A)
V
BE
(V)
Knee voltage
Base-emitter junction
forward biased
Reverse biased
0.6 0.4 0.2
V
BE
base-emitter voltage (input voltage)
I
B
base current (input current)
Common Emitter Transistor Configuration Input Characteristic Curve
V
CE
=20 v
V
CE
=10 v
V
CE
=1 v
0.7
Common Emitter Transistor Configuration
Ic (mA)
V
CE
(volts)
I
CEO
Ib = 0
Ib = 30 A
Ib = 50 A
Ib = 70 A
Ib = 100 A
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Saturation
region
Active
region
Cutoff
region
2.5 v
7.5 mA
Below is a characteristic curve for the output side of a common emitter
transistor configuration.
DC load line
Vce(sat)
Common Emitter Transistor Configuration Output Characteristic Curve
Q point
V
CE
collector-emitter voltage (output voltage)
I
C
collector current (output current)
I
b
base current (input current)
I
CEO
collector leakage current for common emitter configuration
Common Emitter Transistor Configuration
The curves of I
B
are not as linear as the curves of I
E
in the common base
characteristic curve, which indicates that the collector-emitter voltage affects
the magnitude of I
C
.
Common emitter transistor amplifiers could have current gain, voltage gain, and
power gain greater than one (1), i.e., it can be used as current amplifier,
voltage amplifier, and power amplifier.
The common emitter transistor configuration also has three regions: active
region, saturation region, and cutoff region.
The biasing of the transistor in the various regions are:
Active region - emitter-base junction is forward biased
collector-base junction is reverse biased.
Saturation region - emitter-base junction is forward biased.
collector-base junction is forward biased.
Cutoff region - emitter-base junction is reverse biased.
collector-base junction is reverse biased.
Common Emitter Transistor Configuration
In the active region:
The characteristic curve has the greatest linearity. This portion is where the
curves for I
B
are nearly straight and nearly equally spaced.
It is the region to the right of the vertical line V
CEsat
.
The lower end boundary is defined by I
B
= 0 and the output current (I
C
) =
I
CEO
= leakage current for common emitter. I
CEO
is not equal to I
CBO
.
The emitter current is the sum of the base and collector currents.
The emitter current is approximately equal to the collector current.
The base-emitter voltage (V
BE
) is approximately 0.7 volt for Si, 0.3 volt
for Ge, and 1.2 volts for GaAs. (similar to forward biased diode).
Common emitter transistor amplifiers are typically operated in the active
region to achieve relatively linear response (output waveform similar to
input waveform except for amplitude levels).
Common Emitter Transistor Configuration
In the saturation region:
The region is defined by the region to the left of V
CEsat
, wherein the base-
collector junction and base-emitter junction are forward biased.
V
CEsat
is approximately equal to 0.2 volt to 0.3 volt.
In the cutoff region:
Both base-emitter and base-collector junctions are reverse biased.
It is defined by the area below Ic = I
CEO
or Ib = 0 A.
When the input current (I
b
) is equal to zero, the collector current is equal to
the leakage current for common emitter (I
CEO
). This is due to the presence
of minority carriers.
I
CEO
is not equal to I
CBO
.
The relationship of I
CEO
and I
CBO
can be expressed as:
CBO
dc
CBO
CEO C
B
dc
CBO
dc
B dc
C
CBO B C dc CBO E dc C
I
1
I
I I
0, I when
1
I
1
I
I
I ) I (I I I I
| ~

= =
=

+

=
+ = = + +
A transistor can act as a switch by
switching between cutoff and
saturation.
Common Emitter Transistor Configuration
In the dc mode, the output current (I
C
) and the input current (I
B
) are related by a
parameter called beta dc (|
dc
) which could be computed as:
beta dc (|
dc
) is usually specified as h
FE
on specification sheets.
The value of beta dc (|
dc
) is always greater than 1.
Typical values of beta given in specification sheets are in the range of 50 to 400.
The value of beta could be different at different points in the characteristics curve
since it is not exactly linear.
In many instances, beta dc (|dc or h
FE
) is approximately equal to beta ac (|ac or
h
fe
) .
Example: Determine the collector current if the base current is 10 microamperes
and |
dc
is equal to 90.
current base dc I
current collector dc I : where
gain current dc ansistor emitter tr common dc beta
I
I
B
C
B
C
dc
=
=
= = = |
A 0 1 x 900 ) 0 1 x 10 )( 90 ( I I
6 6
B C

= = =
Common Emitter Transistor Configuration
In the ac mode, the change in output current (AI
C
) and the change in input current
(AI
B
) when the collector-emitter voltage is constant, are related by a parameter
called beta ac (|
ac
) which could be computed as:
For amplifying ac signals, beta ac (|
ac
) is used to determine the change in output
current (AI
C
) given a change in input current (AI
B
).
The value of beta ac (|
ac
) could be different at different points in the
characteristics curve since it is not exactly linear.
For many situations, the value of |
dc
is close to, or the same as |
ac
.
Example: Determine the change in collector current if the base current changes by
10 microamperes and |
ac
is equal to 100.
current base in change I
current collector in change I : where
factor ion amplificat emitter common ac beta
I
I
B
C

constant V
B
C
ac
CE
= A
= A
= =
A
A
=
=
|
A 0 1 x 10 ) 0 1 x 10 )( 100 ( I I
4 6
B C

= = =
Common Emitter Transistor Configuration
The relationship between alpha (o) and beta (|) is shown below.
Example: A transistor has | = 90. Determine the value of o
o
o
|
|
|
o
| o
| o

=
+
=
+ =
+ =
+ =
1
1
1
1
1
I
I
I
I I I
C
C
C
B C E
989 . 0
1 90
90
1
=
+
=
+
=
|
|
o
Common Emitter Transistor Configuration
The relationship between I
CEO
and I
CBO
can also be expressed as:
Example: A transistor has | = 90. Determine I
CEO
if I
CBO
= 0.1 microamperes.
I
E
can also be computed as:
CO CBO CEO
CBO CBO CBO
CEO
I ) 1 ( I ) 1 ( I
1
1
I
1
1
I
1
I
I
+ = + =
+
+
=
+

=
| |
|
| |
|
|
A 10 x 1 . 9 ) 10 x 1 . 0 )( 1 90 ( I ) 1 ( I
-6 -6
CBO CEO = + = + = |
B E
B B E
C B E
I ) 1 ( I
I I I
I I I
+ =
+ =
+ =
|
|
Common Emitter Transistor Amplifier
C1
V
BE
V
CE
C
E
B
V
O
= Output
voltage
Vs =
Source
voltage
Zi
Zo
R
B
I
i
I
B
I
E
I
C
Common Emitter Amplifier Using NPN Transistor
Below is a common emitter amplifier using an NPN transistor.
V
CB
V
BB
V
CC
= 10 v
R
C
=
1,000
ohms
dc component
I
BQ
0 mA
ac component
I
B
I
CQ
ac component
0 mA
dc component
I
C
Input Current
Output Current
Common Emitter Transistor Amplifier
I
E
, I
C
, and I
B
are the emitter current, collector current, and base current
respectively. These currents have dc components and ac components.
Only the dc component is present when there is no ac input signal (Vs).
V
BE
, V
CE
, and V
CB
are the voltages between the base and emitter, collector and
emitter, and collector and base respectively. These voltages have dc
component and ac component.
Only the dc component is present when there is no ac input signal (Vs).
Ii is the ac input current which is equal to the ac base current (I
b
).
Io is the ac output current which is equal to the ac collector current (Ic).
Zi is the input impedance and Zo is the output impedance of the amplifier.
C
1
eliminates the dc component of the voltage between the collector and the
emitter. The output voltage (Vo) only includes the ac component of the
voltage between the base and collector (V
CB
).
For dc signals, frequency is equal to zero and the impedance of a capacitor is
equal to infinity.
Thus, when a composite signal consisting of ac signals and dc signals is fed to
the capacitor, dc signals will not appear across the output, and only ac signals
will appear at the output. Low frequency signals will be attenuated by the
capacitor.
Common Emitter Transistor Amplifier
The figure shows the
voltages and currents
when the input signal (Vs)
is equal to 0 volt or when
there is no input signal.
With no ac input signal,
only dc voltages and dc
currents are present in the
circuit.
I
EQ
,I
CQ
, and I
BQ
are the
quiescent emitter current,
quiescent collector
current, and quiescent
base current respectively.
V
BEQ
, V
CEQ
, and V
CBQ
are
the quiescent base-emitter
voltage, quiescent
collector-emitter voltage ,
and quiescent collector-
base voltage respectively.
The letter Q stands for
quiescent (no input ac
signal).
C1
V
BEQ
V
CEQ
C
E
B
V
O
=
Output
voltage
Zi
Zo
R
B
I
i
I
BQ
I
EQ
I
CQ
V
CBQ
V
BB
V
CC
= 10 v
R
C
=
1,000
ohms
Common Emitter Amplifier Using NPN Transistor
Common Emitter Transistor Amplifier
The quiescent emitter current is equal to the sum of the quiescent collector
current and quiescent base current.
The quiescent base-emitter voltage (V
BEQ
) is typically around 0.7 volt for
Si, 0.3 volt for Ge, and 1.2 volts for GaAs.
In the active region, the quiescent collector-emitter voltage is equal to the
sum of the quiescent base-emitter voltage and quiescent base-collector
voltage.
CQ EQ CQ BQ EQ I I I I I ~ + =
rs transisto GaAs for volts 1.2
rs transisto Ge for volt 0.3
rs transisto Si for volt 0.7 VBEQ
=
=
=
rs) transisto GaAs (for V 1.2
rs) transisto Ge (for V 0.3
rs) transisto Si for ( V 0.7
V V V
CBQ
CBQ
CBQ
CBQ BEQ CEQ
+ =
+ =
+ =
+ =
Common Emitter Transistor Amplifier
When the input signal (Vs) is present, it adds to or
subtracts from the dc supply voltage (V
BB
).
The varying voltage of the input signal causes changes
in the base current, collector current, emitter current,
base-collector voltage, and emitter-collector voltage.
V
AB
Io = Ic
I
CQ
I
CQ
Ii = Ib
I
BQ
I
BQ
Vs
0 v
V
BB
0 v
Vs
0 A
Input current
Output current
Vs is
superimposed
on V
EE
.
C1
V
BEQ
V
CEQ
C
E
B
V
O
=
Output
voltage
V
AB
Zi Zo
R
B
I
i
I
BQ
I
EQ
I
CQ
V
CBQ
V
BB
V
CC
= 10 v
R
C
=
1,000
ohms
Common Emitter Amplifier Using NPN Transistor
Vs =
Source
voltage
0 A
Common Emitter Transistor Amplifier
During the positive half of the input signal, the voltage between points A and B
(V
AB
) is higher (more positive relative to ground). More carriers (electrons )
will be attracted towards the positive terminal of the battery making the emitter
current higher than its value when there is no input signal.
During the negative half of the input signal, the voltage between points A and
B (V
AB
) is lower (less positive relative to ground). Less carriers (electrons )
will be attracted towards the positive terminal of the battery making the emitter
current less than its value when there is no input signal.
The decrease and increase in the base current follows the waveform of the
input signal (Vs). If Vs is a sine wave, the waveform of the changes in current
is also a sine wave.
When the base current is increasing, the collector current is also increasing,
and vice versa.
The input current (I
B
) is in phase with the output current (I
C
).
Although the currents and voltages are varying, the emitter current is still equal
to the sum of the collector current and base current, and the collector current
is approximately equal to the emitter current.
C E C B E I I I I I ~ + =
Common Emitter Transistor Amplifier
When the input signal (Vs) is becoming
more positive, V
AB
is increasing, I
B
is
increasing, I
C
is increasing, voltage across
R
C
(V
RC
) is increasing, collector-emitter
voltage (V
CE
) is decreasing, output voltage
(Vo = V
CE
) is decreasing (becoming less
positive).
When Vs is becoming more positive, the
output voltage (Vo) is becoming less
positive. The output voltage (Vo) is 180
degrees out of phase with the input signal
(Vs).
I
C
Vs
Output voltage (V
O
) is 180 degrees out
of phase with the input signal (Vs).
I
E
V
CE
+
V
AB
V
RC
V
AB
Vi=Vs
0 v
V
BB
0 v
Vs
Vs is
superimposed
on V
EE
.
V
CEQ
0 v
V
CE
Vo
Vo
0 v
Unfiltered
output voltage
Filtered output
voltage
+
emitter and collector across voltage V
R across voltage V where
V V Vcc
CE
C RC
CE RC
=
=
= +
Common Emitter Transistor Amplifier
The diagram shows a
common emitter amplifier
using a PNP Transistor .
The polarity of the supply
voltages are reversed
compared to those of
common emitter amplifier
using NPN transistor.
The direction of the
quiescent emitter current,
collector current, and base
current are opposite to
those of an NPN transistor
amplifier.
The conditions and
operation of this amplifier
are similar to those of an
NPN transistor amplifier,
except the polarity of
voltages and direction of
currents.
C1
V
BE
V
CE
C
E
B
V
O
= Output
voltage
R
C
=
1,000
ohms
V
CC
=
- 10 v
Vs =
Source
voltage
Zi
Zo
R
B
I
i
I
B
I
E
I
C
V
CB
V
BB
Common Emitter Amplifier Using PNP Transistor
Common Emitter Transistor Amplifier
The characteristics of a common emitter amplifier are:
Relatively high input impedance (Zi) - Typically few hundred ohms to kiloohm
range.
Relatively high output impedance (Zo) - Typical values are 40 kohm to 50
kohm.
AC current gain (Ic / Ib) is equal to beta ac (|
ac
) which is greater than one.
DC current gain (I
C
/ I
B
) is equal to beta dc (|
dc
) which is greater than one.
The typical voltage gain (Vout / Vin = Vce / Vbe) is relatively high (greater
than one)
Typical power gain is relatively high.
Output voltage is 180 degrees out of phase with input voltage.
gain current ac
Ib
Ib
Ib
Ic
Ii
Io
(ac) Ai ac
ac
= = = = = |
|
gain current dc
I
I
I
I
Ii
Io
(dc) Ai dc
B
B dc
B
C
= = = = = |
|
Common Collector Transistor Configuration
C1
V
BE
V
CE
C
E
B
V
O
= Output
voltage
Vs =
Source
voltage
Zi
Zo
R
B
I
i
I
B
I
E
I
C
Common Collector Configuration Using NPN Transistor
Below is a common collector configuration using an NPN transistor.
The collector is common to the output (Vo) and the input (Vi), and the collector is
connected to the ground for ac signals. For ac signal analysis, dc voltages are
considered shorted.
The input signal is at the base while the output is taken at the emitter.
N
P
N
C
E
B
V
CB
V
BB
V
CC
= 10 v
I
C
I
E
I
B
R
E
=
1,000
ohms
Common Collector Transistor Configuration
Zo
Common Collector Configuration Using PNP Transistor
Below is a common collector configuration using a PNP transistor.
The supply voltages have opposite polarity compared to the supply voltages of the
common collector configuration using an NPN transistor.
The directions of the currents are opposite to those of the currents in a common
collector configuration using an NPN transistor.
N
P
P
C
E
B
I
C
I
E
I
B
C1
V
BE
V
CE
C
E
B
V
O
= Output
voltage
Vs =
Source
voltage
Zi
Zo
R
B
I
i
I
B
I
E
I
C
V
CB
V
BB
V
CC
= -10 v
R
E
=
1,000
ohms
Common Collector Transistor Configuration
The emitter current is equal to the sum of the base current and collector
current.
The flow of current on the circuit follows the conventional current flow
(opposite to electron flow).
Note that the polarity of the voltage supplies establishes conventional current
flow , both in the base-emitter loop and emitter-collector loop.
Conventional current exits from positive (+) terminal of voltage supplies
and enters the negative (-) terminal of the supply.
For all transistor configurations whether NPN or PNP, the following could help
in determining the correct polarity of voltage supplies to make the emitter-base
junction forward biased and the collector-base junction reverse biased:
The conventional current flow at the emitter must follow the direction of
the arrow of the emitter.
The conventional current flow of the base and collector current must agree
with the direction of emitter current. If emitter current is going out of the
transistor, the base and collector current must be going inside the transistor,
and vice versa.
The polarity of the batteries must be in such a way that the current must be
coming out from the positive terminal and must be entering the negative
terminal.
E C C E C B E I I I I I I I o = ~ + =
Common Collector Transistor Configuration
I
E
(mA)
V
CE
(volts)
Ib = 0
Ib = 30 A
Ib = 50 A
Ib = 70 A
Ib = 100 A
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Saturation
region
Active
region
Cutoff
region
Below is a characteristic curve for the output side of a common collector
transistor configuration.
The curve is practically similar to that of the common emitter configuration.
Vce(sat)
Common Collector Transistor Configuration Output Characteristic Curve
V
CE
collector-emitter
voltage (output
voltage)
I
E
collector current
(output current)
I
b
base current
(input current)
Common Collector Transistor Configuration
The curves of I
B
are not as linear as the curves of I
E
in the common base
characteristic curve, which indicates that the collector-emitter voltage affects
the magnitude of I
C
and I
E
.
Common collector transistor amplifiers have:
the highest current gain among the three configurations.
practically unity voltage gain (current gain = 1),
It can be used as current amplifier and power amplifier.
The common collector transistor configuration also has three regions: active
region, saturation region, and cutoff region.
The biasing of the transistor in the various regions are:
Active region - emitter-base junction is forward biased
collector-base junction is reverse biased.
Saturation region - emitter-base junction is forward biased.
collector-base junction is forward biased.
Cutoff region - emitter-base junction is reverse biased.
collector-base junction is reverse biased.
Common Collector Transistor Configuration
In the active region:
The characteristic curve has the greatest linearity. This portion is where the
curves for I
B
are nearly straight and equally spaced.
It is the region to the right of the vertical line V
CEsat
.
The lower end boundary is defined by I
B
= 0.
The emitter current is the sum of the base and collector currents.
The emitter current is approximately equal to the collector current.
The base-emitter voltage (V
BE
) is approximately 0.7 volt for Si , 0.3 volt for
Ge, and 1.2 volts for GaAs. (similar to forward biased diode).
Common collector transistor amplifiers are typically operated in the active
region to achieve relatively linear response (output voltage waveform similar to
input voltage waveform).
Common Collector Transistor Configuration
In the dc mode, the output current (I
E
) and the input current (I
B
) are related by a
parameter called gamma dc (
dc
) which could be computed as:
Gamma dc (
dc
) is usually specified as h
FC
on specification sheets.
The value of gamma dc (
dc
) is always greater than 1 and is always greater than
beta dc (|
dc
).
The value of gamma could be different at different points in the characteristics
curve since it is not exactly linear.
In many instances, gamma dc (dc or h
FC
) is approximately equal to gamma ac
(
ac
or h
fc
) .
Example: Determine the emitter current if the base current is 10 microamperes
and
dc
is equal to 90.
current base dc I
current emitter dc I : where
gain current dc transistor collector common dc gamma
I
I
B
E
B
E
dc
=
=
= = =
A 0 1 x 900 ) 0 1 x 10 )( 90 ( I I
6 6
B E

= = =
Common Collector Transistor Configuration
In the ac mode, the change in output current (AI
E
) and the change in input current
(AI
B
) when the collector-emitter voltage is constant, are related by a parameter
called gamma ac (
ac
) which could be computed as:
For amplifying ac signals, gamma ac (
ac
) is used to determine the change in
output current (AI
E
) given a change in input current (AI
B
).
The value of gamma ac (
ac
) could be different at different points in the
characteristics curve since it is not exactly linear.
For many situations, the value of
dc
is close to, or the same as
ac
.
Example: Determine the change in emitter current if the base current changes by
10 microamperes and
ac
is equal to 100.
current base in change I
current emitter in change I : where
factor ion amplificat collector common ac gamma
I
I
B
E

constant V
B
E
ac
CE
= A
= A
= =
A
A
=
=

A 0 1 x 10 ) 0 1 x 10 )( 100 ( I I
4 6
B E

= = =
Common Collector Transistor Configuration
The relationship between gamma () and beta (|) is shown below.
Example: A transistor has | = 90. Determine the value of
1
I I I
I I I
B B B
B C E
+ =
+ =
+ =
|
|
91 1 90 1 = + = + = |
Common Collector Transistor Amplifier
Below is a common collector amplifier using an NPN transistor.
dc component
I
BQ
0 mA
ac component
I
B
I
EQ
ac component
0 mA
dc component
I
E
Input Current
Output Current
C1
V
BE
V
CE
C
E
B
V
O
= Output
voltage
Vs =
Source
voltage
Zi
Zo
R
B
I
i
I
B
I
E
I
C
V
CB
V
BB
V
CC
= 10 v
R
E
=
1,000
ohms
Common Collector Configuration Using NPN Transistor
Common Collector Transistor Amplifier
I
E
, I
C
, and I
B
are the emitter current, collector current, and base current
respectively. These currents have dc components and ac components.
Only the dc component is present when there is no ac input signal (Vs).
V
BE
, V
CE
, and V
CB
are the voltages between the base and emitter, collector and
emitter, and collector and base respectively. These voltages have dc
components and ac components.
Only the dc component is present when there is no ac input signal (Vs).
Ii is the ac input current which is equal to the ac base current (I
b
).
Io is the ac output current which is equal to the ac emitter current (Ie).
Zi is the input impedance and Zo is the output impedance of the amplifier.
C
1
eliminates the dc component of the voltage between the emitter and the
ground.
For dc signals, frequency is equal to zero and the impedance of a capacitor is
equal to infinity.
Thus, when a composite signal consisting of ac signals and dc signals is fed to
the capacitor, dc signals will not appear across the output, and only ac signals
will appear at the output. Low frequency signals will be attenuated by the
capacitor.
Common Collector Transistor Amplifier
The figure shows the
voltages and currents
when the input signal (Vs)
is equal to 0 volt or when
there is no input signal.
With no ac input signal,
only dc voltages and dc
currents are present in the
circuit.
I
EQ
,I
CQ
, and I
BQ
are the
quiescent emitter current,
quiescent collector
current, and quiescent
base current respectively.
V
BEQ
, V
CEQ
, and V
CBQ
are
the quiescent base-emitter
voltage, quiescent
collector-emitter voltage ,
and quiescent collector-
base voltage respectively.
The letter Q stands for
quiescent (no input ac
signal).
C1
V
BEQ
V
CEQ
C
E
B
V
O
= Output
voltage
Zi
Zo
R
B
I
i
I
BQ
I
EQ
I
CQ
V
CBQ
V
BB
V
CC
= 10 v
R
E
=
1,000
ohms
Common Collector Amplifier Using NPN Transistor
Common Collector Transistor Amplifier
The quiescent emitter current is equal to the sum of the quiescent collector
current and quiescent base current.
The quiescent base-emitter voltage (V
BEQ
) is typically around 0.7 volt for
Si, 0.3 volt for Ge, and 1.2 volts for GaAs.
In the active region, the quiescent collector-emitter voltage is equal to the
sum of the quiescent base-emitter voltage and quiescent base-collector
voltage.
CQ EQ CQ BQ EQ I I I I I ~ + =
rs transisto GaAs for volts 1.2
rs transisto Ge for volt 0.3
rs transisto Si for volt 0.7 VBEQ
=
=
=
rs) transisto GaAs (for V 2 . 1
rs) transisto Ge (for V 0.3
rs) transisto Si for ( V 0.7
V V V
CBQ
CBQ
CBQ
CBQ BEQ CEQ
+ =
+ =
+ =
+ =
Common Collector Transistor Amplifier
When the input signal (Vs) is present, it adds to or
subtracts from the dc supply voltage (V
BB
).
The varying voltage of the input signal causes changes
in the base current, collector current, emitter current,
base-collector voltage, and emitter-collector voltage.
V
AB
Io = Ie
I
EQ
I
EQ
Ii = Ib
I
BQ
I
BQ
Vs
0 v
V
BB
0 v
Vs
0 A
Input current
Output current
Vs is
superimposed
on V
EE
.
0 A
C1
V
BE
V
CE
C
E
B
V
O
= Output
voltage
Vs =
Source
voltage
Zi
Zo
R
B
I
i
I
B
I
E
I
C
V
CB
V
BB
V
CC
= 10 v
R
E
=
1,000
ohms
Common Collector Amplifier Using NPN Transistor
V
AB
Common Collector Transistor Amplifier
During the positive half of the input signal, the voltage between points A and B
(V
AB
) is higher (more positive relative to ground). More carriers (electrons )
will be attracted towards the positive terminal of the battery making the emitter
current higher than its value when there is no input signal.
During the negative half of the input signal, the voltage between points A and
B (V
AB
) is lower (less positive relative to ground). Less carriers (electrons )
will be attracted towards the positive terminal of the battery making the emitter
current lower than its value when there is no input signal.
The decrease and increase in the base current follows the waveform of the
input signal (Vs). If Vs is a sine wave, the waveform of the changes in current
is also a sine wave.
When the base current is increasing, the emitter current is also increasing, and
vice versa.
The input current (I
B
) is in phase with the output current (I
E
).
Although the currents and voltages are varying, the emitter current is still equal
to the sum of the collector current and base current, and the collector current
is approximately equal to the emitter current.
C E C B E I I I I I ~ + =
Common Collector Transistor Amplifier
When the input signal (Vs) is becoming
more positive, V
AB
is increasing, I
B
is
increasing, I
C
is increasing, voltage across
R
E
(V
RE
) is increasing, collector-emitter
voltage (V
CE
) is decreasing, output voltage
(Vo = V
RE
) is increasing (becoming more
positive).
When Vs is becoming more positive, the
output voltage (Vo) is becoming more
positive. The output voltage (Vo) is in
phase with the input signal (Vs).
I
C
Vs
Output voltage (V
O
) is in phase with the
input signal (Vs), and they are
approximately equal.
I
E
V
O
+
V
AB
V
RE
V
AB
Vi=Vs
0 v
V
BB
0 v
Vs
Vs is
superimposed
on V
EE
.
V
REQ
0 v
V
RE
Vo Vo
0 v
Unfiltered
output voltage
Filtered output
voltage
+
Common Collector Transistor Amplifier
The diagram shows a
common collector
amplifier using a PNP
Transistor .
The polarity of the supply
voltages are reversed
compared to those of
common collector
amplifier using NPN
transistor.
The direction of the
quiescent emitter current,
collector current, and base
current are opposite to
those of an NPN transistor
amplifier.
The conditions and
operation of this amplifier
are similar to the those of
an NPN transistor
amplifier, except the
polarity of voltages and
direction of currents.
Zo
C1
V
BE
V
CE
C
E
B
V
O
= Output
voltage
Vs =
Source
voltage
Zi
Zo
R
B
I
i
I
B
I
E
I
C
V
CB
V
BB
V
CC
= -10 v
R
E
=
1,000
ohms
Common Collector Configuration Using PNP Transistor
Common Collector Transistor Amplifier
The characteristics of a common collector amplifier are:
High input impedance (Zi).
Low output impedance (Zo).
Suitable for impedance matching (high impedance to low impedance).
AC current gain (Ie / Ib) is equal to gamma ac (
ac
) which is greater than one.
DC current gain (I
E
/ I
B
) is equal to gamma dc (
dc
) which is greater than one.
The voltage gain (Vout / Vin) is practically equal to one (Av=1).
Output voltage is in phase with the input voltage.
gain current ac
Ib
Ib
Ib
Ie
Ii
Io
(ac) Ai ac
ac
= = = = =

gain current dc
I
I
I
I
Ii
Io
(dc) Ai dc
B
B dc
B
E
= = = = =

Common Emitter Transistor Configuration Limits of Operation

Ic (mA)
V
CE
(volts)
I
CEO
Ib = 0
Ib = 30 A
Ib = 50 A
Ib = 70 A
Ib = 100 A
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Saturation
region
Active
region
Cutoff
region
2.5 v
Below is a characteristic curve for the output side of a common emitter
transistor amplifier wherein the limits of operation of the transistor are indicated.
The transistor can operate inside the area bounded by the dotted lines.
Vce(sat)
Common Emitter Transistor Configuration Limits of Operation
P
C
max
V
CE max
I
C
max
Common Emitter Transistor Configuration Limits of Operation
The limits of operation of a transistor are defined by the maximum ratings of the
transistor and the area where there is minimal distortion in the output signal.
The maximum transistor ratings which typically limit the operation of a
transistor are:
Maximum collector current (I
Cmax
)
Maximum collector-emitter voltage (V
CEmax or
V
CEO
)
Maximum power dissipation (P
C max
)
The limits of the active region are:
Saturation region (V
CEsat
which is around 0.2 to 0.3 volt)
Cutoff region (Ib = 0)
If a maximum rating is exceeded, the transistor could most likely be damaged.
If the transistor is operated in the saturation or cutoff regions, the output signal
will be severely distorted.
Common Emitter Transistor Configuration Limits of Operation
current. collector maximum the is which I to equal be not may or may value This
ltage emitter vo - collector given and n dissipatio power
maximum of because current collector allowed maximum mA 8
7
0.056
V
P
Ic
tor by transis dissipated being power I V P
Cmax
CE
Cmax
C CE C
= = = =
= =
The power being dissipated by a transistor can be computed as:
The product of V
CE
and I
C
along the characteristic curve must not exceed the
maximum power dissipation of a transistor.
Example: If the maximum power dissipation of a transistor is equal to 56 mWand
the collector emitter voltage is 7 volts, what is the maximum allowed collector-
emitter voltage?
current collector I
ltage emitter vo collector V
tor by transis dissipated being power I V P
C
CE
C CE C
=
=
= =
Common Base Transistor Configuration Limits of Operation
Below is a characteristic curve for the output side of a common base transistor
amplifier wherein the limits of operation of the transistor are indicated.
The transistor can operate inside the area bounded by the dotted lines.
Ic (mA)
V
CB
(volts)
I
CBO
I
E
= 0
I
E
= 4 mA
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Active
region
Cutoff
region
7.5 mA
I
E
= 2 mA
I
E
= 6 mA
I
E
= 8 mA
I
E
= 10 mA
I
E
= 12 mA
I
E
= 14 mA
Saturation
region
Common Base Transistor Configuration Output Characteristic Curve
1
P
C
max =I
C
V
CE
V
CB max
I
C
max
Bipolar Junction Transistor Specifications
The following are the maximum ratings of a Bipolar Junction Transistor. Once a
transistor is operated with one or more of these maximum ratings, a transistor
could be damaged.
Maximum collector-base voltage (V
CBO
) (volts)
Maximum emitter-base voltage (V
EBO
) (volts)
Maximum emitter-collector voltage (V
CEO
) (volts)
Maximum collector current (continuous) (I
Cmax
) (mA)
Maximum power dissipation (P
Cmax
or P
Dmax
) (watts)
Operating and storage junction temperature (
0
C )
Thermal resistance, junction to Case (
0
C / Watt)
Thermal resistance, junction to ambient (
0
C / Watt)
Collector cutoff current (I
CBO
)
DC current gain (h
FE
or |dc) (unitless)
Small signal current gain (hfe or |ac) (unitless)
Collector-emitter saturation voltage (V
CEsat
) (volt)
Base-emitter saturation voltage (V
BEsat
) (volt)
Noise figure (db)
Bipolar Junction Transistor Specifications
Output capacitance (C
obo
) (picofarad)
Input capacitance (Cibo) (picofarad)
Collector-base capacitance (Ccb) (picofarad)
Derating factor ( watt /
0
C) watts by which P
Dmax
must be reduced per
0
C
increase in temperature from a reference temperature.
Type of casing
Bipolar Junction Transistor Testing
Transistors can be checked using a curve tracer, an ohmmeter, and a digital
tester.
A curve tracer could be used to display the characteristic curve of a transistor.
Using an analog American ohmmeter, the following are the normal readings for a
good transistor (For Japanese analog ohmmeter, the readings for the base-collector
and base emitter are reversed because connection of batteries are reversed.):
+
-
+
+
-
-
- +
+
+
-
-
H
H
H
L
L
H
+
-
+
+
-
-
- +
+
+
-
-
H
H
H
L
L
H
N
N
N
P
P
P
L low resistance (typically 10 to 100 ohms)
H very high resistance (typically no deflection in the X 1K range)
+ - positive terminal of ohmmeter
- - negative terminal of ohmmeter
Low resistance results when base-emitter or base-collector junction is forward biased.