-, <-.. ,, / .

,. .

1 ,
T.

Ssc-137

r--

LOW-CYCLE
.

FATIGUE OF METALS

LITERATURE REVIEW
I ,
I ---

I ~..

by

J. T. P. Yao
and

W. H. Munse

,.!1, ,. ,_

SHIP

STRUCTURE

COMMITTEE

1 :1
!.

L +
%

.,-

%..+

-..

SHIP

STRUCTURE

COMMITTEE
,

MEMBER
BUREAU MILITARY UNITED

AGENCIES:
DEPT. OF NAVY SERVICE, TREASURY DEPT. DEPT. OF NAVY SEA TRANSPORTATION

ADDRESS
SECRETARY SHIP

CORRESPONDENCE
COMMITTEE HEADQUARTERS

TO:
-

;
--

OF SHIPS,

STRUCTURE

STATES

COAST

GUARD,

U, S. COAST WASHINGTON

GUARD 25,

MARITIME AMERICAN

ADMINISTRATION, BUREAU

DEp7,

OF COMMERCE

D, C.

OF SHIPPING

October

31,

1961

Dear Sir: Structural experience both with ships and other structures has indicated that fatigue-type failures, particularly low-cycle fatigue, are an important structural problem. In order to evaluate the influence of a few load cycles at high stress levels upon the mechanical properties of ship steels, a project on Low-Cycle Fatigue Herewith is a copy of was initiated at the University of Illinois. the first progress report, SSC- 137, Low-Cycle Fatigue of Metal s-Literature Review by J. T. P. Yao a~W. H. Munse. This project is being conducted under the advisory of the Committee on Ship Structural De-sign of the National of Sciences-National Research Council. guidance Academy

This report is being distributed to individuals and groups associated with or intere steal in the work of the Ship Structure ComComments concerning this report are solicited. mittee. Sincerely yours,

(!!?@

rd . A. Alge r. , U. S. Coast Guard Rear Admi Chairman, Ship Structure Committee

L@

Serial
.

No. SSC-137

First

Progress Report of Project SR- 149 to the

SHIP STRUCTURE COMMITTEE on LOW-CYCLE FATIGUE OF METALS--LITERATURE REVIEW

by J. T. P. Yaoand University Urbana, W. H. Munse of Illinois Illinois

under Department of the Navy Bureau of Ships Contract NObs-77008 BuShips Index No. NS-731-034 transmitted
.

through

Committee on Ship Structural Design Division of Engineering and Industrial Research National Academy of Sciences-National Research Council under Department of the Navy Bureau of Ships Contract NObs-72046 BuShips Index No. NS-731-036 Washington, D. C. Academy of Sciences-National October 31, 1961

.,-

National

Research

Council

ABSTRACT

An evaluation

of the data on low-cycle cyclic material rate, stress

fatigue con-

of metals based o,ntype of test, centration, crack propagation, indicates

property change is pres-

and method of analysis ently no general fatigue test

that (a) there

analysis

applicable (b) the shape

to all low-cycle of the load-time low-cycle fa-

conditions;

curve is an important tigue tests; fatigue

factor

in analyzing

(c) the extent of the time effect particularly still with respect

on low-cycle to creep and (d) the in lowbecause

behavior,

crack propagation,

remains to be explored; is more desirable specimens

use of strain rather than stress cycle fatigue of the plastic tests; studies

of coupon-type

deformation

that takes place hypotheses data, based

during such on strain, good a-

and (e) the fatigue developed

although

from limited

exhibit

greement with the test results viding a good indication for selected loading

and show promise of profatigue behavior

of low-cycle

conditions.

.-

SR- 149 PROJECT ADVISORY COMMITTEE Low-Cycle Fatigue

for the COMMITTEE ON SHIP STRUCTURAL DESIGN Division of Engineering & Industrial Research National Academy of Scj.ences-National Research Council Chairman.: Dr. J. M. !?rankland Mechanics Division National Bureau of Starid.ards Members: Mr. J. A. Bennett Division of Metallurgy National Bureau of Standards Professor B. J. Lazan Dept. of Aeronautical & Mechanical Univers it.y of Minnesota Professor Materials Colorado J. D. Lubahn Research Laboratory School of Mimes

Engineering

Professor Dana Young School of Engineering Yale Univer,s it y

2!23s
Introduction. Type ob test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tests . . . . . . . . . . ...=..
1

.1

Constant-Load Tests Constant-Deformation Cyclic Stress Crack

2 4 7 8 12 13 14 17

Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Content ration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. ...5 . . . . .

Propagation. Property of Analysis

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Change

Material Method

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,.
.

Miscellaneous Summary ..

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . b . . . . . . ...
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

19 ~~. 22 28

Acknowledgment References Appendix.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . .

...0

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

,..

INTRODUCTION Low-cycle until failure occurs fatigue tests subject specimens to repeated stress or strain

at a relatively

small number of cycles. arbitrarily

The upper limit in investigators

...-

lovr-cycle

life has generally

been selected

by individual

to lie in the range of 104 to 105 cycles. life 1/2, is the static

On the other hand, by various

the lower limit of investigators as 1/4,

test which has been represented

3/4 or one cycie. Investigations in low-cycle fatigue have been conducted or (b) to obtain either (a) to proin-

vide information formation.

concerning

a particular

problem

fundamental

It is the purpose
,.

of this review to summarize fatigue rate, behavior stress

and to discuss Separate crack

the, informasections propagation, An apis are

tion available presented material pendix

on the low-cycle cyclic

of metals.

on type of test, property change, to essential

concentration, and miscellaneous

method of analysis information

items. investigation

referrifig

of each experimental

also

i,ncluded.

Type of Test Fatigue

tests

may be performed or torques.

by subjecting

members

to repeated stresses

axial are low to

loads,

bending

moments

When the resulting the stress between

applied is directly

and within the elastic the strain strain plied and there

range of the material, is little or no difference

proportional on controlled the ap-

tests

based

or stress stresses

limits.

In the case

of low-cycle

fatigue plastic If,

tests

however,

are generally

high enough to cause behavior.

deformation in such tests,

and a corthe ioad.

re spondin.g hysteresis limits at least are maintained

in the stress-strain constant, the limits

of deformation Therefore,

or strain will var.-y through low-cycle fatigue tests

some part of the life and vice versa. as constant-stress,

need to be further identified mation tests. stress A limited

constant-load tests controlling In spite

or constantdeforlimits of true

number of exploratory

have been conducted

by Lin and Kirsch. =

of the fact that extreme

-..

care was exercl sed M monitoring curred i.~ the test stress strain limits true in lovv-cycle tests reviewed results because tests.

these

true

stress

limits<, large

scatter

oc.. -

of the difficulty

of control~i~.g the true stress and constantthe or

fatigue

A]] other constant-

here were performed. by controlling stress {representing deformations load,) and limits

respectively

of engineering strain

of engineering or at a tests of con-

(representing

over a given gage length fatigue

given test

section).

In addition,

there are some low-cycle to repeated

re-

ported. in which the specimens high temperature. stant Tests

were subjected

applications

in w~hich CVCI?,Cheat was used to introduce to the spec~men have been included type tests.

de form-ation ranges

in this report

as constant-deformation Constant-Load in the technical tics.

24s26)27s31

Tests

A number of constant-load Advisory Committee ~

tests for

are reported Aeronau~ix 1 TS-T aluunder zero-tooperated rna-

notes
In

of the National 1942,

Hartmann and Strickley28

tested cycles

minum alloy tensio~ static

specimens

in the life range of 1/2 to 10 Three specimens were tested

load cycles. testing machine:,

in a manually

the remain~ng three were preloaded in a fatigue machine. curve The test is rather results

in a static

ch.ine and then tested S-N (stress to 104 cycles. load test two alloys low-cycle versus

showed that the of 1/2

number of cycles)

flat in the region

Grover et a124 compiled,

for two aluminum. alloys, some of the S-hT curves

axialfor these t.hese

data from four laboratories extend to very sh.ort lives,

~~ Since

it has been possi.bl. e to compare tests

data with those

of other low-cycle

which failures

were obtained. at lives

for similar materials in 2 on the order of 10 cycles. Hardrath fatigue tests on plain

et a125 pre sent results and notched less stee150 sheet

of axial -1 oacl zero-to-tension

specimens tests

of 61 S-T6 a~u.mi,nu.malloy, a phenomenon

34T and 403 staimtb.e minimum had

ID. these

that has been called

life at high stresses survived

was observed.

It w-as found that i.f a specimen

the first load. cycle,

it Would,not fall until a certain

minimum life were apstress

w7as exceeded. proximately

For t-he three rnateri. als tested, the minimum lives 4 j!O , i03 and. 102 cycles for specimens with theoretical

3-

--%
I . \ Unnotched Specimen

.-.-

Notched

Specimen \ \ \ L, \

K -+
I o~

IJnnoTched Specimen

10-

I00 Number

10 of Cycles

2 10 to Failure

I03

True

Strain

FIG. 2 FIG, I TYPICAL S-N GURVES FOR CONSTANT-LOAD TESTS

TYPIGAL

STRESS-STRAIN

GURVES

concentration
,

factors

(defined

as the ratio of the maximum stress and 4.0 tests respectively. Hardrath

to the nominal and Illg27 conwith specimens

stress

in a member) of 1.0, axial stress

2.0

ducted reversed-load having a theoretical

fatigue

on two aluminum alloys factor of 4.0.

concentration

They found that the 10 cycles of the faand

S-N curve in this case of loading curve. reversed Illg30

was initially and became

concave concave

downward and at about

itself

upward for the remainder in axialload

Later,

also found evidence mean stress) 4130

of minimum life 7075-T6

tigue tests normalized

(at constant

of 2024-T3, specimens

aluminum alloy,

and heat-treated of 1.0, 2.0

steel

with theoretical employed

concentra

tion factors

and 4.0.

The mean stresses

were O, 20 and In 1961,

50 ksi. and the minimum life

.

was found to range from 2 to 58 cycles. of a number of full-reversal that the S-N curves i.e.
,

Dubuc~ 5 presented of eight nearly materials

the results and reported

tests

on specimens were was ap

for these

materials

flat up to a life of about 10 cycles, 10 cycles. mentioned references,

the minimum life

proximately

In the above

it may be seen also

that the initial is

portion of an S-N curve is generally

rather flat and that this flat portion Typical S-N curves in initial

shorter

for notched

than for plain 1,

specimens.

of this type behavior (typical of the is

are shown in Fig.

--. --

The difference

or apparent

reversal

thought to be related stressstrain stres s strain notched curves

to the stress-strain are shown in Fig.

properties 2) .

of the members

It is evident

that the slope

curve in the vicinity

of the ultimate specimen.

load is smaller Consequently,

for the un the life ex-

specimen

than for the notched

-4pect,a.ncy for the urmotched, specimens ultimate strength of the rnaterjal tested under repeated loads near the

can be expected applicati.ori

to vary great~~ dePe~-di.ng of Ioad. However, because

upon the maximum strain of the steeper capacj.ty shorter gation slope

in the first

of the stressspecimens,

strain

curve and the reduced

deformation

of the notched for these

the flat portion. in the S-N diagram is investisteel,

specimen s,, fatigue

Yao and .Mosborq, 59 in a preliminary behav~or of ABS-Cla ss C normalized of the first lives tensile

of the low-cycle

report tstrahn values load tests

for the application for specimen

load. in constant strain

and, show that,

of less

than 1000 cycles, stress.

is a more sensitive Few low-cycle ra n,ge only. tigue failures

measurement fatigue

of life than t-he nominal have been conducted. IvIu.n and Eliing52 se

tests

in the compression low-cycle loadings. faIn

IVewmark, in cast

Mosborg,

obtained

iron specimens compress

with zero-to-compression ive fatigue except In 1912, failures

the same study,

however,

could. not be obtained

for aluminum alloy

and steel

specimens Tests: specimen

at very long 1ives. Komrners33report. ed. a series to cyclic bending. factor of He in

Constant-Deformati,oti tests in which a cantilever

was subjected

concluded low-cycle lated

that the magnitude fatigue.

of the deflection investigations,

is a very important however,

W more recent

strains

calcu-

from deform. at,ion or deflection data. conducted

measurements

have been used. in present-

ing the test

EvaD, sl 6 has ?.

fatique

tests

in which he has applied strains to mild steel

repeated.

constant

increments

of longitudinal.

tensile

specimens. of

A.1.thoughthe author was primarily the specimen of cycles of cycles per wire, exist to failure, he also In Fig. are plotted that,

intere steal in. determining obtained

the elongation

i,r,formation con.cerni ng the number increments scale range, in percent versus number

to fracture. to failure It appears

3, strain

on a log-log

for a mild steel. and a copstraight. li,ne

in the low-cycle

relationships

for both materials. ~ow40J41 conducted

bending

fatigue

tests

by applying

preset

angular WaS

movements

to both ends of a rectangular

plate

specimen.

A spherometer

. ..

-5-

-.
.

Ref. 16 (Evans)
q Copper Wire

O Mild Steel

--

~
I 5 10 50 100

200

Number of Cycles to Failure

..=
FIG,3 CONSTANT STRAIN-INCREMENT TEST DATA

used to measure strain. constant

..

the curvature

at the test

section

to determine

the maximum substantially section.

During each test the maximum strain was found to remain until localized two types yielding or cracking took place in the test of steel

Altogether, gated.

of aluminum alloy

and three types

were investiof cracks

For these

materials,

it was observed 2/3 of the total

that (a) the initiation

appeared visible

at approximately cracks increased

specimen strain range.

life and (b) the number of The test data show also bending

with increasing unnotched for strain

-.

that the fatigue

life of these to strain

plate ranges

specimens greater readily tests

in reversed

may best be related elastic

than ~ O. 47o. In the to either on three stress steels or strain. at various

range the fatigue Johansson32

life may be related cyclic

conducted

bending relationship

temperatures between

and found that a linear

with a slope

of - 1/2 exists for test tem-

log ~ and log N (strain

and cycles

to failure

respectively)

-.

-6-

..

10

Ref. 32( Johansson) Gr-Mo a! : ; .5 p ; I K \ . . ,, =-.. \ * .01 10- 10 0

10 I02 I03 I 04

Steel

Number FIG. 4

of Gycle LIFE ON LOG-LOG PLOT

STRAIN RANGE VS.

peratures

ranging In recent

from 20 to .500 C. years there has been an increase however, in the use of true strains

in low-cycle

fatigue

investigations;

in 1944 MacGregor42 relationships reversal, in fatigue axial-load

43 suggesttests. lowcycle

ed the possibility In 1948, fatigue tests

of using true stre SS - strain Liu, et slag conducted

complete

--

on 24 S-T aluminum alloy w~th controlled span attained was seven cycles.

limits

of true strains.

The maximum life ed low-cycle

Pian and DAmatos 5 performbut with variations and obtained in strain lives rangup to
-. -.

fatigue

tests on the same material

ratio (i. e. , ratio of minimum strain ing from 1 to 200 cycles. 104 cycles. tionship specimen exists life. These results Later,

to maximum strain)

DAmato13 carried on a log-log

the same type of test basis, a straight

show that,

line rela-

between However,

either

the maximum strain of the lines

or the strain

range and the to depend upon and bending and

-.

the slope Sachs

was reported

the value of mean strain. low-cycle 2024-T4 fatigue tests

et alb 7 5 = conducted of A-302 steel,

both axial 5454-O

on specimens

aluminum,

aluminum alloy.

They report that the effect lives are greater (2, b-10,12,63)

insignificant Coffin perimental chanical as a basis

when the specimen and his associates

of mean strain 4 than 10 cycles.

becomes

have conducted fatigue

extensive

ex-

studies

on the problem of low-cycle In their earlier the tests. works,

under thermal strains

and mewere used on re-

strain-cycling. of conducting

engineering

Recently,

they have placed and in the analysis

emphasis of the test

the true strain

measurements

both in testing

. -

-7suits. In the strain tests, they too show that there values of either is a straight line relationor the ra,nge versus life

ship between
.-

the logarithmic

the maximum strain diagram of strain

of strain

a,nd the lives

of the members. 4.

A typical

on a log-log
-

plot is shown in Fig.

Cyclic

Rate Smith et alel tested fatigue bare and Alclad, 24 S-T3 tests at cyclic rates aluminum alloy sheet speciFrom these

.-

mens in axial-load tests

of 12 and 1000 cpm.

it was concluded speed.

that the fa,tigue

strength

at the lower speed was less than has been reached fatigue tests at other of two at

that at the higher speeds

The same general

conclusion

and, by other investigators 23 (b) axial strain-cycling

in (a,) reversedbending tests of Inconel, tests

steels,

HasteHoy

B and beryllium embrittled the fatigue

high temperatures,
.

~4 and (c) rotating that,

bending

of hydrogen-than 1000 cpm, rate.

steel so60 strength

It appears generally

at frequencies

of less

decreases

with a decrease

in cyclic

In Ref.

3, Benham

recommended fatigue tests

the use of a cyclic

rate of between

50 and 100 cpm for low-cycle heat in the specimens, to a minimum the (b)

to (a) avoid the generation

of excessive

keep test time within a reasonable speed effect. The shape

---

length,

and (c) reduce

of the load-time fatigue.

curve of the load cycle Johansson32 suggests

is found to be an imthat the time factor and Benham3 be-

portant

factor

in lowcycle

may become suggests

more and. more important

with increasing

mean stress

that the shape

of the load-cycle

curve may influence

the fatigue

havior with respect

to creep

and crack, propagation. of tests in which the specimens cyclic rates were sub-

Coffin5 conducted jected, heating to repeated or cooling thermal

a series strains

at four different constant

but with the the hold

time maintained

for all tests.

Therefore,

time, defined
. .

as the length

of time at which the specimen was the only variable. of 2.5, 1.25, 0.45

was held at the Hold ti,mes of 6, and 0.16 cprn, reof de-

high or low temperature 18, 60 a,nd 180 seconds were used. i. e. , longer

in each cycle, for cyclic rates

spectively cycling,
-.

Again it was found that, hold times,

at the lower frequencies required for failure

the number of cycles

-8-

creased. Stress Concentration A stress in the geometry, stress concentration structure, is formed wherever or temperature refers there is a discontinuity although the term ~

in a material;7

concentration

generally Based

to the stress

increase

resulting a theoretical

from a notch in a member. stress stress concentration to the nominal Another stress factor, stress stress

on the theory defined

of elasticity,

previously

as the ratio of the maximum for most types is the

in the member, factor

can be computed

of notches. effective strength tain life,

which is used in fatigue defined

studies

concentration

factor,

as the ratio of the fatigue at a cerfactor can

of an unnotched At the present

specimen time,

to that of a n,ot,ched specimen stress concentration

the effective means.

only be obtained

by experimental

A great amount of effort of stress concentrations

has been devoted However, the theoretical

to studies

of the effects have been stress the use

in fatigue.

most investigators and the effective Consequently,

intere steal primarily concentration of these factors

in correlating

for a particular is limited

type of member. cases

correlations It is generally

only to those

that have been studied, near a stress contrue

found that the material in most fatigue

in the region tests. stresses

centration in low-cycle ing affects

deforms fatigue

plastically tests

This is especially are high. ways:

where the applied

This yield-

the stress

concentration to the average

in the following stress

(a) The ratio of and (b) of the theois gener-

the maximum stress The geometry retical ally stress

is no longer

a constant;

of the notch, concentration,

which is the basis changes.

for the calculation

In addition,

work hardening

introduced

in the vicinity

of the tip of the notch, of the material. specimen

and a new complication the theoretical a fictitious since quanit is

re suits stress

from the non-uniformity concentration factor

Consequently, becomes

for a notched occurs

tity when, yielding desirable

of the material values

at the notch.

However,

to use numerical

in representing

the severity

of various

-9-

I 00

/ Ref. 30(lllg 2024-T3 a Hardrath) Aluminum Alloy / p, < ./>~+ / P 7, 3 .. / 0

0 0 /

ao 0---- ,.---- : w 0 : n .
Lo a 40 =-

so

Pa.

Original

Tensile

Strength

P= Tensile Str8ngth of Cracked Specimen with no Eccentricity

20~

40
FI13. 5

50
STRENGTH

60
Net Area ,

70 per cent Original

ao Area FATIGUE

90

100

OF SPECIMENS

WITH

GRAGKS

notches,

the theoretical

stress

concentration

factor

is often useful

forpurposes

of comparison.
-.

Hardrath and 0hman25 tor in the plastic range.

derived 26,

a formula for a stress Hardrath et al compare factors

concentration

fac-

In Ref. stress

fective

and the plastlc values

concentration

Kf and K the efP respectively, and show that generally different,

the corresponding
-

for the se two factors,

although

converge

at high stresses. Illg and llardrath30 conducted cracks static tension tests of aluminum alloy Most of these fatigue tests, occurred on

sheet cracks,

specimens previously

with fatigue developed

of various

lengths.

in long-life Therefore,

zero-to-tension a modification

one side of the specimens specimen

only.

was made in the tests. Fig. The test 5), where A and In Fig. 5, Assuming crack It is

geometry

to minimize

the eccentricity

in the tension A/A. plots and virgin areas, (see

results

were presented

in terms of P/P. versus strengths of the cracked cross-sectional

P and P. are the tensile

.

specimens,

A. are the remaining

and original

respectively.

the ratio P/P. is extrapolated PI = .76 P. is the tensile length, the dashed-line

and found to be 76% at A/A. = 100~0. of a specimen with an infinitesimal between

strength

shows the relationship strength

P/Pl and A/Ao. specimen

interesting regardless

to note that the tensile of the initial crack

of a cracked

is a constant
con-

length.

From these

data the inves~iga~ors

-1o

eluded. that, fatigue

for static

loading,

the effective 1.3. the results specimens notches

stress

concentration

factor

for the

cra,cks In Ref.

was approximately 31, Illg reports

of axial

constant-mean-stress 7075-T6 stress

fatigue

tests

on plain and notched steel. and, 4.0

sheet

of 2024-T3, with theoretical

aluminum aUoys concentration

---

and SAE 4130 factors of 2.0

Semicircular

were investigated

for mean stresses of effective

of O, 20 and 50 ksi. stress concentration stress con-+ under .zero with be-

When the results factor versus

were examined, on the basis stress,

maximum nominal decreased

it was found that the effective maximum nominal of notched notches and 4.0. plate stress.

centration

factor

with increasing a series

Pian and DArnato5s tested to-tension stress loading

specimens

and with semi-circular factors of 2.0, 2.5

which provided A sensitive

theoretical

concentration,

extensorneter

a O. 1 -in,. gage length, was mounted at the root of the notch of the specimen ing te steal to determine and the maximum strain specimen exists the stm in at the notch.

It was found that the strain-range until the -.

at t-he ed,ge of the notch did not begin, to change The test data also show that a linear

was about to fail. the. cyclic

relationship .

between

range of strains plot. bending

at the edge of the notch and the number

of cyc~es

to fajlure

on a log-log rotating

Finchl 8 conducted, rnens of three gun steels versus log N curves

fatigue

tests

of plain and notched on strain measurements)

spec~-

and reported. that log S (based

were l,inear for specl.for specimens with 45 and 90 V-notches 5 men lives less than 10 cycle s,, The log S versus log N curves for plain and square5 shouldered specimens were linear from 10 to about ] 03 cycles and then, at shorter flatten out because tests, of general yielding of the specimens. lives It i-s to be noted

lives,

that all. of these were carried eratures

including

those

with specimen

as low as 20 cycles, speed, high temp-

out, at a cyclic

rate of 600 cpm,

With this high test low-cycle tests

would be generated

in the high- stress

and have an effect

on the behavior of the members. Recently, notched specimens Yukawa and McMullinG8 published. of a forged steel. AU notches of specimens test results on three types of

and a 450 angle were designed

had a root radius for different

of 00 00!3 i,n.

Although the three types

-11

. .
.,

kinds of loadings, load, another

i. e. , one for axial axial load, load,

for eccentric

$dia.

.-

b
II [11 II kt=_ I 1 I a

and the remaining zero-to-tension in all cases.

one for bending stress-cycles

were used

It was found that for these

specimens the nominal fatigue strength 4 at 10 cycles was only about 50 percent as great as the static same reference,
b

strength.

In the that some were

%%%%%%

it is reported

of the specimens
OF

during the tests

FIG.6

COFFINS TEST DATA ON EFFEcT NON-UNIFORM TEST MATERIAL

subjected resulting

to a single-cycle from a 10, life. 15,

overstress 20 or 40 per data show that increased,

cent overload while the lives

.. . -

at various

stages

of their fatigue

The test

of specimens

subjected

to 10 and 15 per cent overload overload

the lives ferent reason

of those

that received of specimens

a 20 or 40 per cent not subjected

were not very difA part of the of

from the lives

to an overload.

for this may be that when an overload enough to reduce

was applied,

the root radius stress

the notch deformed

.

the severity

of the original overloaded

concen-

tration. creased.

Thus,

the fatigue cracks

life of a moderately may have initiated resulting

specimen section

was inwith a

Howeverj

at the critical

large

overload

and offset

the benefits

from the increased

root radius,

As a result,

tests

with a 20 or 40 per cent overload overload. annealed specimens

had about the same life span

as those

without

Coffin7 tested
-..

for which a part of the test The specimen

section

had been cold-worked

in the following

manner.

was machined cen-

in the shape as shown in Fig. tral portion to introduce

6a; torque was applied strain in the reduced

through the enlarged section,

plastic

and then the cen test section. under data

ter portion was machined down to the same size Specimens repeated with different strains lengths of annealed

as the adjacent section

center

were tested The test

of one per cent and at a temperature

of 350 C.

have been presented

-.

in terms of N and a as shown in Fig.

6b, where N is the

-12~Lum~er of cvc~e~ and a the section,, of length of the test,

ratio

a~nealed

ler@h

t,o total

It may be seen that,

at Q= 0, the life of a uniformly from the test

tiwisted speciThis dis-

men was about ten times crepancy, as explained between

the life extrapolated by Coffin,

points.

was due to a small region and cold-worked, the significance

of inhomogen.city of the specimen. of the

at the boundary At any rate, material

the annealed illustrate

portions

the test

results fatigue

of non-uniformity

in low-cycle

investigations.

Crack Propagation The PM (Philosophical ly developed low-cycle for long-life Magazin,e) tests, theory orI crack propagation, originalthe

fatigue tests.

was expanded

by Head2g to include material indicates

range of fatigue of elastic, may initiate

The theory,

based. on an idealized elements, tests,

and consisting that {a) cracks

inverse

elastic-shear

and fully plastic stages

during rather early length

in fatigue

(b) the

square-root (c) the slope

of the crack

is a linear

function

of the number of length versus Ho-wto sup-

cycles,

of the straight

line (square

root of the crack of the applied evidence

number of cycles) ever, at present,

is a function there is little

of the magnitude or no experimental field. a theoretical

stresses.

a.vai.lable

port this theory

in the low-cycle g presented

McClintock4 mental results torsional

to

analysis

along with some experito fully plastic analogy cycles vvas used of

on crack

propagation

in bars subjected approach,

stress.

In his theoretical, the strain

a sand-heap

help determine in torsion.

distribution

in a uniform bar of an ideali zeal. mato be fully plastic, non.-

terial

This idealized

rrmteri.al was assumed

work-hardeni. ng and to have a. negligible su,rned that the crack function a critical Cracks of slip line spreads spacing

Bausch inger effect. strain

It was fu.rther asat radius p, a reach.es (a) that

when the rnaxim.um shear and grain size,

from t.hs tip of the crack at high strain

stra i.n value. always

McClintock4g

found that,

amplitudes, section:

tend to grow toward the center from the boundaries; absolute strain

of the remaining (b) the crack

is., the point most distant ended upon the integrated

propaqa tion depof tine number

increments

regardless

.-

-13of cyc~es and cyclic strain increments, (c) cracks propagate faster in the larger strain ampli-

of any two geometrically

.-

similar

specimens propagation

under the same nominal was independent

tude,

(d) the ini,tial rate of crack study,

of the notch angle.

In the experimental
...-

specimens

of aged 7075-T6 and then sectioned it appears

aluminum alloy were suband examined for cracks. hy-

jected

to a selected

number of cycles

From the lirni,ted number of tests

-.

conducted,

that the theoretical data.

potheses

mentioned Scheven

above

are in general

accord

with the experimental of the effects steels,

et al, s 0 in their investigation fatigue tests

of hydrogen reported

on iow-

...-

cycle cracks

rotatin.g-bearn appeared

of high strength

that (a) the rate pro-

after very few cycles

and propagated

at nearly

a constant

until about half of the specimen ceeded

-.

life was exhausted,

and then the propagation

at an increasing

rate;

(b) the cracking

rate of a hydrogen-loaded

materimaterial.

al was found to be about three times Material Property Change

as high as that of an uriembrittled

Ben,hama has indicated portant in any investigation studies energy,

that the initial of the property

condition

of the material

is very imtests.

changes

in low-cycle

fatigue

He classified (hard,ness, of the test, some cyclic

of this kind in,to (a) those strain, etc. ) and its changes in which a static the effect test caused

in which a particular are measured to fracture

quantity intervals

at certain

and (b) those loading

is carried

out after

to observe of the first

by the latter. conducted by

An example Pian and DAmato.56 true strain cycles. iation

type of testing

is the investigation tests, the variation with respect tests,

In their constant-load

of the maximum to the number of wherein the var-

and the range of true strain was recorded studies

Similar

were made in many strain-cycling (with strain

irJ. the maximum load was recorded to the number of cycles. strain softening occurred

per GyGlfS --- J....:.. ..1 . . .. . ... t. ---~- IIldlIlldlIle GICOIIS1~IIZ) for certain values of

with respect strain strain range,

It was found that, at high values of mean strain.

of mean strain, Later,

and while

hardening occurred

at low values

D Amatol 3 found specimen strain was value;

that strain-hardening -. subjected

or strain-softening respectively

occurred, when a selected less or greater took place. than a certain

to mean strains

at this value neither hardening

nor softening

-14Coffin~ 2 applied to various metals. cyclic plastic strains with superimposed mean stresses of cyclic reducing strain the reduc-

It was observed deformation.

that (a) the superposition of substantially softening),

on monoto.nlc tensile sistance tility

has the effect ( strain-

of the material

to deformation strain.

and ((b) fracture

was increased

with cyclic

Liu et a13 g studied specimens at various stages

the true stress

and strain fatigue

values tests.

at static

fracture tests

of it

of strain-cycling

From these decrease

was concluded an increasing the stress-strain siightly

that {a) the true stress magnitude of cyclic

and true strain

at fracture

with of

strain greatly

and number of cycles, during the first (c) the fatigue

{b) the shape

curve changes loading

few cycles fracture

and then only is caused by

as the cyclic

continued,

progressive Method

deterioration

of the metal in the process

of cyclic

strainj.ng.

Q Analysis Pardue, Nlelchon and Good55 tested tests rotating beam specimens with lives was cornspeci.-

under 104 cycles.

In these

the variation

in the dissipated deformations

energy

puted. from measurements men.. It was observed

of the load and the lateral that the total energy dissipated

for each

during the life of a speciMartin and Brinn4s steel at

men increased conducted

as the test

load was decreased. fatigue tests

Similarly,

axial-load

low-cycle

of AISI type 347 stainless plastic work increased total

a temperature creasing total test

of 1000 F and found that the total stress. However,

with deor

it is to be noted that this

energy

plastic

work was calculated specimen. Whenever

from the load and deformation a crack or localized to absorb yielding

experienced occurs in a

by the whole specimen, untracked

some kind of energy and unyielding portions.

sink exists

more energy

than in the of the total of a crack reprein the

In other words, particularly

the distribution

work in the specimen or cracks. sents Therefore,

is not uniform,

after the formation

it is rather doubtful to cause

that the work thus computed at some particular location

the energy

necessary

fracture

specimen. Lazan and WU3G sttidied fined as the energy absorbed the effects on fatigue of damping energy, cycie deof

by 1 cu in. of metal during a complete

---

-15vibratio.n. vestigated.
.

Variables However,

such as stress, no low-cycle

cyclic fatigue

rate and stress tests

history

were in-

were reported. energy criterion, and equal

Feltner

and IvIorrow~7 postulated, energy to fracture in the static

as a hysteresis test

that the damaging

-.

in a fatigue tension test.

is constant

to the energy

for fracture

test,

i. e. , the area under the equation was then

true stres s strain

.

curve in a tension the S-N curves

The following

derived

to predict

between n n+ 1

104 to 107 cycles.

. . ..

log (Ta =

09 [

U(l+n) 2k

. 1

- *

log Nf

(1)

. .

Where

Ua and hTf are corresponding

stress

amplitude

and life,

respectively, of the 1/n c and true

U is the area under the static

-

true stress-strain the true stress corresponding of the static

curve,

n is the slope

line of true plastic

strain

versus

on a log-log values

plot, k = Cc/U

and Uc and EC are any convenient

-.. _

of true stress

plastic strain
...

strain

takeri in the region

stress-strain

curve where plastic as a true greater

dominates, However,

It is to be noted that the quantity for the ordinary the values fatigue tests,
i.e.

Da was derived
,

stress.

for fatigue are probably

lives

than 104 cycles, equal.

of true and nominai

stress

very nearly

In discussing tigue theory,

. .

the possibility

of using an energy doubts

relationship as to whether since

for a fathe total is a

Tavernelli

and CoffinG 3 expressed measure

absorbed

energy

was a meaningful,

of fatigue

failure

fatigue

very iocalized

phenomenon, of constant-strain whenever tests, 0rowan54 value made an assumption absolute plastic

In the analysis that the material stra n is reached.

Em

fractures

a critical

of the total

The following

expression

was derived

from h s analysis. (2)

N = constant plastic of test strain results, amplitude, Manson,45

-- ._

Where

c is the constant On the basis

and N is the number of cycles as well as Gross form, and

to failure.

stout, 23 empirically

modified

the equation

to the following

-16-

. .

<0

Nm = constant of m to be 1/2 in most cases recommendations. and consequently

(3) used
.

Coffin~ 1 found the value the following c. In the case at fracture. #2

form in his design = constant tension

(4) test, test, N = 1/4, Eq. < = <f, where ~f is the true strain
.-

of a static

Tnus, in a static NW . $f 2

4 becomes

E.

Equation others.

5 was considered

to be accurate

in most cases

but conservative

in

. .

Recently pression. c. #2

Martin47

used an energy

criterion

to obtain

the following

ex-

~ y ~2 of the constants from Eqs. prediction 5 and 6 with existing in the case of axial prediction test strain data show test

(6)

-. ..

Comparisons that (a) Eq. temperature, flexural tests

6 gives

a better

at room of
--

and (b) Eq, 5 seems conducted

to give a better

in the case

at high temperatures. Eq. 7 by taking the effect of mean strain on low.

Gerberich20 cycle fatigue N=

obtained

into consideration. ; - % E [

1
fracture ductility,

(7)

Where reports

c; is the apparent

on the same program,

Sachs

and E. is the mean strain. In later 5?>b8 substituted E~R? the total strain et al
_-..

Test results on 2024-T4 range for ~, the plastic strain range. 20,57,58 show that Eq, 7 describes very effectively specimens low-cycle fatigue tests with various mean strains. However,

aluminum alloy the behavior in

it may be noted
.

.-

-17that (a) the apparent determined with tensile fracture ductility, E; is a nominal value that can not be only to tests

experimentally, mean strains.

and (b) this relationship

applies

Douglas at temperatures tory in this Hastelloy

and Swindemanl 4 tested above 1300 F. The test

HasteHoy

B, beryllium

and Inconel

data show that Eq. 0.81,

3 was satisfacfor

instance. B, beryllium exhibited

The values and Inconel, a coefficient

of m were 0.58, respectively.

and 0.76

It was noted that since tests, the de44 in m in

many metals increase

of O. 50 in low-temperature indicates mechanism. and nickel,

in the value

at high temperatures or deformation on titanium

that the behavior IrI 1959 Majors, found the constant

pends on the temperature tests Eq. at high temperatures

3 to vary from O. 48 to 0,51.

More recently steel and a brass

Dubuc~E found that this COnin cyclic axial strain tests.

stant was O. 53 for a low carbon These variable differences indicate

that the exponential test

quantity

m in Eq.

3 may be a

and, depend upon the various

conditions.

Miscellaneous
-.

V.ioodG observed 7 plitudes the case fractured

that when fatigue failure

cycles occurred

imposed

large plastic

am-

of strain, on a specimen, of static specimens tests.

in the same manner as in Evans~G examined fatigue tests, and

In considering

this

same aspect, and iow-cycle modes.

from both static identical

tensile

found that both showed true strains

fracturing

He also

found that the were

at fracture ffir both cyrlicaily Uniike little the long-iife deformation,

and statically fatigue fractures ranging tests

te steal specimens

about the same. specimens exhibit

where fractures

of notched falongthe

resulting

from lo-w-cycle

tigue loadings life fatigue

may show deformations to that obtained

from that of an ordinary tensile failure.

failure

in a static

However,

mode of failure test,

is apparently

dependent

upon many factors stresses

such as the type of the geome-

the magnitude

and nature the test

of the applied

j the material, rate, etc.

try of the specimen, Baldwin, and plates

-.,.

temperature,

the cyclic tests limits

Sokol and Coffin2 conducted grain sizes at constant

on 347 stainless of deformations

steel

bars

of different

and at a

.-.

-18-

.020

Ref. 2 (Baldwin, Sokol, E Gaff in) 347 Stainless Steel at 662 F q Bar Stock .016 ?, o plate N=5,000 \ m v g \ k-~ I >y %-+ :

temperature those

of 350 C.

Test

results

show that had a

-.

specimens

with larger

grain size

lower fatigue grain size

strength

than those

with small

,012 / /E +- ~ \. ~ \
0 . z = 0000 \ .006 + -.!!!2-4 +=J # G z 1-

for specimens The reverse fabricated

made of bar stock ma-

4)
3 4 M 04

terials. specimens However,

was found to be true for from plate materials.

if the approximate

ASTM grain size is plotted lives, against

Rti.14

o:m
3 s 7

for each type of specimen the total lationships strain

range at certain

the reAlso

shown in Fig.

7 are obtained. from the for

ASTM Grain Size

shown in this figure are two points test data. of Douglas Inconel tested

FIG.

EFFECT

OF GRAIN SIZE

and Swindeman14

at 1500 F. strain-cycling possessed tests on two

.. -.-

Mehringer high-temperature plastic fore, strain test

and Felgar50 alloys.

conducted

thermal-

Because

of the low-ductility

by both metals, ThereThis exstrain range

values

could not be computed

with the desired

accuracy. life.

results indicates

are presented the inherent

in terms of stress limitations

range versus

perience

on the usage materials.

of plastic

as a parameter

in the case

of low-ductility

Baldwin et a12 did some work on the problem low-cycle sequential constant-deformation loads varied fatigue tests.

of cumulative

damage

in

It was found that the life under in the simple manner. tests. The

from 72 to 163 per cent of the life six specimens

In this respect, specimen

Low40 41 tested

in the following

then cycled at was cycled at some strain range ~ ~a for 50 cycles, 2 and finally cycled at ~ c again until failure occurred. ~ 0.3370 for 10 cycles, a (Values of c a were varied from 1.5470 to 2. 27Yo) . It was found that the life in five of the tests though the life These varied from 71 to 89 per cent of the life in simple tests, al----

of one specimen

was 149 per cent of the life cycle loadings

in simple life

tests. of a speciof cumu-

data suggest

that under variable

the fatigue

men may vary considerably. lative damage tests on axially

In 1959 Gerberich~ g reported loaded specimens of 2024-T4

two series

aluminum alloy.

..-

-19In these strain tests the specimens were subjected to one magnitude level of reversed of re-

for a selected strain

number of cycles occurred.

and then to another From these tests

. .-

versed

until failure

it was concluded range after a a de-

that (a) un,derstraining sufficient layed

will effect

a decrease strain

in the stress level.

number of cycles

at the initial

This causes

increase

in the cumulative

damage ratio, and (b) overtraining range because of work-softening. damage ratio. Howwhen

will effect This causes ever,

a decrease an initial

in the stress increase

in the cumulative on cumulative strain

DAmatol 3 in his tests on the basis

damage found that, range, the linear

compared ry [~(~)

of equivalent

damage theo-

= 1. O] was applicable. A difference in temperature causes changes in the mechanical results prop-

-.

erties pected

of most materials. from tests

With this in mind,

different

can be extemperatures. was tested

conducted

on the same material

at different

.. -. ..-

In an investigation in cyclic-strain ture to 600 C. with increasing nately changes heating

by Baldwin, tests at constant results

Sokol and Coffin, 2 AISI 347 steel temperatures indicated ranging

from room temperastrength decreased by alter-

The test test

that the fatigue tested

temperature.

Coffing also .

the same steel

and cooling

the specimens

It was found that metallurgical temperature on materials stresses exceeded 500 C.

took place discussed

in the specimen

when the test cycling

--

Coffin that,

the effect

of temperature applied

and concluded and strains alloys

until the effects

of externally it is difficult

and residual

can be differentiated, that are subjected, Summary . In low-cycle

to interpret

the behavior

of complex

to thermal

cycling.

fatigue

tests

(generally

less

than 104 cycles) large

the magnito cause plas-

tude and the range of the test tic deformation strain ,. behavior, in the material

load are usually

sufficiently

and a corresponding from one cycle low-cycle fatigue

hysteresis to the next. tests

-n its stressConsequently, or

which may change to further identify

it is necessary

as constant-load

constant-deformation
.-

tests.

-20-

Experimental form of conventional stress

data from constant-load S-N curves, life.

tests

are often presented

in the

where S and N are the maximum nominal The ultimate strength strength. of the specimen possible is

and the corresponding considered

generally of cycles The typical tially

as the fatigue depending

at the smallest

number

( 1/4 to 1 cycie, low-cycle

upon the investigators from the ultimate

preference). strength, is ini. .

S-N curve,

starting

concave

downward and becomes of stress.

concave

upward at a point of inflection is not and temtests are

at some lower level fixed but varies perature. based

The location geometry,

of this point of inflection rate, stress-cycle

with material, analytical criterion

cyclic

At present,

evaluations and suggest absorbed

of the constant-load that, the fatigue failure

upon an energy

occurs a critical

whenever value. absorbed required

the amount of energy However, this criterion specimen

by the specimen

reaches since

has often been questioned

the energy of the ener9Y

by the whoie

may not be truly representative failure. of constant-deformation

for a very localized On the other hand,

fatigue the results

tests,

when N,

presented

in terms of the plastic than those

strain

range E and the number of cycles tests. From the available log <-log fracture value

are more consistent test information, line

of constant-load

it may be concluded starting

that the low-cycle value - 1/2. cyclic at static

N curve

is a straight 1 cycle) fracture

from the strain of approximately geometry,

(N = 1/4 to at static and

and has a slope

The strain rate,

may vary with material, while the slope

strain-cycle seems

temperature,

of the log K-1og N lines tests. in a static test

to remain close

to - l/2 for fully reversed

strain

Although the ultimate into fatigue of the static static fracture test test results,

strength

is usuaily

incorporated rate a in
., .

there

has been no attempt

to make the loading tests. In other words? of loading while

comparable

to that of the kyclic at least process several

usually tests

requires

minutes

most fatigue time.

the loading experimental

in each cycle

takes

a fraction strength

of that decreases on low

At present,

data show that the fatigue However. the extent

with decreasing

test

speed,

of the time effect

-21-

cycle

- .

fa,ti,gue behavior, still remains

particularly

with respect In 1959,

to creep

and crack listed

propaga-

tion,
.- .

to be explored. in the creep fa,tigue. fatigue range

Lankforda5

the time efto be investi

fects gated

for cycling i~, low-cycle

as one of seven

subjects

During a low-cycle the geometry evaluate sequently, stress basis

test,

changes

take place thereby

continuously

in to Con-

and the material distribution

of the specimen, of stresses test results conditions

making it difficult during the test.

the actual

and strains

most of the available (based

are presented of the test),

in terms of nominal and not on the values thus

or strain

on the initial values.

of maximum absolute

In, other words,

ail numerical

o,btai.ned are relative ana,lysis applicable

in nature.

For this reason, fatigue test

there

is at present

no general

to all low-cycle

conditions.

Acknowledgment This literature 149) sponsored review is a part of the Low-Cycle of Illinois Fatigue program (SRCommittee in

at the University

by the Ship Structure

through the Bureau of Ships, the Civil ance Engineering

U. S. Navy.

The program is being conducted of Illinois

Department

at the University

with the assistis

of a Project

Advisory of W.

Committee H. Munse,

of the NAS-NRC. Professor of Civil

The investigation Engineering of Civil

und,er the direction part of the structural

and is a

research

program of the Department Professor

Engineering now on leave charge of

of which Dr. N. M. Newmark is Head. of a.bsen,ce from the University the work on. this program. Rolfe and Professor preparation of Illinois,

R. J. Mosborg,

was formerly

in, immediate their thanks

The writers

wish to express

to Mr. S. T. in the

R. J. Mosborg,

for their assistance

and suggestions

of this review.

.4

,.

-22REFERENCES
.
~o

Bailey, R. W., Usefulness and. Role of Repeated Strain Testing as an Conference on Aid to Engineering Design and Practice, International Fatigue of Metals, 1956. Baldwin, E. E., Sokol, G. J., and Coffin, L. F., Jr. , Cyclic Strain Fatigue on AISI Type 347 Stainless Steel, Proc. ASTM, vol. 57 ( 1957). Benham, P. P. , Fatigue of Metals Caused by a Relatively of High Load, or Strain Amplitude, Metallurgical Reviews, Few Cycles 3:11 ( 1958).

2.

3.

40

Carpenter, S. T. , Low-cycle Fatigue and Fracture Strength of High Strength Steels (Progress Report, Dept. of Civil Engineering), Swarthmore, Pa. : Swarthmore College, November 1959. Coffin,, L. F., Jr., on a Ductile Metal, A Study of the Effects of Cyclic Thermal Stresses Trans. ASME, 76:6, PP. 931-49 (August 1954).

5.

6.

R. P., An Apparatus for the Study of Coffin, L. F., Jr. , and Wesley, Effects of Cyclic Thermal Stresses on Ductile Metals, Trans. ASME, 76:6, pp. 923-30 (August !954). Coffin, Lo F., Jr., The Problem of Thermal Stress Fatigue 12 Austenitic _ Steels at Elevated Temperatures @3TM Sp, No. 165), Symposium on Effect o~ Gyclic%eating and Stressing on Metals at Elevated Temperatures, 1954. of Thermal-Stress Fatigue as ReCoffin, L. F. . Jr, , ArI Irivdstigation lated to High-Temperature Piping Fiexibility, Trans. ASME, vol. 79, pp. 1637-16510 Coffin, L. F., Jr. , and Read, J. H., A Study of the Strain Cycling and Fatigue Behavior of a Cold. -Worked Metal, International Conference on Fatigue, p. 415, 1957. Coffin, L,. F., Jr. , and TavemeNi, J F., The Cyclic Strainiw Society of AIME, vol. Fatigue of Metals, Trans. Metallurgical p. 794 (October 1959). Coffin, Clinics, Coffin, = 1,. F., Jr. , Design October 1959. L. F., Q B= for Low-Cycle Fatigue,
and
..

70

8.

9.

10.

215,

11.

SESA Design
.. .

12.

of Metals under Cyclic Plastic Strain, Jr. , The Stability 82:3, ser. D, p. 671 (September 1960). Engineering?

-2313.
.

DAm.ate, R., _ Study of the Strain-Hardening _ A and Cumulative Dam= Behavior @ 2024-T4 Aluminum Alloy in the ~w-Cycle Fatigue . _ Range (WADD TR 60- 175), April 1960. Douglas, D. A., Metals Subjected ASME, 1958. and Swindernan, R, W. , The Failure of Structure to Strain Cycling Conditions, {Paper 58-A- 198),

14.

15.

Dubuc, ~., Plastic Fatigue under Cyclic Stress and Cyclic Strain with. a Study of the Bausch. inger Effect (Ph. D. Thesis submitted to . Ecole Polytechnique, University de Montreal, Montreal, Canada), January 1961. Evans, E. W., ties of Metals, 295; 203:5275, Effect of Interrupted Loading on Mechanical Proper~ Part 1, pp. 293Engineer (London), 203.5274, Part H, PP. 325-327 (1957).

16

17

Feltner, C. E ., and Morrow, J. , Micro-Plastic Strain Hysteresis Energy as a Criterion f~r Fatigue Fracture (TAM Report No. 576), . Urbana: University of Illinois, 1959. Fin.Ch, W. Go, A Study of Fatigue the S-N Curve, Proc. ASTM, vol. of Steels in the Finite 52, p. 759 (1952). Region

( of

18.

19.

Gerberich, W. W. , TM Phenomena qf Cumulative Damage . Stress in Cyclinq and Strain Cycling Fatigue (Report No. MET575-594T3, . Metallurgical Engineering Dept. ), Syracuse: Syracuse University Research Institute, April 1959. Gerberich, W. W., Analysis .of Several of the Variables Encountered An in Low-Cycle Fatigue (Report No. ME T575-5961T4, Metallurgical Engi. neerin.g Dept. ), Syracuse. Syracuse University Research Institute, June 19590

20.

21, , GrOSS, J. H. , Tsang, S,, , and sto~t, Rm D. , Factors Affecting Resistance of Pressure Vessel Steels to Repeated Overloading, The Welding ~ournal, 32.1, Research Supplement, p. 23s (1953). 22.
-.

Gross, J. H. , Gu,er, D. E,, , and Stou,t,, R . D. , plastic of Pressure Vessel Steels, Tb.e Welding Journal, 33:1, plement, pp. 31s-39s (1954)= Gross, J. H., Stout, 1?. D., Plastic Fatigue l?ressure~dessel Steels, ~ WeJ.ding Journal, p 161s (,1955).

Fatigue Strength Research Sup-

23.

Properties of High-Strength 34:4, Research suppleme~~,

-24:-

24.

Grover, H. J., Hyler, W. S., Kuhn, P., Landers, B, C., and H&;well., F. M., Axial. -Load Fatigue Properties of Z4S-T and 75 S-T Aluminum Alloy as 13eter _ mimed in Several Laboratories {NACA TNT2928), May 1953. Hardra,th, centration December H. F. , and Ohms.n, L. , .. A Study of Elastic and Plastic Stress Con. Factors Due to Notches am FiHets in Flat Plates (,NAGA TN 2566), . 1951. B. G. , and Utley, E. C, , ~r. , Axial-Load FaUnnotch.ed Sheet Specimens @ 61S-T6 Aluminum 2.I!2 Hm-T~@~ted m s~~i~le~~ ~-

25.

,-

26.

Hardrath., H,, F, , L,anders, tigue Tests on Notched a~

w~ A~-~e@LS.S4 M sLEi~~e~~ s(NACA TN 3017), October 1953. 27.

Hardra.th, H. F., and IUg, W,, , Fatigue Tests at Stresses . in .. 2 to iO:, 000 Cycles {NAC.A TN 3132,), January 1954.

Producing

Failure

28.

Hartrnan.n, E. C. , and Strickley, G. W. , The Direct Stress Fatigue Strength of to 5 x 109 Cycles of . ~ . 17s-T Aluminum, A11oI7 Through the Ranqe~ Stress (NACA TN 86~November 1942. Head, A. K.., Propagation, 23:3, pp. 407-410 (1956). of Fatigue Cracks, @!2z21 Q +@!@ M&!Jla~ics3

29.

30.

Illg, W. , and Hardrath, H. F, , Observations Some Due to Fatigue Cracks {NACA RM L55D15a), 1955, .

on Loss

of Static

Strength

31.

Illg, W. , Fatigue. Tests on Notched and Unnotched Sheet Specimens of 2024, T3 .. and 7075-T6 Aluminum Alloys and of SAE 4130 Steel with Special Consideratio.ns of the Life Range from 2 to 10, 000 Cycles (NACA TN 3866), 1956. . . Johansson, A. , Fatigue of Steels at Constant Strain Amplitude and Elevated Colloquium on. Fatigue {IUT,AM), 1956. Temperatures, Stockholm: Kommers, T. B., Repeated Stress Testing, tion for Testing Materials (Wth Congress), New York: 1912. International Associa-

32.

33.

34.

-Materials and Kooistra., L. F. , Effect of plastic Fatigue on, Pressure-Vessel 36:3, Research Supplement, pp. 120s-130s Design, The Welding JournQ (March 19.57). -Subjects for Research in Low-Cycle Lankford, W. T. , Suggested Reports of Progress of Welding Research Council, May 1959. Fatigue, .. .

35.

36.

and Dynamic Stress-Strain Lazan, B. ]., and Wu, T. , Damping Fatigue, ASTM, VOI., 51, p. 649 (1951). Properties of Mild Steel, P=.

.-

--

-2537. Leybold, H. A. , Axial-Load Fatigue Tests orI 17- 7PH Stainless Steel . Under Constant-Amplitude Loading (NASA TN D-439), october 196o. Lin, = 317), 39. H. and Kirsch, A. A. , & Exploratory Study on High-Stress Low-

38.

~~ Qf 2024 AIumin~m A~loY in Axial Lo~ing August 1956.

(WADC TN 56-

. -.

Liu, S. 1., Lynch, J. ]. , Ripling, E. J. , and Sachs, Fatigue of the Aluminum Alloy 24 S-T in Direct Stress, no~.oqy, February 1948. Low, A. Co, The Bending Fatigue Strength tween 10 and, 10 Million Cycles, @r. ~. pp. 502-506 (1955). Low, A. C., Short Endurance Fatigue of Metals, 1956. Fatigue,

G. , Low-Cycle Metals Tech-

400

of Alurnin.um Alloy MG5 BeAeronautic SS. , vol. 59,

41,

International

Conference

on

42.

MacGregor, C. W. , The True Stress-Strain Tension Tests--Its Role in Modern Materials Testing, Franklin, Inst. ~ , vol. 238, Part 1, pp. 111-135, Part 2, n. 3, pp. 159-176 (1944)0 MacGregor, C. W. , Mechanical of Experimental Stress Analysis. fi500 Properties New York: of Materials, Handbook John Wiley and Sons, Inc. ,

43.

44,

Majors, H., Jr. , Thermal and Mechanical Fatigue of Nickel Titanium, Trans. A~M, vol. 51, Pp. 421-437 (1959). Manson, S. S., Behavior ~f Materials Stress (NACA TN 2933), 1953. under Conditions

and

45.

of Thermal

46.
.-

Marin, J. , Borashia, p. , and Rimrott, U. A. , The Effect of Stress Cycling on the Static Mechanical Properties of SAE 4340 Steel, (Paper No, 68), ASTM, 1959. Martin, D. E. , An Energy Criterion for Low-Cycle of Basic Engineering, Trans. ASME, April 1961, Fatigue, Journal

47.

48.
., . ..

Martin, D. E. , and Brinn, J. , Some Observations on the Plastic Work Required to Fracture Stainless Steel under Cyclic Loadin,g, Proc. ASTM, VO1. 59, p. 677 (1959)0 McClintock, F. A. , The Growth of Fatigue Cracks Under Plastic Torsion, International Conference on Fatigue of Metals, IME and ASME, p. 538, 1956.

49.

-26Fatigue of Two NickelMehringer, F. J. , and Felgar, R. P., Low-Cycle Base Alloys by Thermal-Stress Cycling, Journal of Ba sic Engineering, 82:3, ser. D, p. 661 (September 1.960). ,Mu.rdi, B. B., Sachs, G., and K1.ier, E. P., Axial-Load. Fatigue Properties of High Strength. Steels, proco ASTM, VO1. .~~, p. 655 (1957). Newrnark,
Fatigue

-.

50.

51.

52.

N. M , Mosborg, R. J., Munse, W. H., Tests in Axial Compression, Proc. ASTM,

and Elliw,

R. E.,

vol.

51,

p. 792

(1951).
53.

Obert, T. T., and Trapp, W. J. , High Stress 22:1, pm 159 (1951). Product Engineering, orowan, E. , Stress ~ Welding Journal, (June 1952). Concentrations 31:6, Research

Fatigue

of Alloy Steels,

54.

in Steel under Cyclic Loading, Supplement, PP. 27.3s-282s

55.

Pardue, T, E., Melchor, ]. L., and Good, W. B. ) Energy Loss@s and Fracture of Some Metals Resulting from a Small Number of Cycles of Strain, proco SESA, 7:2, 27 (1960).
p.

56.

Low-Cycle Fatigue of Notched Pian, T. H, H., and DAmato, R., _ Unnotched Specimens of 202.4 Aluminum A11oY under Axi~ Loading (WADCTN 58-27), 1958.

and

57.

V., Low-Cycle Fatigue of Sachs, G., Gerberich., W. W., and, Weiss, Pressure Vessel Materials (Report NTo. MET575-6011T5, Metallurgical Syracuse University Research Research Laboratories). Syracuse: Institute, January 196o. Sachs, G., Gerberich, W. W., Cycle Fatigue of Pressure-Vessel p. 512(1960). Weiss, V., Materials, and Latorr@, J. V., Low Proc. ASTM, vol. 60,

58.

59.

G. , Relation, Between. Direct Stress and Sachs, G., and Scheven, Bending Fatigue of High Strength Steels, Proc. ASTM, vol. 57, p. 667 (1957). Scheven, G,, , Sachs, G. , and T.ong, K. , Effects of Hydrogen Cycie Fatigue of High Strength Steels, Proc. ASTM, vol. 57, (,19.57). on LowP. 682

60.

.-

61.

Smith, F. C., Brueggeman, W. C., and Harwel~, R. H, ~ Comparison of Fatigue Strength, of Bare and .Mclad 24S-T3 Aluminum Alloy Sheet Specimens Tested at 12 and 1000 Cycles per Minute, (NACA TN 2231).

-2762. Sorenson, Turbines, G. R., and Glernmett, H. R., Low-Cycle (Paper No. 634) SESA, May 1960. Fatigue in Small

63.

Tavernelli, J. F. , and Coffin, tation of Cyclic Strain Fatigue p. 438 (1959).

L. F., Jr. , A Compilation and IriterpreTests on Metals, Trans. ASM, vol. 51,

64.

.,.-

Tor, S. S. , Ruzek, J. M., and Stout, R. D., Welded and Prestrain,ed Steels, ~ Welding Supplement, p. 238s (1952).

Repeated Load Tests on Journal, 31:5, Research

65.

Weisman, M. H. , and Kaplan, M. H., The Fatigue Strength of Steel Through the Range from 1/2 to 30, 000 Cycles of Stress, Proc. ASTM, VO1. 50, p. 649 (1950). Wood, W. A., Failure of Metals under Cyclic Conference on Fatigue Metals, p. 531, 1957. Strain, International

66.

67.

Wood, W. A., Some Basic Studies of Fatigue in Metals, Fracture, eds. B. L. Averbach, D. K. I?elbeck, G. T. Hahn, and D. A. Thomas. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. , p. 412, 1959. J. G. , High-Stress, Low-Cycle Yukawa, S. , and McMullin, Properties of Notched Alioy Steel Specimens (Bull. No. 241), October 1955. Yao, J. T. P., and Mosborg, dated November 1959. R, J, , Unpublished Progress Fatigue ASTM,

68.

69.

Report,

..

-28-

A~~E~DIX TEST lNFORM.4TION ON LOW-CYGLS TEsTING FATIGUE

Ref. No. Ultimats Material Strength km Type of Specimen Plain ,, ,, Cracksd ,7 ,, Plaln Varmbb Test Temp. Manner of Lnadmg Bending ,1 Amal Parameter He Id Constant Stra,n ,, Type of Cycle R.o ,, cyclic Rate cpm 34 ,, Life, Range

. .

1 ,! 2 4 ,,

Steel Steel AH x200-L Mellon Mellon

A B 347 Stainless Sp=el

S6
66

Rm. ,, Rm. -6OOC

103,, 103

105 ,, - 106

M x P - 2 M x P - 2 as-welded Stainless Steel

280

,, ,, ,, ,, ,,
F F F) F F

Load, ,! ,, Temp. ,,

,, ,, ,, T

A2SI 347

(Anrmaled 7 1, 8 13 14 ,, AISI ,! 347 ,!

& Cold-Worked) Steel Notched !, 1! A11oY Plalrl (Pla,n PkJlrl & Rm. 1500 (13oO !, ,, 1600 1650 1250
,!

m350 G
,, ,, ,,

VarlablQ 4 ,! 2 .3-1o

102 103

105 lo~ 104

Stainless

(Annealed)

10Z 103-105 1 -

20 Z4-T4 Intone Inconel !! Hastelloy Beryllium z4S-T4

Aluminum 1 (Annealed) Tubs 1, B

Notched)

,, ,,
,7

bcal& Stra~n Deform. ,, II ,, ,, Local Strain bad k

.Oto cm 27.5% R=-1

104
10: 10

1/2

1 1 10 1 i 1 10 1 10 ,! ,, ,, ,, ,, ,, ,,

,. ,,
15

,, ,,

1/30 1/2 ,, 6(max) 1, ,, ,,

- 103 10: 10

Aluminum

Alloy

85 85 99 100 83 58 79 53 63 58 93 108 ,, ,, ,,

Rm.

,, ,, ,,

- 104 - 103 -

,, ,, ,, ,, i, ,,

(Cold-Worked) 24S-T4 Ahmnnum Allo Y 75s-T6 Alumlnum:Alloy (Cold75s-T6 Brass Brass Worked) Alummum 69 69 (Hard A11oY Drawn)

,,
,,

104

,, bad Strain bad L ,, ,, ,, ,,

,, ,, ,, ,, ,,

- 104 !! II ,, ,! !1 ,, !7 ,,

(Anne a Led) 609 609 Steel (Hard Drawn) (Annealed) (Annealed)

Duronze Duronze SAE 1030 A-201

,, ,, ,1 Plain &! ,,
,, !,

,, bad &

Steel Sbel

Strm n Inad ,, !, (Increment ,1 ,, R=O ,, ,, ,, !, ,, R.-l ,! ,, ,, R*-1 R=O ,,

,, ,,
16

A-30Z Monel

Welded Plalrl & We ldcd Plain !, ,, ,, ,, ,, ,, II ,,

,,

,,

,,

MI ld Stee

I Sar

60

,, ,, ,,
17 18
r, ,,

Mild Steel Strip .75 Carb2n Steel 70/30 a Brass Fure Aluminum Copper SAE 4340 Steel Steel Steel No. No. No. Steel 1 (.29% 2 (.32% 3 (. C) C) 139 140 165 181 68

,,

of Strain) ,, ,, ,! Lnad

,,

,,

,, ( Plaln L Notched) ,, ,, Plain Bend~ng ,, ,, ,,

Axial

l/2&1200

1,03 10 ,, !, 10-1-102

Stress ,, ,, Strain

- 10

106 s ,, 1,

367. c)
A11oY

,, ,,

19, 57, 58 21

Z024T4

Alumlnum

A-201

As-Received

62

(Pla,n ,, With

&

,,

Bending ,, ,,

Sttaln

103 ,, ,,

106 ,, ,, ,, ,, ,, ,, 1!

Notched)

,,
,, ,,

A-2ol A-201 A-201

10% with

Pre-Strain Bead Weld

72

,, We Ids &

,, ,, ,, ,, ,, !, !, & !, 100

Annealed

57 72 79 105 59

(Plain

!, ,, ,, !, ,,

,,
,, ,, 22

A-20 1 Quenched A-21 2 As-rolled A-21 2 Quenched A-201 Steel

Notched) ,1 ,! ,! ,! Plain ,,

,, ,, ,, ,,

,, ,, ,, (bad

De form.)

-29-

TEST

INFORMATION TvDe o-f

ON LOW-CYCU

FATIGUE Manner

TESTING

(Continued) TYP@ of Cycle R=l Cycllc Rat e cpm hfe Range 103 - 106
!, ,1 ,, ,1

Ultimate

Farameter Held C0r3taot (Load k De form.) 1, ,, ,, ,,

-i

Rd. No. 22 A-302

Material Steel

Strength ksi 87 73 79 90 196

Test Temp. Rm,

of Loading Bending

Specimen Plain

100

New A-302 Annealed Stress Reheved ,, with loqopre strain ,, Quenched &Temp. ,, 400 F q Quenched 1300 23 A-201 St@el F & Temp.

,, ,, ,, ,, ,,
(Plain Notch-

,, ,, ,,

,, ,, ,,

,, ,, ,,

,, ,, ,,
,!

,,
,, ,, ,,

93 61
76 71 82 87 95 102 130 130

,,

,,

,,

Rm. 650
,1 ,, ,,

& F

,, ,, ,, ,,
,! ,,,

Deform.

,!

1.5& 200 200 II ,, 1.5& 200 200 ,! ,,

102!, ,, ,, ,, ,, ,, ,, ,, 1 ,, ,,

105 ,, ,, ,, ,! ,, ,, ,, ,, - 108 ,, ,, 107 ,, -lo~o 108 ,, ,, ,,

,,
!, ,, ,,

ed & Welded) A-.225 StGel 48s 5 HTSte@l Fortlweld Steel A-302 StEel 70 A Steel 70 B Steel 90 A Steel 90 B Stee I 61 S-T6 347 403 Aluminum Alloy

,, ,, ,, ,, ,, ,, ,, ,,

,, ,, ,, ,, ,, ,, ,, ,,

!,

,, !,

,1 II ,,

,
,! ,,

,! ,, i,

,, ,1

,, ,,

,,

,,

26

47 92 190 69 88 61 72 83 116 lmo

(Plaln

&

Rm. ,, ,,

Axial ,,
1,

bad !,

R.o ,,

2&180 ,,

,,
!!

Stainless Stainless

Steel Steel Alloy Alloy Alloy Alloy AIIoY

Notched) ,,

24S-T3 75S-T6 28 31 17 S-T 2024-T3 7075-T6 4130 4130

Aluminum Aluminum Aluminum

Notched ,, Pla, n (Pla,n &

,1

,!

,,

R=-1 !1 R=O

.4-1600

,,

lo-l 121800 1 ,, ,, ,,

Aluminum Alunnnum Hardened

,!

(Sm = o,
20@)

i, ,,
32 i,

Notched) Steel Steel Nonnahzed

,,

,,

(Sm=o, 50ksl) ~=-~ ,,

18-8 18-8 1370 Cr-Mo Cr-Mo

Cr-Ni Cr-Ni

Steel Steel

A B

108 102 77 112 122 61 205

Plaln ,,

Var]able ,1

Bending

Stral n ,,

0.5 ,, 1,

102 ,, ,, ,, ,,

104 ,, ,, ,, ,, ,,

.-

,, ,, 33 37

Cr Steel A
Stec 1 A Stee 1 B Steel(Annealed) Steel

,, Deform. Plaln & Axial had ,, ,, ,, 150700 1

Cold-rolled 17-7

,,

PH Stainless

- 108

Notched 38 2024-T4 Alununum Alloy 70 Plaln

,,

Imad, stress,
strmn

True true

R = 0,-1

103

39 40, 41 41 ,, ,, !, 44 !, ,, ,, 47 48 49 50 ,,

24 S-T

Aluminum Alloy i,

AHOY 5% Mg

72 48 57 107 69 132 1, ,, ,, ,, 525 F ,, ,, ,, Variable 575 F Variable 8m. ,, 84 RC40) (Hardness Notched Plain ,, 1000 F Torsion Amal Torsion Axial ,, Bending

Strain

Aluminum ,, Stee 1 S 92 Steel Steel Type ,, Type 1,

R=-1 ,,

DTD 546B

,,
,! ,,

,,
II ,, ,,

(3 1/2 & 200-600) ,, ,, ,, ,, 1 2 1 F 2

1 10 ,, ,, ,, ,,

101 107 ,, ,, ,, ,,

,, ,,

En 2 En 25 A Nick131 ,! !, Ti-75A Tltatuum r, ,, I. Steel 5S Steel AHOY 7075-T6 Alloy(Hardness 500 Alloy RC36)

Amal ,,

Tread Temp. Inad Temp. Strain had Strain Temp. ,,

,, T =525F Rm= -1 Tm =~75 R=-1 R=-1 ,, ,, ,, ,,

104.105 3 10 -lo ,, 10 4 ,,

SAE 1018 347 Stainle

- 102

140

102-105 10 1 10 102 ,, !! - 10: -lG - 105 106 ,, ,, - 106 108

Aluminum Cast Cast Tr,cent DCM

Rm. VarlabIe

Udimet

(1 ncn) UHS-260 TM-2 Cast Iron Steel St@el Steel Steel (Comp)-95 123 175 126

(Plain

&

Rm.

Inad

,, ,,
52 53
(! ,,

Cm. Super Gray

Notched) ,, ,, Plain ,, ,, ,, ,, ,,
!,

,,
1,

,, ,, ,,

R=R.-1 ,,

290 90-3450 ,, !,

1 103

SAE 2330 SAS 4340 SAE 8630 18-8

(Bending Pxial) ,,

&

,, ,, ,,

55 ,,

Stainless Ste.1

SAE 1020

,, ,,

Bending ,,

,, ,,

,,
,,

72 ,,

~02 ,,

- ~05 ,,

-30-

TEST

INFORMATION type of

ON LOW-CYCLE

FATIGuE Manrmr

TESTING

(continued) I ype of Cycle R=-1 ,, GyGlic Rat@ cpm 72 ,, L1l% Range 10L ,, ,, ,, ,, ,, ,7 1 . - 10 ,! ,, 1! ,, ,, ,!

Ref. No. 55 ,, ,! !, ,, ,, 56 ,,

Material
Commercial

u lt)mate Strength ksl

T- st Temp. WI.

Spemmen Plaln

of Loading BendiW ,, ,) ,! ,,

Parameter Re Id Cons lant Inad ,, ,, !, ,,

---. ;

Copper
Alloy

2S Alurmnum 24 S-T Alummium

,,
,1

,, ,, ,,

M,ld Stsel (hot rmlled) Gray Cast Iron Copper (annealed) Mild Sts~l (annealed) Alloy ,, 69 ,,

,, ,, ,, ,,
R=O Variable (R=-1 100.75) 0,2 0,88 O.88

,, ,,
,1

2024-T3

Alumlnum ,,

(Pla,n

&

,)

Axial ,!

,,

IOknax. )

-104 - 103
- 104 104 10 4

Notched) Plaln

Stra] n !, ,,

1
10; 10 102

57,58

2024-T4 5454-O A-302

Alumlnum Alummum St@~l

Alloy

68 36 ln7

Rm. m 400 F P.m. 800F k Rm.

10

Bend]ng

R=-iiO R=-lto R=-lto

II

59 ,,

SAE 4340 (TEmp. at 400 800 F) ,, !, ,, ,, 1, ,, 24S-T3 Alclad !7 ,! Alumlnum 245T3A1. 7, !!

290 to 210

(Plaln

!, Axial

Lnad

R.-l ,,

10&250 1800 .3lo 12&lo ,, 4 3

10-1-105 ,, 1 102 ,, 10 -1 ,,

Notched) ,, II

60 61

~end~nq Axial ,, ,! Burst speed SlraIn ,,

,, ,, !, ,, ,, ,, ,,

R.-l

105
107 ,,

A11oY Alloy Alloy

74 67

Plalll

,, II ,!

62

2014-T3

Alumlnum

Compressor Rotor

Splrlmnq

R=O

-105

63 ,,

2S Aluminum ,, ,, ,, OFHC ,, ,1

(annealed) (as-rece,ved) (Prestrmned) ,, ,1

Axial

R=-1

10-1-104 ,, 1, ,, ,, ,, ,, ,, ,, 100400 ,, 50 35 103,, 10 ,, ,, ,, 1 -1

,, 1! ,, ,, ,, ,, ,, ,, 105 ,,

,, ,, ,!

Copper (annealed) (as-received) LOYJ Carbon Steel (armealed) A (annealsd) 347 Slalnless Steel 245-T Alumlnum Alloy

,, ,, ,! ,, ,, ,, Load ,, 1, !, 1, R.o ,,

N,ckel

64 ,, 65 ,, ,7 ,, 66

A-201 A-285

Steel Steel Bar Sheet Billet Bar

60 58 216 211 194 195 99

Welded ,, Plaln !,

500F&

Rm13enrJ1ng ,, Axial
Bend~ng

-..
7

SAE 4340 SAE 4337 SAE 4140 SAE 4140 Forged

Rm.
,,

-10

,, ,, ,,

JAW 1 a
Amal &

50

Steel

Notched

,,

- 104

Bend]ng

(see Ref. 4) R . Minimum

Value

of the of the

Param~ter Parame Ler

Maximum Value . Mean Strain

Tm = Mean Sm = Mean

Temperature Stress

-.. .,

., ..

COMMITTEE

ON

SHIP

STRUCTURAL

DESIGN

Division of Engineering & Industrial Research National Academy of Sciences-National Research Council

Chairman: Professor N. J. Hoff Head, Department of Aeronautical Stanford University Vice Chairman: Mr. M. G. Forrest Vice President - Naval Architecture Gibbs and Cox, Inc ~ Members: Dr. C . 0. Dohrenwe~d Provost and Vice President Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Professor J. Harvey Evans Dept. of Naval Architecture and Marine Massachusetts Institute of Technology Professor D. K. Felbeck Associate Professor of Mechanical University of Michigan Dr. J. M. Frankland Mechanics Division National Bureau of Standards
1-

Engineering

Engineering

Engineering

Professor J. W. Miles Department of Engineering University of California Professor William Brown University
-.

Prager

Professor Dana Young School of Engineering Yale University