3de Bach NW

Samenvatting p. 1/18

Zeevaartkunde

Great circle sailing

Definition
Great circle is circle on surface of Earth, plane passes through Earths centre Shortest distance between any 2 points on surface of Earth Adjust ships course continuously to sail great circle track Curve on Mercator Charts Dividing into smaller segments to change courses less often Potential problem: closer to poles

Distance
Conform zenithal distance formulae in astronavigation Cos Mo = sin la * sin lb + cos la * cos lb * cos g Mo expressed in degrees & minutes => converted to minutes Gain of distance: M = Mo M

Course at start and end of voyage

Neper

o o Tg (A + B) / 2 = (cos (NB NA) / 2) / (cos (NB + NA) / 2 ) * cotg N/2 o Tg (A B) / 2 = (sin (NB NA) / 2) / (sin (NB + NA) / 2 ) * cotg N/2 o Tg (A + B) / 2 = cos l/2 * cosec lm * cotg g/2 o Tg (A B) / 2 = sin l/2 * sec lm * cotg g/2 o A & B obtained by adding & subtracting the results => lead to courses Calculation possible using ABC-tables

3de Bach NW

Samenvatting p. 2/18

Zeevaartkunde

Vertex and equatorial intersections

Vertex is highest latitude of great circle defined by 2 positions Great circle has two vertex with same latitude but different sing & symmetrical Equatorial intersections are points where great circle intersects the equator Latitude 0 & symmetrical Difference in longitude between vertex & equatorial intersection is 90 At vertex course is 90 / 270 => use rectangular spherical triangle Cos lv = sin A * cos la Cos lv = sin B * cos lb Cos gav = cotg ( 90 - colv ) * cotg cola = cotg lv * tg la Cos Moav = sin la * cosec lv Cos Mobv = sin lb * cosec lv Moav + Mobv = Mo Course in equatorial intersection = latitude of vertex

Waypoints
Chosen by following means o Same latitude interval o Same longitude interval o Same distance interval o Same course interval Most common = same latitude interval Start calculations from vertex => simplified rectangular spherical triangles Determine latitude, longitude & distances => each time new triangle Waypoints on other side of vertex = symmetrical What to calculate o Latitude waypoint o Distance waypoint to vertex o Course at each waypoint Tg lwp = cos g * tg lv Cos Mowpv = sin lwp * cosec lv Sin Awp = cos lv * sec lwp

3de Bach NW

Samenvatting p. 3/18

Zeevaartkunde

Composite sail
Placing two vertexes on limiting latitude => 2 great circle paths Three sections Limiting latitude chosen taking into account o Latitude original great circle vertex o Weather conditions in higher latitudes o Obstacles such as land masses Total distance less than rhumbline, more than great circle Great circle path: formulae see above Rhumbline distance: M = e = g * cos lmax

Traverse distance to an obstacle

Calculate orthodromic start course of original track Calculate orthodromic course of track from departure to obstacle Make difference between both angles Calculate distance from departure to obstacle Determine traverse distance Calculate distance from departure to position of traverse distance (cosinus formulae)

Errors and accuracy in astronavigation

Introduction
Error is difference between specific value & correct or standard value Mistake is blunder as incorrect reading, taking wrong value Mistakes & errors combined => incorrect LOPs => incorrect fix Current mistakes o Incorrect reading of instrument o Incorrect reading of time o Plotting of reciprocal bearing o Incorrect reading of pre-computed tables and almanac o Incorrect input in computer programs o Incorrect computing Current errors o Altitude errors o Time error o Ambiguity Difference between systematic & random error o Systematic error more or less eliminated by careful calibration o Random error is unpredictable in sign or magnitude, not rectifiable

3de Bach NW

Samenvatting p. 4/18

Zeevaartkunde

Altitude error
Observed altitudes always contain random errors Standard deviation approximately 1 under fair working conditions Lines of position better considered as bands of position Counter measures o Azimuth roughly symmetrically distributed o Optimum range of altitude between 20 & 70

Time error
Direct effect because inaccurate GHA & obtained Direct impact on obtained longitude

Course and distance error

Related to drift due to current & wind Subdivided in 2 parts o Transfer as per Rv & not course made good o Distance or drift speed Combined effect => large errors Counter measures o Never rely on 2 observations only o Take additional observations with opposite bearing

Ambiguity
Poor geometry => decrease accuracy / result in entirely wrong fix

Reduced methods in astronavigation

HO 249
3 volumes o Volume 1: selected stars o Volume 2: all celestial bodies, latitude 00 - 40 o Volume 3: all celestial bodies, latitude 40 - 89 Edited for air navigation but can be used for marine navigation Special edition for marine navigation (HO 299) 6 volumes without one for selected stars

3de Bach NW Principle of tables

Samenvatting p. 5/18

Zeevaartkunde

Enter with LHA, declination & latitude in full degrees Insert LOP o Plot assumed latitude & longitude o Set out azimuth & intercept from this position

Volume 1 Contains selected stars Use o Convert hi to hv o Find GHA o Convert GHA to LHA in whole degrees o On page assumed latitude => read hc & Zn in accordance with LHA o hv hc = intercept o Follow procedure each observation o Plot LOPs => fix o Adjust fix for precession & nutation

Volume 2 and 3 Used unlimited in time Pre-computed tables divided into declination & latitude same name & declination & latitude contrary name Stars with declination higher than 29 can not be used Enter assumed latitude whole degrees & LHA celestial body whole degrees & declination whole degrees => hc hc corrected for minutes of declination => Correction to Tabulated Altitude for Minutes of Declination Azimuth obtained by instruction on top & bottom of table Plotting LOPs identical to Volume 1 No correction necessary for precession & nutation

Sight reduction table Nautical Almanac Reduced method to obtain intercept & bearing Full text in Nautical Almanac

3de Bach NW

Samenvatting p. 6/18

Zeevaartkunde

Identification of an unknown celestial body

Star charts
Grid of declination & right ascension Find LHA of moment of observation Introduce position as zenith on chart o Latitude on declination scale o Longitude with LHA on right ascension scale Bearing to each star obtained by angle between direction from zenith to star & meridian Altitude (by divider) o Read declination of star on star chart o Mean latitude between your latitude & declination of star o Distance between zenith & star o To Scale of altitude One end on mid latitude scale at spot corresponding with calculated mid latitude Other end in horizontal plane Follow curve till altitude scale & read altitude

Star finder
Portrays altitude & azimuth of 57 numbered stars Additional celestial bodies may be plotted Provides best way to identify isolated stars & planets in view Predicts locations of bodies not yet in view Helps navigator to predict & plan best star-planet-moon combination Unit consists of o Dual star base o Nine altitude azimuth templates o Meridian angle diagram o Instruction sheet Basic template indicates celestial equator (N / S same as latitude)

Plotting other celestial bodies on the basic template Plot planets for certain moment of day Need RA & RA = 360 - SHA planet Other template same name as latitude on basic template Red arrow point to RA => introduce planet as per declination

3de Bach NW

Samenvatting p. 7/18

Zeevaartkunde

Determination of altitude and bearing Calculate LHA Blue coloured template most approximate latitude to your latitude & place on basic template Blue arrow in line with LHA on border => all stars & planets within blue grid visible, others invisible

HO 249
Volume 1 identify selected stars for certain moment at certain latitude Calculate LHA On page corresponding to latitude of observer, insert LHA => height Hc & bearing

By calculation
Observation => altitude & bearing Calculate & SHA Formulae see previous year

Navigation duties
Coastal voyages
Start leaving berth till moment vessel reaches area of open waters Subdivided o Berthing / unberthing Regular watch system stops Special duties Assistance during manoeuvring Deck duties to moor & unmoor Preparing bridge to make fully operational / stop navigational aids Starting ISPS implementation / completion Documentary evidence Communication End / start voyage => logbook finished with engines / standby Starts when vessel fit for sailing, ands when manoeuvring capacity unavailable Stress factor rises Attentiveness at highest level Most cases pilot assistance

3de Bach NW

Samenvatting p. 8/18

Zeevaartkunde

o Calling / leaving port Extra tasks Preparing hatches & loading / discharging gear Clearing / securing anchors, deck gear, hatches Preparing / storing pilot ladder Make vessel ready for tug assistance Preparing gangway for launching Preparing vessel for ISPS Preparing vessel for berthing / unberthing VTS, port control & pilot station communication Readiness of internal communication Briefing of crew Anti-pollution arrangements Start / end sea voyage Wheelman / look-out Attentiveness focussed on many tasks Delegation / supervision necessary Clear briefings!! Navigational duties Fixes at small intervals Use all navaids & proper interpretation Use of communication Appropriate cooperation with pilot Observing meteorological conditions & anticipate accordingly Hand steering by wheelman where appropriate o Restricted area Non-navigational zones, traffic separation lines, traffic by other vessels, ice Fixes at regular intervals with all means

High sea voyages

Vessel at sea speed Fixes only by GPS, LORAN-C & astronavigation Water depth doesnt limit manoeuvrability Endangers attentiveness of OOW

3de Bach NW

Samenvatting p. 9/18

Zeevaartkunde

Watchkeeping
Introduction
More & more stringent rules Mandatory passage planning New factor: over-confidence in automation Introduction procedures & checklists => avoid mistakes & raise level of attentiveness See Bridge Procedures Guide See Mariners Handbook Chapter 8 See Annual Summary of Admiralty Notices to Mariners Human factor remains pre-dominant (casestudy p. 74 77) Gains in safety & pollution prevention = substantial due to changing ships More than 80% shipping casualties result of human error Other factors: automation, operating ships is skilled job Important steps: ISM code + revision STCW Human factor o Unmanned / badly manned ship is sub-standard o Ship with serious manning deficiencies = unseaworthy o Manning is increasingly factor in regulation of shipping o Manning & management have clear significance in assessing ships overall quality Main causes & main types major P&I claims o Fatigue o Morale o Motivation o Loyalty o Training o Standards of certification o Experience o Conditions of service o Environment o Language o Management policies

3de Bach NW Causes of investigation o Collisions

Samenvatting p. 10/18

Zeevaartkunde

Conclusion Human error: 90% Under way: 82% Between 0300 & 0700: 1/3 o Run aground Main origin General over-confidence Neglect of use of echo sounder Errors in position fixing Approaching rather than leaving a port One man bridge in general Poor planning Short sea-trades Little evidence of work patterns of watch systems Poor visibility NOT significant Conclusion Poor organisation Poor communication Over-confidence Important elements o Awareness o Watchkeeping o Fatigue element (casestudy see p. 83 87) Watchkeeping duties subdivided into o Watchkeeping at sea o Watchkeeping at anchor o Watchkeeping in port Basic principles good watchkeeping o Theoretical knowledge o Experience o Communication o Use of standard procedures o Knowledge & understanding of limits & errors in automation

3de Bach NW

Samenvatting p. 11/18

Zeevaartkunde

SOP = standard operating procedure o Why? Same working pattern for all Psychological effect in emergencies & distress o What? Routine items Deviation patterns Emergency Operations Safety ISPS Marine environment Management o How?

Steps to create a SOP o SOP necessary? o Note key points o Make flowchart o Identify critical steps o Make logogram o Write procedure in simple words o Control procedure in try-out at small scale o Modify where necessary o Implement SOP on large scale o Introduce corrective actions o Keep in mind Not too much information (clear & simple) Not assume but rely on reality Complete & executable

3de Bach NW

Samenvatting p. 12/18

Zeevaartkunde

Watchkeeping at sea
Watch arrangements Composition of watch at all times adequate & appropriate to prevailing circumstances & conditions & take into account need for maintaining proper lookout Following factors taken into account o No time bridge unattended o Weather condition, visibility & whether daylight / darkness o Proximity navigational hazards o Use & operational condition of navigational aids o Whether ship fitted with automatic steering gear o Unusual demands may arise as result of special operational circumstances

Navigation Intended voyage planned in advance, any course laid down => checked before voyage commences During watch: course steered, position & speed checked at sufficiently frequent intervals Officer of watch full knowledge of location & operation all safety & navigational equipment Not assigned or undertake any duties which would interfere with safe navigation of ship

Navigational duties & responsibilities Officer of the watch o Keep watch on the bridge which he shall not leave until properly relieved o Continue to be responsible for safe navigation, despite presence of master, until master informs specifically that he has responsibility o Notify master when in any doubt o Not hand over watch to relieving officer if he has reason to believe latter obviously not capable of carrying out duties effectively + notify master Taking over watch, relieving officer satisfy himself ships estimated / true position & confirm intended track, course & speed & note any dangers to be expected Proper record kept of movements & activities during watch relating to navigation of ship

3de Bach NW Lookout

Samenvatting p. 13/18

Zeevaartkunde

Purpose o Appraising situation & risk of collision o Stranding o Other dangers to navigation o Detection ships / aircraft in distress, shipwrecked people, wrecks & debris Following observed o Able to give full attention to keeping proper look out, no other duties undertaken or assigned o Duties of look out & helmsman separate except on small ships where unobstructed all-round view provided at steering position o Officer of watch may be sole look-out in daylight provided that Situation carefully assessed Full account taken of all relevant factors State of weather Visibility Traffic density Proximity of danger Assistance immediately available

Navigational equipment Most effectively use of all navigational equipment Using radar, necessity to comply with provisions on use of radar Not hesitate to use helm, engines & sound signalling apparatus

Taking over the navigational watch Relieving officer of watch ensure that members of watch fully capable of performing their duties (night vision) Relieving officer not take over watch until vision fully adjusted & personally satisfied regarding o Standing orders & other special instructions o Position, course, speed & draught of ship o Prevailing & predicted tides, currents, weather, visibility & effect of factors upon course & speed o Navigational situation, including Operational condition all navigational & safety equipment Errors of gyro & magnetic compasses Presence & movement of ships in sight or known to be in vicinity Conditions & hazards likely to be encountered Possible effects of heel, trim, water density & squat At time officer of watch is to be relieved, manoeuvre or other action taking place, relief of officer deferred until action completed

3de Bach NW

Samenvatting p. 14/18

Zeevaartkunde

Periodic checks of navigational equipment Operational tests carried out as frequently as practicable & as circumstances permit Regular checks o Helmsman / automatic pilot steering correct course o Standard compass error determined once a watch & after major alteration of course; standard & gyrocompasses frequently compared & repeaters synchronized o Automatic pilot tested manually once a watch o Navigation & signal lights functioning properly

Automatic pilot Necessity to comply with requirements of Steering Appliances and Equipment Regulations Station helmsman & put to manual steering in good time to deal with potentially hazardous situation in safe manner Change-over from automatic to manual steering & vice-versa made by or under supervision of responsible officer

Electronic navigational aids Officer of watch thoroughly familiar with use of electronic navigational aids including capabilities & limitations Echo sounder valuable navigational aid & used whenever appropriate

RADAR Use radar when appropriate & whenever restricted visibility encountered / expected & in congested waters Appropriate scale, observe carefully & plot effectively Range scales changed & sufficiently frequent intervals => echoes detected early Small / poor echoes may escape detection Plotting / systematic analysis commenced early Clear weather, whenever possible => radar practice

Navigation in coastal waters Largest scale chart on board suitable for area & corrected used, fixed at frequent intervals, by more than one method Positively identify all navigation marks

Clear water Frequent & accurate compass bearings of approaching ships (early detection of risk of collision) Early & positive action regarding compliance applicable regulations for preventing collisions at sea

3de Bach NW Restricted visibility

Samenvatting p. 15/18

Zeevaartkunde

Comply relevant rules for regulations for preventing collisions at sea o Sounding fog signals o Proceeding at safe speed o Engines ready for immediate manoeuvres In addition o Inform master o Post proper look-out & helmsman, in congested waters => hand steering o Exhibit navigational lights o Operate & use radar Know handling characteristics & stopping distance

Calling the master Restricted visibility encountered / expected Traffic conditions or movements of other ships causing concern Difficulty experienced in maintaining course Failure to sight land, navigation mark / obtain soundings by expected time Unexpectedly land / navigation mark sighted / change in soundings occur Breakdown of engines, steering gear & any essential equipment Heavy weather if in doubt about possibility of weather damage Ship meets any hazard to navigation Any other emergency / doubtful situation Not hesitate to take immediate action where circumstances require

Navigation with pilot embarked Any doubt to pilots actions => seek clarification Doubt still exists => notify master & take action necessary before master arrives

Watchkeeping personnel Appropriate instructions & information to ensure keeping of safe watch

One man bridge operated ships Bridge configuration, arrangements of consoles, equipment location enable officer to perform navigational duties & other functions as well as maintain proper lookout from convenient position on bridge, referred to as workstation Efficient operation by one person under normal operating conditions, all relevant instrumentation & controls easily visible, audible & accessible Field of vision to enable observation all objects which may affect safe conning of ship, vision in accordance with guidelines on navigation bridge visibility, other functions, other workstations may be arranged Enable ship to be navigated & manoeuvred safely by two navigators in cooperation External sound signals from ships & fog signals audible on open deck, also be audible inside wheelhouse

3de Bach NW

Samenvatting p. 16/18

Zeevaartkunde

Bridge safety system Vigilance system provided to indicate that alert officer of watch present on bridge System used for verification of officer of watchs alertness, not cause interference with performance of bridge functions System so designed & arranged could not be operated in unauthorized manner

Watchkeeping at anchor
If master considers necessary => continuous navigational watch maintained at anchor o Determine & plot ships position on appropriate chart as soon as practicable, check at sufficiently frequent intervals whether ship remaining securely anchored by taking bearings o Efficient lookout maintained o Inspection rounds made periodically o Observe meteorological & tidal conditions & state of sea o Notify master & undertake necessary measures if anchor drags o State of readiness of main engines & other machinery in accordance with masters instruction o Visibility deteriorates => notify master & comply with COLREG o Appropriate lights, shapes & sound signals o Protect environment from pollution

Watchkeeping in port
Introduction Applies to ship safely moored under normal circumstances in port Following principles & operational guidance taken into account by masters & watchkeeping officers

Watch arrangements Arrangements should o Ensure safety of life, ship, cargo & port o Observe international, national & local rules o Maintain order & normal routine of ship o Act corresponding to ISPS code Master decide composition & duration of watch depending on conditions of mooring, type of ship & character of duties Qualified deck officer in charge of watch, except ships under 500 gross tons not carrying dangerous cargo Necessary equipment arranged to provide efficient watchkeeping

3de Bach NW Taking over the watch

Samenvatting p. 17/18

Zeevaartkunde

Not hand over watch to relieving officer if he has reason to believe latter obviously not capable of carrying out duties effectively + notify master Relieving officer informed of following o Depth of water at berth, ships draught, level & time of high & low waters, fastening of moorings, arrangement of anchors, slip of chain & other features of mooring, state of main engines & availability for emergency use o All work to be performed on board; nature, amount & disposition of cargo loaded / remaining / any residue on board after unloading o Level of water in bilges & ballast tanks o Signals or lights being exhibited o Number of crew members required to be on board & presence of any other persons on board o State of fire-fighting appliances o Any special port regulations o Masters standing & special orders o Lines of communication available between ship & dock staff / port authorities in event of emergency arising / assistance being required o Other circumstances of importance Relieving officer satisfy himself that o Fastening of moorings / anchor chain adequate o Appropriate signals / lights properly hoisted & exhibited o Safety measures & fire protection regulations maintained o Aware of nature of any hazardous / dangerous cargo being loaded / discharged & appropriate action in event of spillage / fire o No external conditions or circumstances imperil ship & own ship doesnt imperil others Moment of handing over watch, important operation performed, concluded by officer being relieved except ordered otherwise by master

3de Bach NW Keeping a watch

Samenvatting p. 18/18

Zeevaartkunde

Make rounds to inspect ship at appropriate intervals Pay particular attention to o Condition & fastening of gangway, anchor chain / moorings, especially at turn of tide or in berths with large rise & fall & take measures to ensure they are in normal working condition o Draught, under keel clearance, state of ship to avoid dangerous listing or trim during cargo handling or ballasting o State of weather & sea o Observance of all regulations concerning safety precautions & fire protection o Water level in bilges & tanks o All persons on board & their location, especially those in remote / enclosed spaces o Exhibition of any signals or lights In bad weather or receiving storm warning, take necessary measures to protect ship, personnel & cargo Take precautions to prevent pollution In emergency threatening safety of ship => raise alarm, inform master, take all possible measures, request assistance from shore authorities / neighbouring ships Be aware of state of stability so in event of fire, shore fire-fighting authority advised of approximate quantity of water can be pumped on board Offer assistance to ships / people in distress Take necessary precautions to prevent accidents / damage propellers to be turned Enter in appropriate logbook all important events

Mandatory minimum requirements for a watch in port on ships carrying hazardous cargo Master every ship carrying hazardous cargo in bulk => ensure safe deck watch & safe engineering watch maintained, even when safely moored / at anchor Master every ship carrying hazardous cargo not in bulk => organise safe watchkeeping arrangements