Safety of Soy-Based Infant Formulas Containing Isoflavones: The Clinical Evidence1

Russell J. Merritt and Belinda H. Jenks2 Ross Products Division, Abbott Laboratories, Columbus, OH 43215
2

To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail: Belinda.Jenks@abbott.com.

ABSTRACT
Soy protein has been used in infant feeding in the West for nearly 100 y. Soy protein infant formulas have evolved in this interval to become safe and effective alternatives for infants whose nutritional needs are not met with human milk or formulas based on cows milk. Modern soy formulas meet all nutritional requirements and safety standards of the Infant Formula Act of 1980. They are commonly used in infants with immunoglobulin Emediated cows milk allergy (at least 86% effective), lactose intolerance, galactosemia, and as a vegetarian human milk substitute. Largely as a result of research in animal models, concerns have been voiced regarding isoflavones in soy infant formulas in relation to nutritional adequacy, sexual development, neurobehavioral development, immune function, and thyroid disease. We discuss the available clinical evidence regarding each of these issues. Available evidence from adult human and infant populations indicates that dietary isoflavones in soy infant formulas do not adversely affect human growth, development, or reproduction. KEY WORDS: isoflavones phytoestrogens soy-based infant formula soy protein isolate Soy-based infant formulas (SBIFs)3 have a long history of safe use in the United States and around the world. The development of SBIFs grew out of the need for a nonmilk-based formula alternative for infants who had allergy or intolerance to cows milk formulas. The first SBIFs contained soy flour and were introduced almost 100 y ago. Soy protein isolate (SPI), a purified, high-quality, highly digestible soy protein, replaced soy flour almost 45 y ago. SPI is the primary soy protein source in SBIFs worldwide. Recent debate regarding the relevance of certain data generated in animal models or retrospective human observations has led some scientists and lay groups to question the safety and efficacy of SBIF. In this review we present the clinical data relevant to controversial aspects of feeding infants soy-based formulas, including nutritional adequacy, reproductive development, neurobehavioral development, immune function, and thyroid disease. History of SBIF John Ruhrh (1) published the first report of use of a soybean-based formula for infants in 1909. In the 1920s Hill and Stuart (2) recommended soy for infantile eczema, and the first commercial

SBIF was introduced in 1929. Early SBIFs contained soy flour, an ingredient with a lower protein digestibility and reduced total protein content relative to the SPI used in modern SBIFs. Soy flourbased formulas had a number of nonprotein componentssuch as soy carbohydrates, fibers, phytates, and protease inhibitorsthat are largely absent from current SPIs. The limitations of formulas based on soy flour spurred the development of SPI, which replaced soy flour in infant formula during the early 1960s. SPI was developed to have a high protein digestibilitycorrected amino acid score. SPI is at least 90% protein on a dry-weight basis and has a digestibility of 97% or higher and a balanced high concentration of essential amino acids (3). In the 1970s, methionine and other complementary nutrients were added to standard SBIFs. In addition to methionine, modern SBIFs contain added iodine, carnitine, taurine, choline, and inositol. SBIFs meet all American Academy of Pediatrics recommendations (4), Infant Formula Act (1980 and subsequent amendments in 1986) requirements for term infants (5), and the U.S. FDA quality factors of supporting normal growth and having a high protein-efficiency ratio (6). Approximately 36% of infants in the United States, which amounts to 1.4 million infants per year, receive SBIFs at some point in their 1st y of life (A. Nielson, unpublished, 20002002). Indications for the use of SBIF for infants include immunoglobulin Emediated milk allergy; postinfectious diarrhea due to lactose intolerance; galactosemia; use as a vegan human milk substitute; and treatment of common feeding problems such as fussiness, gas, and spit-up. The American Academy of Pediatrics (4) supports the use of SPI-based formulas as safe and effective alternatives to provide appropriate nutrition for normal growth and development in term infants whose nutritional needs are not being met from human milk or formulas based on cows milk. Zeiger et al. (7) in 1999 documented beneficial use of SBIF for infants with immunoglobulin E associated cows milk allergy. This double-blind, placebo-controlled food challenge study of 93 infants found 86% of the cows milkallergic study population to be soy tolerant. The authors indicated that this was probably an underestimate because one of the centers was a tertiary referral center that contributed 12 of the 13 cases of soy-allergic infants. The cows milkallergic infants in this study exhibited growth improvement when placed on SBIF. The researchers did not study cows milkassociated enteropathy because it is well known that dietary proteininduced enteropathy and enterocolitis often have transient soy protein hypersensitivity (4,7,8). Because of the reported high frequency of infants with this syndrome sensitive to both cows milk and soy antigens, SBIFs are not generally indicated in the management enteropathy or enterocolitis induced by cows milk protein (4,9). Some recent policies regarding SBIFs in a number of countries, including the United Kingdom, New Zealand, Republic of Ireland, Australia, Canada, and Switzerland, have challenged the routine use of SBIFs. In 1996, the UK Committee on Toxicity of Chemicals in Foods, Consumer Products and the Environment (10) reviewed phytoestrogens with particular reference to SBIF; it endorsed the advice issued by the UK Department of Health that human milk and cows milk formulas are the preferred sources of nutrition for infants. The committee recommended that women who had been advised by their doctor or other health care professionals to feed SBIF to their infant should continue to do so.

Recent concerns with SBIFs have focused on isoflavones, which are phytochemicals found in soybeans. Concerns about possible risks for humans have been addressed (11). The effect of feeding SBIFs containing naturally occurring isoflavones as the infants sole source of nutrition has been a major focus. Five concerns discussed here include nutritional adequacy, reproductive development, neurobehavioral development, immune development, and thyroid function. Soy foods have a long history of safe usage. In Asian populations, where soy foods are consumed routinely, population exposure to soy isoflavones is greater than in other parts of the world (12). However, Setchell et al. (13) showed that isoflavone exposure in infants, per body weight, is higher than in other age groups and leads to much higher serum isoflavone levels than are seen with soy intake in older individuals. Levels of isoflavones in cord blood, amniotic fluid, human milk, and infants plasma and urine have been measured, providing evidence that isoflavones pass from the mother to the infant and that they are absorbed from infant formula (12,14,15). Setchell et al. (13) reported that the circulating plasma concentration of isoflavones in soy-fed infants were 13,00022,000 times higher than that of biochemically related estradiol in early life. However, no clinical symptoms or growth or development defects related to this biochemical observation have been described. Plasma isoflavones do not appear to indicate estrogen status in these infants (16). From a clinical standpoint, neither pediatricians nor pediatric endocrinologists have reported adverse estrogenic effects on sexual development in occidental infants fed SBIFs. Nutrition adequacy SBIFs are formulated to meet all of the nutrient requirements of the growing term infant. A number of studies have documented normal growth and development in term infants fed SBIFs (4,1720) (Fig. 1). Despite this, the Australian College of Pediatrics has claimed that SBIF is not nutritionally equivalent to milk formula, giving reasons such as lower biological value protein; gut losses of vitamins, minerals, and trace elements; and a need for more energy by infants consuming SBIF (21). Extensive clinical data show otherwise.

View larger version (27K): In this window In a new window FIGURE 1 Comparison of soy formula with human milk/cows milk formula. Reprinted with permission from Lasekan et al. (18). *Exclusively breastfed for a least 2 mo and weaned to cow milkbased formula.

Growth studies conducted by Fomon and Zeigler (17) at the University of Iowa demonstrated that no growth differences occurred in either the first 1 mo or first 4 mo of feeding for male and female infants fed soy compared with cows milk formulas. Energy intakes to achieve this growth were not higher in the soy group. In a 1-y study of infants fed SBIFs compared with infants who were initially fed human milk and then weaned to a standard cows milk formula, there were no differences in the growth pattern between groups (18). A follow-up study of adults who were fed either soy or cows milk formulas for several months as infants at the University of Iowa found no differences in reported adult height or weight in males or females 30 y later (19). Biochemical assessment of protein and iron nutriture demonstrated the adequacy of ironfortified SBIFs (17,18,20,22). Serum albumin and hemoglobin levels were normal in SBIF-fed infants (18). These studies demonstrated that SBIF supports growth and nutritional status as well as cows milk formula. Other studies of infants fed modern SBIF showed that bone mineralization was at least equal to that of infants fed cows milk formula or human milk (2224). SBIFs have been documented to provide good nutrition for the infant even during the most rapid phase of growth. No adverse effects of SPI or soy isoflavones on growth have been observed in infants consuming SBIFs or after consumption of SBIFs. Reproductive development Concerns about the infants exposure to isoflavones and the possible link to altered processes dependent on gonadal steroids have been expressed by some scientists and, more recently, the lay media. These concerns are associated with the hypothesis that phytoestrogens may share some properties with estrogen or selective estrogen receptor modulators (25). Safford et al. (26) in a recent article described the complexity of extrapolating potential adverse effects observed in animal models of isoflavone exposure to human populations. They point out the gaps in our knowledge that limit our ability to learn from the available animal studies. For example, rodent studies investigating in utero exposure to isoflavones need to be interpreted in the light of the relatively lower estradiol levels in pregnant rodents compared with pregnant women. The fetal rat is exposed to picomole levels of estradiol whereas the human fetus is exposed to micromole levels of estradiol (27). Isoflavone exposure may perturb the equilibrium of very low normal background exposure of the more biologically sensitive reproductive organs of rodents. Safford et al. (26) also noted that the animal reproductive effects and human isoflavone exposure levels are not well established. To address this issue, Fielden et al. (28) studied the effect of gestational and lactational exposure to genistein on testicular weight and sperm quality in adult mice at levels comparable with or greater than human exposure. Results showed no significant treatment-related effects on male offspring body weight, anogenital distance, seminal vesicle weight, or testis weight. However, not all studies concur with these findings (29). An animal study raised concerns about the effect of soy isoflavones on female reproductive organs (i.e., uterine cancer). Newbold et al. (30) studied neonatal mice injected with high levels of genistein at 50 mg/kg on days 15 after birth and reported findings of uterine adenocarcinomas at age 18 mo. The authors suggested that genistein is carcinogenic if exposure occurs during critical periods of development. Relevance to

human populations is limited by differences among animal species in isoflavone metabolism, the use of isoflavones at a level many times higher that those absorbed by infants fed SBIFs, and health effects due to genistein as a result of injection cannot be extrapolated to genistein given orally. In contrast, clinical studies showed that infants fed SBIF have normal reproductive development and later health. In an abstract, Businco et al. (31) studied 34 children who had been fed SBIFs who were then evaluated at a median age 29 mo. A detailed physical exam included signs of sexual maturation and bone density, metabolic markers of bone, and one marker of estrogen. The investigators conclusion was that phytoestrogens in SBIFs did not induce hormonal effects. In a study of young adults fed SBIF for several months as infants, Strom et al. (19) found no evidence of hormonal or other adverse effects. Over 811 subjects participated; 248 had received SBIFs and 563 had received milk-based formulas during their first 4 mo. For >30 primary hypotheses, no statistically significant differences were found in general health and development between the two formula groups in either females or males. The variables studied included anthropometrics, indexes of precocity, and many other nonreproductive and reproductive outcomes, including cancer and infertility. Of the endpoints assessed, two showed differences favoring cows milk formulas: duration of monthly menses (8 h shorter) and discomfort with menses (Table 1). However, those with a history of soy feeding did not seek more medical care relative to these differences. The authors stated that although the few marginal positive findings should be studied further, their findings were reassuring about the safety of SBIF. These clinical studies support pediatricians experience that sexual development and maturation are normal in infants fed SBIF (11,20,31). View this table: In this window In a new window TABLE 1Follow-up study findings: soy vs. cow milk formula Neurobehavioral development A recent study by White et al. (3234) in middle-aged Japanese American adults consuming tofu raised a concern regarding a possible soy effect on later cognitive function. Subjects diets in the cohort were assessed between 1965 and 1972 and their cognitive abilities were assessed in 1991 1993 when the subjects were between ages 71 and 93 y. An association between tofu consumption in midlife and reduced cognitive function and structural changes of the brain was reported in these Japanese-American males. However, in a carefully controlled short-term dietary intervention study, File et al. (35) showed that a high-soy diet (100 mg/d of total isoflavones) versus a low-soy diet (0.5 mg/d of total isoflavones) for 10 wk had no adverse effect on attention, memory, cognitive function, or mood in young healthy male and female students. Studies in rodents consuming soy protein diets by Lephart et al. (36) indicated effects of soy isoflavones on aspects of brain structure and function, particularly in adult animals. Two retrospective clinical studies looked at measures of neurobehavioral development in children fed SBIFs and adults fed SBIFs as infants. Malloy and Berendes (37) evaluated 9- and 10-y-old

children who had been fed SBIFs. Half of the children had been fed a chloride-deficient formula that was briefly on the market. Intelligence quotient (IQ) was measured in these children and in a reference group of children fed human milk. Subjects were grouped according to those who had no human milk exposure and were fed SBIF for variable periods of time and those who were fed human milk for at least 60 d before receiving SBIF. Infants were stratified by maternal education because of its known association with child IQ. There were no differences in outcome related to early SBIF vs. human milk feeding, not only for IQ but also for behavioral problems, learning impairment, and emotional problems. These findings indicate that early SBIF feeding did not affect IQ. Limitations of the study were that both groups received SBIF at some point and also that some had received a chloride-deficient formula. Strom et al.s (19) study of adults included data on educational outcome of infants fed SBIF or cows milk formula. The percentage of men or women who achieved some level of college or trade school education, whether fed SBIF or cows milk formula, was not different. Because larger (i.e., more than hundreds of infants) long-term prospective and retrospective neurodevelopmental studies are lacking, studies are currently underway at the U.S. Department of Agriculture Arkansas Childrens Nutrition Center to further evaluate neurobehavioral and reproductive development in infants fed SBIF. The available clinical studies indicate no reason for concern regarding neurodevelopment of infants fed SBIF Immune development In a recent study by Yellayi et al. (38), injections of the isoflavone genistein were associated with reduced immune function in adult mice. The authors suggested that infants fed SBIF and adults consuming soy supplements may develop impaired immune function. The animal model used for this was an ovariectomized adult mouse injected with levels of genistein that were thought to be comparable with those reported in SBIF-fed infants. Criticism of the study included the facts that the experiments were not properly controlled (no untreated mice), the study design did not account for the age-related thymic involution process, and daily injections for 35 d added an uncontrolled stress known to influence immune function (Christopher T. Cordle, personal communication, Ross Products Division, Abbott Laboratories, 2004). The authors compared their results to studies done in Italy in the late 1970s and early 1980s (3941) with small groups of infants fed soy flourbased formulas (not modern SPI-based formulas), which suggested that infants had a poor response to polio vaccine. Modern SBIFs were shown to support immune system development in young, growing infants. Businco et al. (42) demonstrated that SBIFs did not interfere with the normal immune response to oral polio vaccine. Recently, Lasekan et al. (18), Ostrom et al. (43), and Cordle et al. (44) evaluated growth and measured immune function in infants randomly assigned to receive SBIF or SBIF with added nucleotides along with a concurrent human milkfed reference group weaned to a standard cows milk formula. The outcomes of this study included infectious morbidity, antibody responses to recommended infant immunizations, and a comprehensive immune assessment. No differences were found in parental reports of diarrhea (presumably infectious) among the groups. Physician-documented diarrhea was higher in both SBIF groups than in the group fed human milk and weaned to cows milk formula. There were no differences in otitis media (inflammation of the middle ear) or antibiotic use. The differences seen in this

study for diarrhea are typical of those seen in the presence and absence of breast-feeding (45,46). The comprehensive serologic immune assessment showed that antibody levels to common infant immunizations were similar for the feeding groups and were in the normal reference range for both SBIF-fed groups. Values for leukocyte populations for both SBIF-fed groups were also within the reference range. There were almost no differences in values for lymphocyte subtypes evaluated at ages 6, 7, and 12 mo. There were no differences in total T lymphocytes or natural killer cell lymphocytes between the SBIF- and human milkfed infants. Furthermore, no differences were seen in nave helper T cells or memory effector helper T cells between the SBIF- and human milkfed infants. The conclusions from this study were that infants fed SBIF demonstrated immune cell status similar to infants fed human milk and weaned to cows milk and that their responses to immunization were consistent with normal immune system development. Thyroid issues: goiter, hypothyroidism, and thyroiditis Goiter was associated with use of soy flourbased formula in the early to mid-1900s before iodine-fortified SPI-based formulas were available (4749). Infants fed the soy flour formulas had increased gut losses of thyroxine. In vitro data showed an inhibitory effect of the aglycone of soy isoflavones on thyroxine synthesis in the thyroid gland but only in the absence of iodine (50). This effect is also seen with other flavonoids. Interestingly, animals fed a nutritionally complete soy-based diet including iodine have slightly higher thyroxine levels than do animals fed a casein-based diet (51). Current SPI-based infant formulas support normal growth and development. A key characteristic of hypothyroidism is slow growth, which, as reviewed above, is not characteristic of SBIF-fed infants. Infants with congenital hypothyroidism unrelated to SBIF may require additional thyroid hormone supplementation and show slower initial normalization of thyroid stimulating hormone values (5255). This is a diet-drug interaction apparently caused by slight changes in thyroxine bioavailability in the presence of SBIFs, possibly related to increased stool volume. One study claimed an association of soy feeding with thyroiditis (56). This retrospective study involved 59 subjects with thyroiditis. The subjects were compared with a control group that was not matched for age and sex; there were more males in the control group although thyroiditis is primarily a female disease. Although it is well known that soy formula is used for children with allergies, this study did not have a covariate in the analysis for allergy history, a possible marker for immune dysregulation that is a feature of thyroiditis. Notably, only 34% of those with thyroiditis in the study ever received soy formula. No other reports have corroborated this observation. Conclusions SBIF is well recognized as a healthy alternative to human or cows milk. It has a long history of safe use and is a high-quality, plant-based protein alternative for infant formula. Recent in-depth reviews of the safety of dietary isoflavones in soy have found that there is no conclusive evidence from animal or human adult or infant populations that indicates that dietary isoflavones

may adversely affect human health development or reproduction. Comprehensive literature reviews and clinical studies of infants fed SBIFs have resolved questions or raise no clinical concerns with respect to nutritional adequacy, sexual development, neurobehavioral development, immune development, or thyroid disease. SBIFs provide complete nutrition that adequately supports normal infant growth and development. FDA has accepted SBIFs as safe for use as the sole source of nutrition. Although large prospective or retrospective long-term studies involving more than a few hundred infants fed SBIF are lacking, the available evidence indicates that SBIF is safe.

FOOTNOTES
1

Published in a supplement to The Journal of Nutrition. Presented as part of the Fifth International Symposium on the Role of Soy in Preventing and Treating Chronic Disease held in Orlando, FL, September 2124, 2003. This conference was supported by The Solae Company; United Soybean Board; Archer Daniels Midland Company; Cargill Health and Food Technologies; Cargill Soy Protein Solutions; Dr. Chungs Food Co., Ltd.; Illinois Soybean Association/Illinois Soybean Checkoff Board; Indiana Soybean Board; Nichimo International Inc.; Solbar Plant Extracts Ltd.; Soyatech, Inc.; Wyeth Consumer Healthcare; AOCS; DrSoy Nutrition; and Soyfoods Association of North America. Guest editors for this symposium were Mark Messina, John Erdman, and Kenneth D.R. Setchell.
3

Abbreviations used: IQ, intelligence quotient; SBIF, soy-based infant formula; SPI, soy protein isolate.

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43. Ostrom, K. M., Cordle, C. T., Schaller, J. P., Winship, T. R., Thomas, D. J., Jacobs, J. R., Blatter, M. M., Cho, S. & Gooch, W. M., III, et al (2002) Immune status of infants fed soy-based formulas with or without added nucleotides for 1 year: part 1: vaccine responses, and morbidity. J. Pediatr. Gastroenterol. Nutr. 34:137-144.[Medline] 44. Cordle, C. T., Winship, T. R., Schaller, J. P., Thomas, D. J., Buck, R. H., Ostrom, K. M., Jacobs, J. R., Blatter, M. M. & Cho, S., et al (2002) Immune status of infants fed soybased formulas with or without added nucleotides for 1 year: part 2: immune cell populations. J. Pediatr. Gastroenterol. Nutr. 34:145-153.[Medline] 45. Scariati, P. D., Grummer-Strawn, L. M. & Fein, S. B. (1997) A longitudinal analysis of infant morbidity and the extent of breastfeeding in the United States. Pediatrics 99:E5. 46. Kramer, M. S., Guo, T., Platt, R. W., Shapiro, S., Collet, J. P., Chalmers, B., Hodnett, E., Sevkovskaya, Z. & Dzikovich, I., et al (2002) Breastfeeding and infant growth: biology or bias?. Pediatrics 110:343-347.[Abstract/Free Full Text] 47. Shepard, T. H., Pyne, G. E., Kirschvink, J. F. & McLean, M. (1960) Soybean goiter. N. Engl. J. Med. 262:1099-1103. 48. van Wyk, J. J., Arnold, M. B., Wynn, J. & Pepper, F. (1959) The effects of a soybean product on thyroid function in humans. Pediatrics 24:752-760.[Abstract/Free Full Text] 49. Hydovitz, J. D. (1960) Occurrence of goiter in an infant on a soy diet. N Engl. J Med. 262:351-353. 50. Divi, R. L., Chang, H. C. & Doerge, D. R. (1997) Anti-thyroid isoflavones from soybean. Biochem. Pharmacol. 54:1087-1096.[Medline] 51. Forsythe, W. A. (1995) Soy protein, thyroid regulation and cholesterol metabolism. J. Nutr. 125:619S-623S. 52. Conrad, S. C., Chiu, H. T. & Silverman, B. L. (2000) Untoward effects of soy protein in thyroxine-treated congenital hypothyroidism 2000 Abstract SPR. 53. Chorazy, P. A., Himelhoch, S., Hopwood, N. J., Greger, N. G. & Postellon, D. C. (1995) Persistent hypothyroidism in an infant receiving a soy formula: case report and review of the literature. Pediatrics 96:148-150.[Abstract/Free Full Text] 54. Hindmarsh, P. C. (2002) Optimisation of thyroxine dose in congenital hypothyroidism. Arch. Dis. Child 86:73-75.[Free Full Text] 55. Jabbar, M. A., Larrea, J. & Shaw, R. A. (1997) Abnormal thyroid function tests in infants with congenital hypothyroidism: The influence of soy-based formula. J. Am. Coll. Nutr. 16:280-282.[Abstract]

56. Fort, P., Moses, N., Fasano, M., Goldberg, T. & Lifshitz, F. (1990) Breast and soyformula feedings in early infancy and the prevalence of autoimmune thyroid disease in children. J. Am. Coll. Nutr. 9:164-167.[Abstract]

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Objectionable Flavor of Soy Milk Developed during the Soaking of Soybeans and its Control
1. M. MATSUURA, 2. A. OBATA, 3. D. FUKUSHIMA Article first published online: 28 JUN 2008 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2621.1989.tb04662.x Issue

Journal of Food Science

Volume 54, Issue 3, pages 602605, May 1989 MATSUURA, M., OBATA, A. and FUKUSHIMA, D. (1989), Objectionable Flavor of Soy Milk Developed during the Soaking of Soybeans and its Control. Journal of Food Science, 54: 602 605. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2621.1989.tb04662.x Author Information 1. Research & Develooment Division of Kikkoman Corooration, 399 Noda, Noda City, Chiba Pref. 278, Japan

Publication History 1. Issue published online: 28 JUN 2008 2. Article first published online: 28 JUN 2008 3. Ms received 9/7/88: accepted 10/18/88.
10.1111/(ISSN)17

ABSTRACT
Daidzein and genistein, which are responsible for the objectionable flavor of soy milk, increased during the soaking of soybeans, the first step of soy milk manufacturing. The maximum production of these isoflavone compounds occurred at 50C and at pH 6.0 depending upon the temperature and pH of the soaking water. The production of these substances was strongly inhibited by glucono--lactone which was a competitive inhibitor of -glucosidascs. It would appear, therefore, that -glucosidases were responsible for the production of daidzein and genistein during soaking.

REMOVAL OF OLIGOSACCHARIDES FROM SOY MILK BY AN ENZYME FROM ASPERGILLUS SAITOI

1. H. SUGIMOTO, 2. J. P. VAN BUREN Article first published online: 25 AUG 2006 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2621.1970.tb04836.x Issue

Journal of Food Science

Volume 35, Issue 5, pages 655660, September 1970 SUGIMOTO, H. and BUREN, J. P. V. (1970), REMOVAL OF OLIGOSACCHARIDES FROM SOY MILK BY AN ENZYME FROM ASPERGILLUS SAITOI. Journal of Food Science, 35: 655660. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2621.1970.tb04836.x Author Information 1. New York State Agricultural Experiment Station, Cornell University, Geneva, New York 14456 Publication History 1. Issue published online: 25 AUG 2006 2. Article first published online: 25 AUG 2006 3. Ms. received 2/2/70: revised 4/15/70; accepted 4/18/70.

SUMMARY
As part of a program to reduce the flatulence-inducing tendency of soy milk, a method for the enzymatic removal of galacto-oligosaccharides by means of an enzyme preparation from Aspergillus saitoi was investigated. It was found that a partially purified preparation possessing both -galactosidase and invertase, yet free from protease, could be obtained easily from a commercial A. saitoi acid-protease product by means of a simple molecular sieving procedure. The -galactosidase exhibited its optimum pH between 5.0 and 5.5, and seemed to be stable between pH 4.0 and 8.0. The optimum temperature was found at about 55C; however, the enzyme itself was inactivated by maintaining it at 70C for 30 min. These properties appeared suitable for the enzymatic treatment of soy milk. p-Chloromercuribenzoate, Nbromosuccinimide, HgCl2, AgNO3 or CuCl2 showed strong inhibitory effects on the enzyme. The presence of 1 x 10-2M galactose caused only slight inhibition. Km value of the enzyme with melibiose as a substrate was found to be 3.11 x 10-3M and the molecular weight of the enzyme estimated to be about 290,000 on the basis of a gel filtration technique. Investigations by means of thin-layer chromatography indicated that the addition of small amounts of this enzyme preparation to soy milk resulted in complete hydrolysis of galacto-oligosaccharides. The practicability of the present method was also discussed from an economic viewpoint.

Effect of Soybean Varieties and Growing Locations on the Physical and Chemical Properties of Soymilk and Tofu
1. S. Min, 2. Y. Yu, 3. S. St. Martin

Article first published online: 31 MAY 2006 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2621.2005.tb09026.x Issue

Journal of Food Science

Volume 70, Issue 1, pages C8C21, January 2005 Additional Information(Show All) How to CiteAuthor InformationPublication History How to Cite Min, S., Yu, Y. and Martin, S. S. (2005), Effect of Soybean Varieties and Growing Locations on the Physical and Chemical Properties of Soymilk and Tofu. Journal of Food Science, 70: C8 C21. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2621.2005.tb09026.x Author Information 1. Authors Min and Yu are with Dept. of Food Science and Technology and author St. Martin is with Dept. of Horticulture and Crop Science, The Ohio State Univ., Columbus, OH 43210. Direct inquiries to author Min (E-mail: min.2@osu.edu). Publication History 1. Issue published online: 31 MAY 2006 2. Article first published online: 31 MAY 2006 3. MS 20040349 Submitted 5/27/04, Revised 7/7/04, Accepted 8/10/04.

soybean; soymilk; tofu

ABSTRACT: Soybean varieties and growing location greatly affected the protein content and color of soymilk and the protein content and yield of tofu (P < 0.05). Protein content of soybeans

was the most important affecting factor for the qualities of soymilk and tofu. There were significant correlations between the protein contents of soybeans and soymilks (P < 0.05). There were also significant correlation between the soybean protein and the total solid content of soymilk (P < 0.05). Tofu moisture content had significant effect on the hardness and yield of tofu (P < 0.05). The correlation between soybean protein and tofu yield was significant at P < 0.05. The protein content and yield of tofu can be predicted by analyzing soybean protein.

Effects of Calcium Chloride and Sodium Hexametaphosphate on Certain Chemical and Physical Properties of Soymilk
1. P. Pathomrungsiyounggul, 2. A.S. Grandison, 3. M.J. Lewis Article first published online: 10 OCT 2007 DOI: 10.1111/j.1750-3841.2007.00504.x Issue

Journal of Food Science

Volume 72, Issue 8, pages E428E434, October 2007 Additional Information(Show All) How to CiteAuthor InformationPublication History How to Cite Pathomrungsiyounggul, P., Grandison, A. and Lewis, M. (2007), Effects of Calcium Chloride and Sodium Hexametaphosphate on Certain Chemical and Physical Properties of Soymilk. Journal of Food Science, 72: E428E434. doi: 10.1111/j.1750-3841.2007.00504.x

Author Information 1. Authors are with Dept. of Food Biosciences, The Univ. of Reading, Whiteknights, PO Box 226, Reading, RG6 6AP, U.K. Direct inquiries to author Lewis (E-mail: m.j.lewis@reading.ac.uk). Publication History 1. Issue published online: 10 OCT 2007 2. Article first published online: 10 OCT 2007 3. MS 20070185 Submitted 3/12/2007, Accepted 7/7/2007

Keywords:

calcium; chemical properties; physical properties; sodium hexametaphosphate; soymilk

ABSTRACT: Soymilks with sodium hexametaphosphate (SHMP) (0% to 1.2%) and calcium chloride (12.50, 18.75, and 25.00 mM Ca) were analyzed for total Ca, Ca ion concentration, pH, kinematic viscosity, particle diameter, and sediment after pasteurization. Higher added Ca led to significant (P 0.05) increases in Ca ion concentration and significant (P 0.05) decreases in pH. At certain levels of SHMP, higher concentrations of added Ca significantly increased (P 0.05) kinematic viscosity, particle diameter, and sediment. Increasing SHMP concentration reduced Ca ion concentration, particle diameter, and dry sediment content, but reduced kinematic viscosity of samples (P 0.05). Adding SHMP up to 0.7% influenced pH of soymilk in different ways, depending on the level of Ca addition. When the pH of Ca-fortified soymilk was adjusted to a higher level, ionic Ca decreased as pH increased. There was a negative linear relationship between the logarithm of ionic Ca concentration and the adjusted pH of the soymilk. Ionic Ca appeared to be a good indicator of thermally induced sediment formation, with little sediment being produced if ionic Ca was maintained below 0.4 mM.

Effects of Riboflavin Photosensitized Oxidation on the Volatile Compounds of Soymilk

1. R. Huang, 2. E. Choe, 3. D.B. Min Article first published online: 31 MAY 2006

DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2621.2004.tb09925.x Issue

Journal of Food Science

Volume 69, Issue 9, pages C733C738, December 2004 Additional Information How to Cite Huang, R., Choe, E. and Min, D. (2004), Effects of Riboflavin Photosensitized Oxidation on the Volatile Compounds of Soymilk. Journal of Food Science, 69: C733C738. doi: 10.1111/j.13652621.2004.tb09925.x Author Information 1. Authors are with Dept. of Food Science and Technology, The Ohio State Univ., 2015 Fyffe Road, Columbus, OH43210. Direct inquiries to author Min (E-mail: min.2@osu.edu). Publication History 1. Issue published online: 31 MAY 2006 2. Article first published online: 31 MAY 2006 3. MS 20040468 Submitted 7/9/04, Revised 8/9/04, Accepted 8/13/04.

Keywords:

soymilk; singlet oxygen oxidation; riboflavin; volatile compounds; quenching

ABSTRACT: Soymilks with or without added riboflavin in serum bottles were stored under light or in dark at 20 C. The headspace oxygen and volatile compounds were determined by gas

chromatography. Riboflavin had significant effects on the headspace oxygen depletion and volatile compounds formation in soymilk under light (P < 0.05). Riboflavin did not have significant effects on the formation of volatile compounds and the depletion of headspace oxygen in dark (P > 0.05). The volatile compounds increased under light, but not in dark as the added riboflavin increased. Storage temperature at 4 C or 20 C did not have significant difference in the effect of riboflavin on the headspace oxygen depletion in soymilk under light. Hexanal, an important beany flavor compound, was identified as the major volatile compound in the riboflavin photosensitized soymilk. Singlet oxygen oxidation was involved in the formation of volatile compounds in soymilk under light. Hexanal could be formed by singlet oxygen oxidation. Ascorbic acid, a quencher for singlet oxygen and the excited triplet sensitizer, significantly inhibited the formation of hexanal and total volatiles in soymilk under light.

Culture-Specific Variation in the Flavor Profile of Soymilks

1. R.S.J. Keast, 2. J.J. Lau Article first published online: 10 OCT 2006 DOI: 10.1111/j.1750-3841.2006.00146.x Issue

Journal of Food Science

Volume 71, Issue 8, pages S567S572, October 2006 Additional Information(Show All) How to CiteAuthor InformationPublication History How to Cite Keast, R. and Lau, J. (2006), Culture-Specific Variation in the Flavor Profile of Soymilks. Journal of Food Science, 71: S567S572. doi: 10.1111/j.1750-3841.2006.00146.x

Author Information 1. Author Keast is with School of Exercise and Nutrition Sciences, Deakin Univ., Victoria, Melbourne, Australia. Author Lau is with Sensory Science Dept. Givaudan, Singapore Pte Ltd., Singapore. Direct inquiries to author Keast (E-mail: russell.keast@deakin.edu.au). Publication History 1. Issue published online: 10 OCT 2006 2. Article first published online: 10 OCT 2006 3. MS 20060267 Submitted 5/10/2006, Accepted 8/3/2006

Keywords:

cultural differences; descriptive analysis; flavor preference; sensory evaluation; soymilk

ABSTRACT: A modified quantitative descriptive analysis (QDA) method was used to determine sensory profiles of 8 soymilk products: 3 manufactured in Australia, 3 manufactured in Singapore, 1 manufactured in Malaysia, and 1 manufactured in Hong Kong. A panel (n= 7) was selected, trained in descriptive profiling of soymilk, and developed a soymilk language that was used to evaluate the flavor attributes of the soymilk products. A repeated-measure ANOVA showed highly reproducible panel performance, and significant differences in soymilk attributes among all soymilks. A principal component analysis (PCA) revealed 2 main groupings among the soymilks that corresponded to cultural origin: Australia and Asia (Singapore and Hong Kong/Malaysia). Products from Australia were significantly stronger in milky, astringent, salty notes and pale in color, while products from Asia were significantly stronger in beany, cooked beans, sweet, and pandan notes (P < 0.05). In addition, the Asian soymilks could be separated into 2 subgroups, with Singaporean soymilks having deeper color, greater viscosity, and less green flavor than Hong Kong/Malaysia soymilks. Australian produced soymilk is bovine-milklike compared with Asian soymilk, presumably due to bovine milk being the primary source of milk in Australia. We conclude that culture-specific flavor preferences are a determining factor in flavor profiles of soymilks from geographically distinct regions.

EFFECT OF SODIUM ALKALIS AND SALTS ON pH AND FLAVOR OF SOYMILK

1. MALCOLM C. BOURNE

Article first published online: 25 AUG 2006 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2621.1976.tb01101.x Issue

Journal of Food Science

Volume 41, Issue 1, pages 6265, January 1976 Additional Information(Show All) How to CiteAuthor InformationPublication History How to Cite BOURNE, M. C. (1976), EFFECT OF SODIUM ALKALIS AND SALTS ON pH AND FLAVOR OF SOYMILK. Journal of Food Science, 41: 6265. doi: 10.1111/j.13652621.1976.tb01101.x Author Information 1. New York State Agricultural Experiment Station, Cornell University, Geneva, NY 74456 and ELIAS E. ESClJETA and JULIAN EANZON Dept. of Food Science & Technology, University of the Philippines, College, Laguna, Philippines Publication History 1. Issue published online: 25 AUG 2006 2. Article first published online: 25 AUG 2006 3. MS received 6/11/75: revised 8/7/75: accepted 8/11/75.

ABSTRACT
Sodium hydroxide, sodium carbonate and sodium bicarbonate were added to soymilk made by the boiling-water grind process. NaOH caused a rapid increase in pH; Na2CO3 a moderate increase and NaHCO3 a slight increase in pH. After sterilization in bottles the pH of the soymilks

containing alkali decreased, with the decrease least with the NaHCO3 treatment and greatest with the NaOH treatment. The pH of the untreated soymilk did not change during sterilization. An experienced taste panel showed greater acceptability for soymilk adjusted to pH 7.0-7.5 with NaOH but noted a soapy flavor and gave lower scores for milks with pH greater than 7.5. Soymilks adjusted to pH 7.0-7.5 with Na2,CO3 or NaHCO3 were disliked by the panel. We theorized that the improved acceptability with NaOH could be due to the increase in sodium ion concentration rather than the change in pH. Soymilks prepared with Na2CO3, NaHCO3, NaNO3, Na2SO4, Na acetate and Na citrate additions at the same levels as that amount of NaOH required to raise the pH to 7.2 were given approximately the same scores by the panel as the NaOHtreated sample even when the pH was not in the range of 7.0-7.5. This evidence supports the theory that the sodium ion concentration is the effective mechanism in improving the flavor of soymilk rather than the change in pH.

Sensory Descriptive Analysis of Soymilk

1. A.V. Torres-Penaranda, 2. C.A. Reitmeier Article first published online: 20 JUL 2006 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2621.2001.tb11345.x Issue

Journal of Food Science

Volume 66, Issue 2, pages 352356, March 2001 Additional Information(Show All) How to CiteAuthor InformationPublication History How to Cite Torres-Penaranda, A. and Reitmeier, C. (2001), Sensory Descriptive Analysis of Soymilk. Journal of Food Science, 66: 352356. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2621.2001.tb11345.x

Author Information 1. Authors are with the Dept. of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Iowa State Univ., Ames, IA 50011. Direct correspondence to Dr. Cheryll Reitmeier (Email: creitmei@iastate.edu). Publication History 1. Issue published online: 20 JUL 2006 2. Article first published online: 20 JUL 2006 3. Ms. 20000222

Keywords:

soymilk; flavor; descriptive analysis; lipoxygenase; storage

ABSTRACT: A descriptive analysis panel developed terms to describe aroma and flavor of soymilk. Panelists evaluated a commercial soymilk and soymilks processed with beans from the normal or lipoxygenase-free lines. Descriptors used to describe beaniness were raw as hexanal for flavor or aroma, grassy flavor, and sweet as green floral flavor. High correlations were found among these attributes. Judges were consistent in the use of terminology. Beaniness for the normal soymilk was described by the terms raw aroma as in hexanal and raw flavor as in hexanal, while beaniness for soymilk from the lipoxygenase-free line was described by the terms sweet as green floral and grassy flavors.