Urzd_wEpnfli49

ELEETRONIES 3rd Edition

R, H. Warring, Edited bg E. Randg Slone

 1
Units,
Abbreviations,and Slmbols
Inelectronicsthereareshbasicnrjb to measurcquandties whir$definewhat
i" grhg ; h a cirurit. Herese thefirst three,with tbe letter srbols usedas
abbrtriatims:
VAx M - Aneasneofthepotential,enl(electromotivefotec)'ot ooltagena
Ct"oii. i'. practicalpurposes,potentialdifiereooe,enf, udvoltage dl rcalty
meanthe samething'
Anls (,0-A neasureof the currealfrowingin a circuil
iittt fW -A neasgred theroreldeveloBedbytheflowd cqnentthro*b a
chqdt
The othertlree referto the efiectof co4ments in tbe circuit:
olzs (o)-A measul€of.rhe nsisi4,n/-or individualresistancesin a circuit
whenthe currentflw is &ect (dc).
producedby
Far& (F)-AmeasrFe 6the @itancepresent in a circ{it or
i.e., capacitors.
individualcomponents;
proftced bf
n*r* fn-ineasure 4-6iln&mncepresent in a circuitor
individualcomponentssuchascoils.
'I\m otherinporbnt quantities,bothof wtricharemeasuredin ohms,are:

Imgqlane (A - A measnedtbeeftectiveresistance or individtlalresistanoes

U i circuitwhenthe currentflowis dternating(ac)'
andcapacitance in an ac
R;*fur* (x)_Tbcombined efiectof inductance
cLoit
Capital letters are also used as abbreviations for voltage and current. Strictly
speaking E (for emf) is the correct symbolfor a voltage source, with V (for volts)
in other parts of the circuit. V, can be used instead of E for a source voltage. The
capital letter I is used for current. In some circuits lowercase letters are used to
indicate voltages and currents flowing in different parts of a circuit; e.g., v and i,
respectively. These may have a reference annotation attached, particularly in
the case of transistor circuits; e.g., v,, describiig emitter voltage.
The relationship between units is explained in Chapter 3. There are also
various other units employed in electronics, the use and meaning of which will be
made clear in appropriate chapters.
In practical circuits, numerical values of these units may be very large, or very
small. Resistance values, for example, may run to millions of ohms. Capacitor
values may be in millionths or even million-millionths of a farad. To avoid writing
out such values in full, prefixes are used to designate the number associated with
the particular value involved. Normally, the symbol rather than the full prefix is
used,
mega (M)-X 1,000,000
kilo (k)-X 1,000
milli (m)-divided by 1,000 (or 1/1,00Oth)
micro (p)-divided by 1,000,000 (or 1/1,000,000th)
nano (n)-divided by 1,000,000,000 (or 1/1,000,000,000th)
pic0 (p) -divided by 1,000,000,000,000 (or 1/1,000,000,000,000)
For example, instead of writing out 22,000,000 ohms, it is shown as 22
Mohms, or 22 MQ, using symbols both for the prefix and basic unit. Similarly a
capacitor value of 0.000,000,000,220 farads is shown as 220 picoF, or, more
usually 220 pF.
The multipliers (M and k) are most commonly associated with values of
resistors, and also for specifying radio frequencies. The lowest divisor (m) is
most usually associated with the values of current typical of transistor circuits,
etc. It is also used to specify most practical values of inductances. The larger
divisors (p, n, and p) are most commonly associated with capacitor values.
S i e capital letter abbreviations are also used for components. The main
ones are:
C- capacitors
D -diodes
L- coils
R- resistors
These are all standard and universally accepted abbreviations. With other com-
ponents this is not always the case. Thus transistors may be designed T, TR, Tr,
VT or even Q on circuitsoriginatingfrom different sources. The use of TR, Tr, or
Q is preferred, leaving the letter T as the abbreviationfor transformers. Note the
abbreviation FET (or fet) is used for a field-effect transistor in text, although it
may be "Q" in diagrams.
In practical circuits, more than one of the same type of components are
---f- YYr
+F (
-+F
Fhed ValueResistm Electrolytic
Dode

-J-- -t- -#-n+

Capacitr
lnudspeaker

VarbbleResistor
I Variable
: ), Capacitor

-,yE- Earth
Ground
Chagsis
Ground - y t-l ' T rl
Rteo** TrimmerCapacitc

-\JJrr"
coil
-\.0..0.,1- -lF---lF
Jr- -lrlr
Cell Battery
Fig. 1-1.Symbolsfor
basiccircuit comPonents.
Othcrsxntblsaregiwn in later chapters.

normallyused.Individualcomponents of the sametypearethendesignated by

numbers(usuallyreading fromleft to right acrossthecircuit)associatedwith
the
gomrynentsymbol(Fig. 1-1).SeealsoChapterB.Thusresistorsaredesignated
Rl, R2, R3; capacitorsCL,C2, C3;andso on.Thereis no correctot specific
sequence in whichsuchnumbersareallocated. Theyarethereonlyto identifya
particularcomponent.
Here are someotler generalabbreviations that are widelyused,although
againtheymaybeshownin variousdifferentways:capitalletters,or lowercase
letters in uprightor italic, with or withoutperiods.Thusthe abbreviation of
alternatingcurrentmayappearin five differentways:
AC a.c. a.c. ac ac
The generalpreferenceis that all suchabbreviations
shouldbe in lowercase
withoutperiods,andsothe followingabbreviationsareshownthat way:
ac- alternatingcurrent
af-audio frequency
agc-automatic gaincontrol
am*-amplitude modulated (or amplitudemodulation)
dc-direct current
eht-extra hightension
fin*-frequency modulated (or frequencymodulation)
hf-high frequency
ht-high tension

* Thereisagoodreasonforretainingcapitallettersforthese
abbreviations,
sinceAJUandFMradios
ugethernthiqv/ay.

3
ic -integrated circuits
if -intermediate frequency(alsoi-f)
if-low frequencY
rf-radio frequencY
uhf -ultra high frequencY
vhf-very high frequencY
 DC and AC
A basicdirect current (dc) circuit is simple enoughto understand.A sogrceof
electricalforce (suchasa battery) is connectedviawirestovarious components
with a return path to the source. Cprrent then flows through the circuit in a
particular direction. Figure 2-1 shows a very elementary circuit of tlis type
where a battery is connectedto a dcelectric motor andis comparedwitha similar
closedloop hydraulic motor in a simple recirculating system.
It is obviouswhat happensin the hydraulic circuit. The pump is a sourceof
pressurizedwater which impingeson tlte vanesof the hydraulicmotor to drive it.
There is a flow of water aroundthe system.At the sametime, tlere is someloss
of pressureenergydueto the fiction of the water flowing through the pipesand
t}1emotor. This is the resistancein the circuit. But most of the pressureenergy
deliveredby the pump is convertedinto power by the hydraulic motor.
In the electrical circuit counterpart, the battery is a source of. electrical
pres{ilre (which in simpleterms we designateooltage),This forces an electrical
currentto flow through the circuit, opposd by ttre resistanceoffered by the
wiringandtheelectricmotorcoils.Again,mostofthe originalelectricalenergyin
the battery is convertedinto power by the electric motor. Providedthe battery
voltagedoesnot change,a constantvalueof current will flow tlrough the circuit
alwaysin the samedirection, and the electric motor will continue to nrn at a
constantsped.
Conventionally,dc current flow is regardedas beingfrom the positive to the
negativeterminalsof a battery or any otler dc source(suchasa dynamo).It is a
 Battery

Electrical Circuit HydraulicCircuit

circuitis similartoa hydrauliccircuil
Fig.2-1.An electrieel

streamflow,just like the waterflow in the hydrauliccircuit,but the streamis

actuallycomposed of sub.atomicparticlesor electrons.Unfortunately,after
convention badestablished thepositiveto negativeflowdefinition,it wasfound
that tlis electronstreamflowwasactrullyfuon negatioetoPositioe.Thisdoes
not rnatterfor mostpracticalpurposes, butfor anunderstanding of howtransis.
tors andother solid-statedeviceswork it is necessary to appreciate this "re-
verse"working.
Positivedwaysseemsstrongerthan negative,so it is difrcult to think of
currentasflowingotherthanfrom positiveto negative.TVecanrelatetlis to
electronsflowingfrom negativeto positivebythinkingofelectronsasprticlesof
negativeelectricity.Being"weaker"(negative), theyrepresenta reverseflow,
settingup conditionsfor a Positioeflow of current-from positiw to negatiae.
Otlerwise,simplyforgetthedifference andworkonthepracticalfacttbat* and
- are onlytermsof convenience usedto ensuretlnt components in a circuit
whichhavepositiveandnegativesidesareconnected upcorrecdy.Thisapplies
mainlyto batteries,transistors,diodes,andelectrolyticcapacitors.
All materialsare composed of atomsin whichthere is a stablebalanceof
positiveandnegativecharges(exceptin theatomsofradioactive elements). The
application of an electricalpressurecauseselectronsto be displaced from the
atom,leavingit with aneffectivepositivecharge.It is thenin a stateto attract
anystrayelectrons.Sincethereis electricalpressurepresent,this meansthat
thereis a movementof electronsalongthechainofatomscomprisingthewiring
andcomponent(s) in thecomplete returncircuit.It is thismovement tlat consti-
tutestheelectriccurrentflowingtlrough thecircuit,thestrengthof thecurrent
beingdependent ontlte numberof electronspassinganyparticularpointin the
circuitin a giventime.Breaktle circuitandthe pressureis broken,socurrent
flowceases. So,in fact,the analogywith a hydrauliccircuitis not reallyvalidin
thisinstance(thehydraulicpumpstill deliverswaterunderpressureif its circuit
is brokenuntil it hasemptiedthe fluidin the circuitbetweentle breakandthe
punp).
Atomsof materialslike metalswill giveupelectronsreadilywhensubiectto
electricalpres$re, andsomakegoodconductorsof.electricity.Atomsof most
non-metals, includingplastics,arereluctanttogiveupelectronsevenunderhigh

6
 I
I

Switch Time --.+> Switch

On off
Fig.2-2.Directcurrentfowwith constant
circuit resistance.
electricalpres$Ee,andso are essentiallynonconductors. If materialsare ex-
tremelyresistantto givingup atoms,they areclassified as insulators.
sunmarizing,then,a dc circuitwhenconnected or switchedon providesa
constantflowof currentin onedirectionthroughthecircuitasin Fig.i-2, unless
somethingchangesin the circuit (e.g.,sourcevoltagechanges,or a circuit
resistance valuealters).The ralueof this curent is determined by the souroe
voltageandthetotalresistance in thecircuit(seeChapter3).Currentflowisalso
regardedaspositive(or positivecurren$.
In the caseof an ac circuit, tre sourceof electricalpressurecontinually
reversesin a periodicmanner.Thismeansthatcurent flowsthroughthecircuit
first Ir onedirection(positive)andthenthe other(negative). In o6er words,a
simplegraphof currentflow with time will lookrikeFig. 2-3.The swingfrom
naximumpositiveto maximumnegativeis knownasthe amptitudeoiaaac
ctnrent.Alsoonecompleteperiodfromzeroto maximum positive,backto zero,
doumto naximumnegativeandbackto zeroagainis knownasa cycle.These
cyclesmayoccuratvaryingratesfrom afewtimesa second tomillionsoftimesa
secondanddefnethefrequencloftheaccurrent,frequencybeingequalto the
numberof cyclesper second.In the caseof the domesticmainsiupply (in
Britain),for example,tbe frequencyis s0 cycles-per-second, or 60 cycles-per-
secondin the u.s. But "cycles-per-second" is anobsoleteterm.It is nowcalled
hertz(abbreviated I{z). Thusstandardmainsfrequencyis S0c 60 Hz.

Eet
E:I I
g
5-t Switch
Ort

$€l cva"
J-
f-o'e Time-;
FiS. 24. Alteraatitg currentfuu b in cycbsof positiu and regatioecurnnt.
 ?
11)

I
d

€)
Peak: + Peakto Peak
d
b0
ru RMS:0.707X Peak
z

I
Fig.24. Peah-ta-peah,
fuah, ond raotmcansquaneaoltages
dcfinedand conpared.

Apart from the fact that ac is continuallyswingng from positive to negative

current flow, the other differenceis that the actualcurrent valuepresentis also
"average" value which can be
changingall the time. It does,however,have an
definedin variousways.The usualoneis the RootMeanSquare(or zzs), whichis
equal to 0,707L times the ma:rimumcycle values for sine wave ac such as
normally generatedby an alternator, Fig. 24. Alternating current may, how-
ever, be generatedwith other types of waveform.
Anotlrer characteristicof ac is that both the voltage and qrrent are contin-
ually changingin similar cycles.Only rarely, however,do the voltageandcurrent
both attain maximum andzerc valuesat exactly the sametime. In otlrcr words
the current (waveform) curve is displacedrelative to the voltage (waveform)
curve, Fig. 2-5. This displacementis known asa phav diference.ltis nomlally
orpressedin terms of t}reratio of the actualdisplacementto a full cyclelength on
t]1ezero line, multipliedby 360 (sincea full cycle represents360 degreesof ac
"peak" after the
working). This is calledthe plase angle.Usuallythe current will
voltage (i.e., be displacedto the right of the diagram),whereuponthe current is
said to be leggng and the phaseangleis referred to as angle of lag.

I
q)

q)

db
q)
z

+ Currenttageng by ] Cycleor 90 Ilegreee

Fig.2-5. Current uaul$ lagsbhind aoltagein an altcrnating curnnt circuit.

 Theuseof theterm "angle"canbeabit conftrsing at first. It is reallyamatter
of mathematicalconvenience, usefulin morecomplicated calculations involving
vectordiagrams.For ageneralunderstanding of acit isbetterto thinkofangleas
meaninga particular"numberpoint" ona linelengthrepresenting onefull cycle
dividedinto360divisions. Thusaphase angleof30degreescanbeunderstooda
a point30/360thsalongthat line.
Phasedifierence(phaseangle)canbe animportantfactorin the desigtand
workingof manyalternatingcurrentcircuitsbecause whena currentlags(or
leads)the voltage,the timingaspects of a circuit are affected.
3
Basic Circuits and
Circuit Laws
Asnotedin Ctnpter2,thecurrentwhichflowsin asimpledccircuitis dependent
ontheappliedvoltageandtheresistance
in thecircuit.Voltagecanbemeasured
acrossthe battery(or dc source)terminals;and
direcdyby a aoltmeterplaced
currentbyan ammeterconnected n seiesn the circuit,asin Fig. 3-1.This
diagramalsoshowsthe circuitcomponents in symbolicform.

OUM'S LAW
betweenvoltage(E),current(I), andresistance
Therelationship (R) is given
by Ohm'slaw:

.t : FE

In plain language:

volts
amps:
resistancein ohms

or the formula can be rewritten:

volts: ampsX ohms

10
 Battery

rl
Voltmetcr
I
L' -- ---- rl 1 v- ;---J
\-/
FA. 9.1.fusic dc circuitdnun in ttm ua1s,uith nwterslor ncaarhg cttrat end
odtryc indicated

. volts
onms--

This is oneof the mostbasicandmostusefirllawsof electronics andis equally

applicable to accircuitswhicharepurelyresistive(i.e.,do not haveadditional
resistance effectsproduced bythecunentbeingdternatingratherthansteady).
Ohn'slawmakesit possible (andthrs designltheperformance
to calculate ofa
simpledccircuit.Forexample, supposeyouneedacurrentof200miliamps(mA)
to flowin apartictlarcirorit to bepoweredbya &volt battery.Usingotrn'staw,
tle correspoading circuitresistance requiredto givethis cunent caneasityle
wortecln
. volts 6
tias:-:..:-
amps 0.200
- 30ohms

components areconnectedbywires,buttheresistanceofwiringisqnatteoough
to benegligible.
Thusin a simpledccircuitit is theeffectivetotalof all the
resistorraluesandothercomponentswhichofrerresistance.Just whatthistotal
valueis dependsonhowthevarious resistors
whichmaybepresentarecon-
nected(seeChapter 4).
In somecasesit is easyto caletatethe reeistance of a typicarload"Fc
example, aflashlightbulbisusuallyratedbyvoltsandtheqrrentitdraws.
ohm,s
lawcanthenbeusedtofind itsnominalresistance.
Forexample, if abulbbrated
at 6 voltsand50nA" fromObm'slaw:

Resistance-#- uo obns.

1l
There is just onesnagto this methodof estimatingloadresistance.Withfilament
bulbs, for example,the specifiedcurrent drawn refers to the bulb in working
conditionswith the filament heatedup. Its actual resistanceinitially when the
filament is cold can be considerablylower, drawing more current through the
bulb. This may, or may not, be a disadvantagein a particular circuit. Also, tlere
are other types of loads,like dc electric motors, where the effective resistance
variescondiserablywith the speedat which the motor is running.Initially, sucha
motor will havea very low resistance;its effectiveresistancethen increaseswith
speed.
Two other basicrelationshipsalso apply in a simple dc circuit:
1. The currentvalue is tlte samethrough every part of the circuit, unlessa part
of the circuit involves parallel-connectedpaths.
Thus, in a circuit (A) of Fig. 3-2, all the resistorsin the circuit are connectedin
seriesso that the sirmecurrent will flow through eachresistor.
In circuit (B) of Fig. 3-2, the resistors are connectedin parallel. ln this case
eachresistor representsa separatepath for the current andtlte valueof current
flowing through eachleg dependson tlre value of tint resistor. These current
valuescan be calculatedfrom Ohm's law:

throughresistort, current:
ft

throughresistorZ,current-
S

throughresistor3, current:
$

Thecurrentflowingthroughthewiringpartof thecircuitis thesumof these

tlree crrrents;Le.,
RT

A Resi$orsin Serbs B ResistorsinParallel

Fig. &2. Current has tlrc sne oalu thrwgh all r*is&lrs cotutebd in cries, htt is difcmrt throaghcrch n-
slttor conncctedi; fulallcl

u
 E , E E 1 . , 1 I
orE
Rl R2'R3 Rl-R2-R

2. Thevoltagethroughouta simpledccircuitis not constantbut suffersa drop

acrosseachresistor.
This canbe illustratedby the circuitshownin Fig. 3-8,wherethe voltages
acrossthe individualresistorsarecalculated (or measured with a voltmeter)as
VL,VZ andV3. The total resistance in the circuitis Rl * RZ+ R3.
The cur:ent(whichis the samethroughoutthe circui| is givenby:

.^:Rl]ft.!![
E

Wethenhavethe conditions:

acrossRl : currentX resistance

Vl, measured
:IXRl

acros{rR2 : I X R2
V2, measured

acrossR3 : I X R3
V3, measured

Eachof thesevoltagesis lessthanE.

Comparison with ahydrauliccircuitagain(seeChapter2)canhelpunderstand
how a resistorworksas a voltagedropper.In a hydrauliccircuit,pressureis
analogous to voltagein anelectroniccircuit.Theequivalent
to aresistoris some
devicerestrictingfluid flow-say a partiallyclosedvalve.Flow throughthis
resistorproducesa pressuredrop.similarly,tle flow of electricitythrougha
resistorproducesa voltagedrop.

Q
,--@_,
Fig. 3-3. R*istors dropooltagein a dc circuit.

13
VOLTAGE.DROPPER CIRCUIT
Theaboveisnowreworkedasapracticalemmple.To ponera&volt electricd
appliance(saya &volt transistorradio)froma l2-volt battery.In this case,tlte
applianceis considered asa resistanceload.To dropthe voltagefrom 12 to 6
acrossthisload,adropperresistor,R,is requiredin thecircuitshownin Fig.3'4.
It remainsto calculatea suitablevaluefor thisdroppingresistor, butto dot}is it
is necessaryto knowtlre effectiveresistance of the load.(If this is not knownit
canbemeasured with anohmmeter.)Suppcse it is 100ohms.
UsingOhm'slawagain,if this loadis to have6 voltsappliedacrorxlit, andits
resistanceis 100ohms,the currentrequiredto 6owthroughthe circuitis:

1
- : 6
100
:0.06 amps(60 millianls)

the
This samecurrentflowsthroughthe rest of the circuit. This, considering
circuitfrom the l2-volt end:

total resistance
required:
#
= 200 ohms

The loadalreadycontributed100 ohms,so the rnalueof droppingresistorre'

quiredmustbe 200- 100: 100ohns.Afirthercalculationshowstbevoltage
dropacrossthis resiston

V- 0.06X 100
- 6 volts

Thisparticularexamplealsodemonstrates anothersimple nrleconcerning drop

ping resistors.If the voltageis to be halved,then the rnalueof the dropping
resistorrequiredis the sameast}at of the load.

12
Volts
I r-O-r
R€sistorto "Ilrop" 6 Volts
Fig. 34 Prutical a!flicotiut of d drofuing tesisbn

tl
 POWER IN THE CIRCUIT
The power developedina circuit byvirtue of theelectricalpressure(volts)and
resulting current flow (amps)is given by the product of these two values,and
measuredin araffs.Thus:

power: watts: volts X arnps

This samedefinition appliesboth to dc and ac circuits.

Power is used up in producing a usr;fulresurt rn makingthe crcuit work
(whether this be operatinga radio, driving an electric motor, heatingan electric
element, etc.). But all componentswhich have resistance absorb a certain
amountof power which is waste power normally dissipatedin the form of heat.
No practical device can work without someresistancein the circuit, and thus
somepower lossis inevitable.More important, the heatingeffect must not be so
great that the componentis damaged.Thus componentsnormally havea power
rating which shouldnot be exceeded.In specificcases,even when operating
within their power rating, provisionmay haveto be madeto conductheat away
from tlre component-as in the caseof heatsinksusedwith power transistors.
Referringto the exampleof the droppingresistor, t}is definitelywastespower
to the tune of 6 (volts) X 0.06 (amps): 0.36 watts. To be on the safi side,
trerefore, tre resistor chosenwould needto havea power rating of at lqstvz
watt, and would alsohave to be placedin a position where it receivesadequate
ventilation to prevent heat build-upin the surroundingair.
The majority of transistor circuits work on low voltages, with low current
values,and so componentswith quite moderatepower ratings are usuallyade.
quate.circuits carrying higher voltagesandcurrents demandthe useof compo-
nents with correspondinglyhigher power ratings, and often need even more
attention to-ventilation.Thus, the actualvalueof a componentis only part of its
specification.Its power rating can be equallyimportant.
Note that since V: IR, power can also be calculatedas:

watts - (current)2X resistance

P: I?R

This is oftena moreconvenientforrrulaforcalculatingpowerinaparticularpart

of a circuit.

SHUNT CIRCTIITS
A shunt circuit is usedto drop a current flowing through a particular oompG
nent. It normally comprisestwo resistancesin parallel,one resistancebeingthe
componentresistanceandthe other the shuntresistance.The appropriatevalue
of the shunt resistanceis againcalculateddirectly from Ohm's law.
A typical exampleof the use of a shunt resistanceis to adapt an ammeter
movementto measuredifferent cur:mt ranges(asin a multimeter). In this case

15
theloadresistance is thatof thecoiloftheammeter,whichisinitiallydesignedto
En". ruu-r.aedeflection with a particularcurrentflowingthroughit (callthis
ir). tt " instrumentcannotmeasnre anyhighercurrentthanI, sincetlis would
sihpry tendto carrythe pointerpastits full deflection,andvery likely cause
or.ag". Thus,the meteris desigrred to handlethe lowestcurrentrangere-
quird, anda shuntresistor(or a seriesof shuntresistors)addedwhicttcanbe
orirctt"o into the meter circuit to extendtlre range.Figure3-5 showsthis
arrangement withjustoneshuntresistorconnected for switchingintothecircuit.
qfient, 12,
If the shuntresistoris to extendthe ammeterrangeto a higher
deflection,thentle requiredvalueof tle shunt follows
resistor
Euingruu-sc"ru
from:
1. current whichhasto flow throughthe shuntis I2-I.. This meansthat a
(unless
currentgreaterthanI, will neverflowtlrough themetermovement
the actualcrrrent appliedto the meter exceeds I)'
2. Voltagedrops".t*. thuteter - I, X R- (whereR- is theresistance of the
meter).
3. Shuntresishncerequiredis therefore:
voltagedropacrossinstrument: Irt" S
currmt flow througbshunt Iz - Ir

Again,tlere is a simplerule to followif the currentrangeof the meteris to be

dJubbd.In this casethe shuntresistancerequiredis the sameasthat of tlte
meter.

AMMETER INTO VOLTMETER

An ammeter,whichis aninstnrmentusedfor measuring current,canalsobe
madeto measure voltsby connecting a resistorin selt?swiththe meter-Fig.
3-6.This,infact,is anotlrerexampleofavoltagedropper.Again,if thema:rimum
whichmustbein
is 11, the fofalresistance
metercurrentfor full-scaledeflection
circtit is:

totalR: Ir1

whereV is the voltagerangeit is desiredto measure.

(Rx)
Met€trResistance

SimpleAmmeter

ShutResi*c
Fig. 3-5. Ertcnding thc range of a milliamnutcr.

16
 The valueof the seriesresistorrequiredis this total resistancelassthe
resistance ofthemeter(thelattermaybenegligible in comparisonwiththevalue
of seriesresistorrequiredandits likelytolerance-see Chapter4).
Again,severalseriesresistorsmaybeused,switchedintothecircuitindividu-
ally to providedifferentvoltage-measuringrangeson ttremetermovement, as
shownin the right handdiagramof Fig. 3-6.

DTVIDERS
A voltagedivideris yet anotherexampleof the practicalapplicationof a
voltagedropper.Thebasiccircuitis shownin Fig.3-7,andsincethecurrentflow
throughRl andR2 is the same,tle followingvoltagevaluesapply:

Vl : sourcevoltage(e.g.,batteryvoltage)

V2-VlXRl

vs:ffixnz
l-.. vl ---\
is tlte currentflowingthroughRt andRZ/.
\Note R-t + Rt
It followsthatbysuitableselectionofvaluesfor Rl andR2,virtuallyanylower
voltagethanVl canbetappedfrompointsA andB, or B andC (or both).It also
hasthe advantage that it is not necessary to knowthe loadresistancebefore
suitabledropperresistances canbecalculated. It couldthusbea morepractical
alternativefor theorampledescribed in Fig.3-4,butconnectionto aloaddoes,of
course,resultin a further dropin voltage.
If theresistance of theloadisknovm,tlrcnthereisnopartictlarproblemwitha
fixedresistorvoltagedivider.Calculate thevalueof R2(Fig.3-Z)onthebasisof
noloadresistance, tlen subtractthe actualvalue oftheloadresistancefromthis
to arriveat therequiredvaluefor R2.(In thecomplete tap@ circuit,R2andttre
loadresistance is effectivelyin series.)

Anmeter Moqeoeot

snlle Voltnetcr Voltmeter with Five Ranges

Fis.34.C.onoertingan dmmcteriilo a ooltmcbr.

17
 R1

'Droeeea'
Voluge
Ortput

Fig.&7. tusic fuobntialdiilder circtit.

BASIC AC CIRCUITS
As e:rplained in Chapter2, the voltageandcurent flow bothalternatein ac
circuits,with the possibilityof oneleadingor laggingthe other.Also,it was
intimatedthat theeffectiveresistance offeredbyresistancecomponentsrnaybe
modified(usuallyincreased) by reactiveeffects.Theseeffectsbecomeincreas.
inglymarkedas thefrequencyof theacincleases,andat radiofrequencies are
morepronounced thanpureresistance.
It is possibleto obtainanac circuitwhichis purelyresistive,particularlyat
lowerfrequencies, in whichcaseOhm'slawisequallyvdid for suchcircuitsasit is
for dc circuits.Ohm'slaw canalsobe appliedto ac circuitsin whichreactive
effectsare present,but in slightlymodifiedform. Thesereactiveeffectsare
describedspecifrcally as reactanceandimfedance,
Reactance is the circuit loadingeffectproducedby cafocitors andin&rc'
tances(atrs). trtis measqred in ohmsanddesignated by thesymbolL Its actqal
value is dependent both on tlrc component valueandthe frequencyof tlte ac.
In the case of capacitors, capacitivereactance(usuallydesignated&) is
givenby:

\:L^
in farads,aadTt: 3.L4L2.
wheref is theacfrequencyin llz, Cis thecapacitance
In the caseof inductances, ind*ctioe reactatre(usuallydesignated )&,) is
givenby:

Xa:ZnfL

in hen4n
whereL is the inductance

18
 If the ac circuit contains only reactance(i.e., does not have any separate
resistance),then x takes the placeof resistance(R) in the ohm's law forrrula:

-I : Ex

In practice,reactancepresentis alsousuallyassociatedwith resistance,the

resultingcombinationrepresentingthe impedance(Z) of.the circuit.

If reactance
andresistancearein series:

2:lfrpl
If reactanceand resistanceare in parallel:

"- [r
! RtR
Again, impedance(Z) takes the placeof resistancein the Ohm's law formula:

I:2
Theseare the basicformulasfor accircuitcalculations.

POWER FACTOR
Powerfactoris something specificto accircuits,althoughit is onlytheresist-
ancein suchcircuitsthat actuallyconsume power.Thispowerconsumed canbe
calculatedas tle productof the squareof the current flowingthroughthe
resistance andthevalueof theresistance; i.e.,IzRwatts.Theapparentpowerin
the circuitis the productof acvoltageandcurrent,correctlyspecifiedasvolt-
amps.
The ratio of tlre powerconsumed to the apparentpoweris calledthepower
factor,usuallye:rpressed asa percentage. If the circuitis purelyresistive,then
thepowerfactoris 100percent(sincealltheapparentpoweris consumed in the
resistance).Reactance doesnot consume power,soin a purelyreactivecircuit
tlte powerfactoris zero.TVhen a circuitcontainsbothresistance andimpedance
(i.e.,reactance), thent]tepowerfactoris alwayslessthan100percent,its ralue
depending present.
on tlte resistance

DC and AC in the SameCircuit

It is quitepossibleto havebothdcandacflowingin the samecircuit.In fact,
this is theprincipleonwhichmostradioandsimilarcircuitswork.Thedcis the
basicsourceof electricalsupply,onwhichrrariousaccurrentsaresuperimposed.
Theoneessential differenceisthatdccanonlyflowthrougha continuous
circuit,
 ac+dc ac+dc
+ €
ac+dc *l Supply
Voltage
c

Fig. 3{.. Flow of ac and dc in a circuit.

whereasac canpassthroughcomponents suchascapacitors whichpresenta

breakinthecircuittodc.Theseeffectscanbeusedtoadvantagetoisolatestages
in a circuit.
In the type of circuitshownin Fig. 3-8,for example,aninputcomprisinga
mixtureof dcandacis appliedto the left-handsideof ttrecircuit.If onlythe ac
component of thesignalis required,thedccontentcanbeblockedby acapacitor
(C1).Meantime,thenextpart of the circuitwhichhasto dealwith that signalis
poweredby dcfromthesourcesupply(saya battery),probablyviaresistorsRl
andR2actingasdividersto getthevoltagescorrectfor thatstage(otler stages
mayneeddifferentworkingdcvoltages,all comingfromthesamesource).The
outputsigrralfromthisstagetlen consists of amixtureof dcandac.If onlytheac
contentis wantedfor passing to thenextstage,acapacitor (C2)isagainusedasa
blockfor dc.

n
 Resistors
Resistors,as the nameimplies,are designedto providesomedesirable,or
necessary, amountof,resistance to currentflow in a circuit.Theycanalsobe
usedto dropvoltages,as explainedin chapterB. As such,t.heyare the nain
elements usedincircuitdesignto arriveat thedesiredcurreotflowsandvoltages
tlat work the circuit.Resistorsdo not generateelectricalenergy,but merely
absorbit. This energyis dissipated in tbe form of heat.The perforrnance
of a
resistorisnotaffectedbyfrequency, soit behaves in thesamewayinbothdcand
ac circuits.(Thereareexceptions, asnotedlater.)
Resistorsare specifiedby (a) resistanceralue in ohms;(b) toleranceas a
percentage of the nominalvalue;and(c) powerratingin watts.Theyare also
categorized by the typeof construction.

COLOR CODE
Resistance ralueandtolerancearenormallyindicated by a colorcodeconsist-
ing offour coloredrings,startingat, or closeto, oneend(FiS.4-1).Theseare
readasfollows:
lst ring givesfust digit
2ndring givesseconddigit
3rd ring givesnumberof zerosto put afterfrst two digits

21
 i
---

Black-0 Yellow-'l Violet-7

Brown-l Green-S GreY-8
Red-z Blue-6 White-g
Orange-3

Fig. Ll. Stsndarit tesistor color cdc marhing.

The fourth coloredring gives t}re tolerance:

silver- 10% toleranceeither side of the nominalvalue
gold-5% toleranceeither side of the nominalvalue
iA-ZW toleranceeither side of the nominalvalue
brown-1% toleranceeither side of the nominalvalue
BramPle;Resistor color coderead as brown, blue, orange'

Brown Blue Orange

Valuereadas 1 6 000
i.e.,16,000Q or 16 kQ (kilohms).

Absnce of a fourth ring implies a toleranceof 20 percent'

Certain types of modirn resistors of larger physicalsizemay haveletters and
numbers "*f"a on tle body instead of colored rings. With this coding, tle
numbers indicate the numerical value and the following letter tle multiplier,
where:
E:Xl
K: X 1,000 (or kilohms)
M - X 1,000,000(or megohms)
A secondletter then gives the tolerance:
M: 20% toleranceeittrer side of the nominalvalue
K - 10% toleranceeither side of the nominalvalue
J - 5% toleranceeither side of ttre nominalvalue
H:2.5oti toleranceeither sided the nominalvalue
G:2% toleranceeither side of tle nominalvalue
F : 1% toleranceeither side of the nominalvalue
The actual range of (nominal)resistancevaluesto which resistors are madeis
basedon stepsthat give an approximatelyconstantPercentageclnnge in resist-
ancefrom oneralue to the ne:rt-not simplearithmeticalstepslike 1, 2, 3, etc.
These are basedon tle preferred numbers:

22
 t, 1.2,1.5,1.E,
2,2r2,7,,3.3,
3.9,4.?,5.6,6.E,E.Z,
10,12,15,lE,etc.
Thus,for example,a typicalrangeof resistorvalueswouldbe:
L0,12,15,19,22,27,33,39, 47,56,69,92, and100ohms
120,150,180,220,270,330,390,470, 560,680and820ohms
L,1.2,1.5,1.8,2.2,2.7,3.3,
4.7,5.6,6.8,and8.2kilohms).
L0,12,etc.kilohms
1, 12,etc.megohms
As a generalrule, resistorswith a l0 percenttoleranceare suitablefor
averagecircuituse.Theactualresistance valueof,say,a 1kilohmresistorwould
thenbeanythingbetween900and1,100ohms.For morecriticalwork,suchas
radiocircuits,resistorswith a 5 percenttolerancearepreferred.Closertoler-
ancesarenot normallyrequired,exceptfor very criticatcircuits.

POWER RATING
The physicalsize(or strape)of a resistorprovidesno clueto its resistance
value,butcanbearoughguidetoitspowerrating.physicalsizes (Fig.4-2)range
fromabout4 mmlongby 1 mmdiameterupto abouts0 mmlongand6 mmor
morediameter.Theformerwouldprobablyhaveapowerratngof.Ll2}watt and
the latter possibly10 watts.More specifically, however,the powerratingis
relatedto typeaswell assize.A generalrule that doesapplyto powerrating,
however,is that while this figurenominal$representsa safemaximumthe
resistorcantoleratewithoutdamage, it is usuallybestto operatea resistorwell
belowits powerrating-say at b0 percent-particularly if components are
crowdedonacircuitorthe circuitisenclosedin acasewithlittle ornoventilation.

VOLTAGE RATING
Maximumoperatingvoltagealsocanbespecified for resistors,butsincetlis is
usuallyof theorderof 250voltsor more,thisparameteris not importantwhen
choosingresistorsfor batterycirctits. Resistorsusedon mainscircuitsmust,
however,havea suitablevoltagerating.

Tpes of Construction
Resistorfy'asclassified
by construction
follow.

^----
-
- -
l-l
-
-

Fig, tL2. Eramplesof mdern resistoroutlinx (actualsie).

23
 Carbon Resistors (alsocalledcarbon-composition,molded-carbon,andcar-
bonrod). Carbonresistorsare in the form of a smallrod moldedfrom carbonand
a binder, with wire connectionsat eachend.The rod is usuallyprotected with a
paper or ceramic sleeve,or a lacquer coatin$. Carbon resistors are the most
common(andcheapest)type of resistor, andare availablein valuesfrom 10 ohms
to 22 megohms.Standardtypesare usuallyavailableinl/a,Vt,Yz, L,and?watt
ratings.
It is a generalcharacteristicof carbonresistorsthat their valueremainsstable
at normal temperatures,but above60"C their resistanceincreasesrapidly with
increasingtemperature.

Carbon-film Resistors (alsoknown as high-stability carbonresistors). To

makea carbon-filmresistor, a thin film of carbonis depositedon a smallceramic
rod. The rod is fitted with metal end caps,to which wire leadsare attached.The
body of the resistor is usually protected by a varnish, paint, or siliconeresin
coating, but some types may be encasedin a ceramic, plastic, or glass outer
coating.
Carbon-filmresistorsare little affectedby temperaturechanges(theirstability
is usuallybetter than 1 percent)andare alsocharacterizcdby low noise.They are
availablein sub-miniaturesizes(U20 and U10 watt power rating, andin larger
sizesup to 1 watt power rating. They are a preferred type for radio circuits,
particularly as they have excellenthigh-frequencycharacteristics.

Metal-film Resistors. To makea metal-filmresistor, a metallicfilm (usually

nickel-chromium)is depositedon a glassor ceramicrod. A helical track is then
cutin the filmtoproducethe requiredresistancevalue. Metallicendcatsarethen
fitted, carrying the wire leads,and the body is protected by a lacquer,paint, or
plasticcoating.Stability characteristicsare similar to thoseof carbon-filmresis-
tors, but they are more e:rpensive.They are generally producedin miniature
sizeswith power ratings from 1/10 watt upwards.

Metaloxide Film Resistore. Constructionis similar to that of a metal-film

resistor except that the coating used is a metallic oxide (usually tin oxide),
subsequentlycovered with a heat-resistant coating. This type of resistor is
virtually imperviousto accidentaloverheating(e.g.,when makingsolderedcon-
nections)andis alsonot affectedby dirmpness.Stability is very high (better than
1 percent), and the power ratings are higb for their physicalsize.

Metal-glaze Resistors. In this type, tlre resistive film depositedon the rod
is a cermet (metal-ceramic);otfierwise, construction is similar to metal-film
resistors.
Film-resistors also can be classifiedas thich-film or thin-rth. As a general
rule, individualresistors of this type are thick-fiIm. Thick-film resistors are also
madein groupson a smallsubstrateandencapsulatedinintegradedcircuitchips.
Thin-film resistorsare madein a similar way, but on a considerablysmallerscale
for use in the manufactureof integrated circuits.

24
 Efiect of Age
All resistorscanbeexpected to undergoa changein resistance
is mostmarkedin thlgse of carbon-colnporiu*resistors, with age.This
wtrerethe change
mightbeasmuchas2O-percent in a yearor so.In the caseof carbon-firm
met'llic-fiknresistors,trrechanges"ido. will be,ooi" and
tu- " ril pur."nt.
Efiect of High Frequencies
The generaleffectof increasingfrequencyin ac
circuitsis to decrease the
apparentvalueof ther:y:torland thehighertheresistor
,.ru" ii"-i""ter this
changeis likelyto be.This effectis mosimarked
with carbon+omposition and
wire-roundresistors.carbon-filmanametar-nr,n-resiriil,iirr"""it'ure
frequencycharacteristics. high_

WIRE.WOUNDRESISTORS
A wire-roundresistorismadebywrappingarengthof
resistancewirearounda
ceramiccoil.The wholeis thencovered- wilh a protectivecoatingor film. The
:p".i6g advantages offeredby wireresistorsarethat a wiaerange';varues
can
eroduced (tyeicallyfrom i ohmto sookitohms)*ith po;;;;;
!: from 1 to
50 watts (or up to 225 watts-in"power" types)and
tolerancesas closeas 1
percent.Theyalsohaveexgelelt stability
andlow noise.Thea disadvantages
arethat trey aremostcostryandalso*.uit"ut" for
usein,. "i.JL carrying
highfrequencies because their effectivevaruechanges.physicary,theyneedbe
no biggerthanfilm-typeresistorsfor the samepower
rating.

VARIABLE RESISTTVEDEVICES
Themostcommontlpe ofvariabreresistive deviceusedinmodernerectronics
il calleda potentiomefar. A potentiomet"iisa three.leadresistivedevicecon-
sistingof a fixedresistiveerementtrratcanbesweptby
a wiperarm.The6xed
resistiveelement,or trach,may b" circurar
r".u"uv r zi6J"g* arc) or a
straightline,circulartypesbeingthe morecommon.
Theresistiveelementmaybe-wire-wound, carbon-composition, carbon-fiIm,
or metallic-fiIm.The former tlpe is knownas a wire.wbundpotenuometer.
carbon-trackpotentiom€ters. are the cheapest(with the samelimitationsas
carbon-composition resistors),but are availableonly with ,nJ"ot" power
ratings-e.g.,Yr wattforlowresistance ralues-reducingwith higherresist-
ancevalues.wire-woundpotentiometers usualyhavehigG po","i'oting, .no
arealsoavailablein lowerresistance varuesttrancarbonrtraclpotentiometers.
Tolerances areusuallyontheorderof r0 percentof 20percent,futo'"v
closerwith precisionpotentiometers. u",*r,
connections shouldbeobviousfromFig.4-3.Thus,with connections
to endr
the.tryckandthe wiper,length1 to ck the resistivetrack
9f is in the circuit.
Actualcircuit resistancethus can be variedby moving
(increasing the wiper towards3
resistance),
or toward1 (decreasing resistance).
The changein resistancecal occurpropoiionanyto
the actuarrengtrrof
track involved,or rogarithmeticafu,*n*u trrereis a logarithmic
increasein
 Potentiometetr

Wipet rr"*
(Turnedby lhob)
Fig. H. Potentiometershown in vhematic form (lefr). Correspondingtcrminal posi-
tions are sluun on thc symbols(ight).

resistance with wipermovement uncovering moretrack(similarto tlte "stegs"

adoptedfor standardresistorvalues).Theformeris knownasa linearpotentt-
ometerandthelattera logpotentiometer. Potentiometers canalsohavecharac-
teristicsbetweentlre two. Note that linear in this descriptionhasquite a
differentmeaningto a linearphysicalshapeof potentiometer. To avoidconfir-
sion,it is bestto refer to the latter asa slide-typepotentiometer.
Thereis alsoaclassofvariableresistorsintendedtobeadjustedtoapartiodar
resistance settingandthenleft undisturbed. Theseareknownas trim Potenti-
ometers, or just trim pots.Theyaresmallin sizeandmorelimitedin maximum
resistancevalue-typically from 100 ohmsto 1 megohm.They are usually
designed for adjustment by a screwdriverappliedto the centralscrew.
Anothertypeofvariableresistivedeviceis calleda rheostat.A rheostatis a
twoleadvariableresistor.Rheostats canbecreatedby simplybrpingone endof
thefixedresistance ofapotentiometerto its associatedtap. Thus,thepotentiom-
eter becomes a two'leadadjustable resistor.Otler tlpes of rheqstatsareawil-
able,whichare usuallyintendedfor highpowerdissipation. Theyconsistof a
fixedwirewound powerresistorwith atrackoftheresistiveelementexposed. An
adjustable ring makescontactwith this trackandis permanently lockedat any
desiredresistance valuealongtlre traclc
Potentiometers areusedspecifically in a circuitin whichit is necessary to be
ableto adjustresistance.A typicalexampleis the volumecontrolin a radio
circuit.In this casethe potentiometer canbedesigned sothat at oneendof the
track the wiperrunsright off the track to breakthe circuit.Thusthe volume
controlcanalsobe connected up to work asanon-offswitch,usingtlis ortra
facilityprovided.
Anotherpracticalexampleis the replacement of fixedresistorsin a voltage
divider by a single potentiometer to make the circuit variablein performance.
Thus,t}re circuit previouslydescribedin Fig. 3-7 (Chapter3) alwaysgivesa

26
 Fig. tU. A Practicaladjustablepotentialdioider.

predetermined voltageat the tappingpoints(providedthe supplyvoltagere-

mainsconstant). Replacing resistorsRl andR2with a potentiometer (Fig.4-4),
wittr the tappingpointtakenfromoneendof tle potentiometer andthe wiper,
willgiveatappedvoltagethatisfullyvariablefromthefullsupplyvoltagedownt
zero,depending on tle positionof the wiper.
In practice,in a variable'voltage circuitof this type,it maybe necessary to
leavea fixedresistorin serieswith thepotentiometer to limit theorrent being
drawnin ttreeventthat the potmtiometerhasbeenadiusted to zeroresistance
andthe tappedcircuit is brokenor switchedoff with the originalsupplystill
connected. Witlout thefixedresistor,thesupplyis shorted.Thevalueof afixed
resistoris calculated to limit the currentdrawnin sucha caseto a safelevel
Withafi:redresistorinserieswiththepotentiometer, of course,tie maximum
voltagethatcanbetappedfromtle potentiometerisequal tothe supplyvoltage
lessthe voltagedroppedby the fixedresistor.
The mainthing to watchin sucha circuit is that the powerrating of the
potentiometer is adequate to accommodate thevoltageandcurrentdrainin the
tappedcircuit.But it hasonefurther advantage overa 6xedresistorpotential
divider:Whena loadis addedto the tappedcircuit,it addsresistancein that
circuit,causing afurthervoltagedrop.Unlessthisisallowedfor in calculating the
valuesfor thefi:redresistorsin a potentialdivider,theloadwill receivelessthan
the designvoltage.With a potentiometer replacingthe two fixedresistors,its
positioncanbeadjusted to bringtheloadvoltage backto therequiredfigure (Fig.
4.5).Thisconsiderably simplifiesthedesignof a potentialdividerwheretheload
resistance is knownonlyapproximately, or not at all

Fig. +5. Tltcfotzntiometcrcan b adjustztltogiaerequiredooltageacrosstlu load.

27
 RT R2 R3 R4

- Rl * R2+ R3+ R4
TotalResistance
Fig.tt6. Resrsfors
in vries-

CIRCUIT RULES FOR RESISTORS

'' connectedin series(Fig.4-6),thetotalresistance
in
Ifr thecaseof resistances
circuitwill be tle sumof tle variousresistorvalues;i.e.,
:Rl * R2+ R3+'''
totalresistance

In the caseof resistorsconnectedin parallel(Fig. 4-7)' the total effective

resistanceis givenby:

1 1 1 1
n-Rt-R2-85T"'
whereR is the total resistance.
In tle caseof two dissimilarresistors:

Rl R2
K - -
Rl+R2

as:
or remembered
productof resistorvalues
-
total resistance
sumof resistorvdues

I _ 1 .' 1 * ' l
totA nesistance Rl R2 R3

in Parallel.
Fig.+7. Resistors

%
 F
o
Capacitors
A capacitoris basicallya devicewhich
storesan eJytric charge.physicary,
consistsof two metarplates-ora*troa.. it
."p"oted by aninsurati'gmateriaror
dielectric.Apprication of.. a. r"rig" .-"Jirrg napacitorprodu.ur-,
of electronson tre oositiygpr.r" ria a"fi.iun.y
"-ilt'of erectronson tre negativeprate
(Fig. 5-l). This diffLrenua...rrut"tioi}"r".t
onsrepresentsan erectricar
upacertain
tuvet
tJepenoing
"" t[";;il6 andthen
ffii,ft"Yr1*rt$:i
As far asdc is concerned, the insulatoractsasa bluhing deienfor
flow(atthoughtrrereis a certaintt-.luni.rr.rging current
asthe capacitoris frrtv charged).rn current which stopsassoon
trr"-.iJorac appliedto thecapacitor,
upduringone r,"[.y.r"u"."i". trre
lfo-ry:so that effectively
cycle'
reversed ontrrcsecond harfoftre
the capacitor "onou.6 current
didnotexist.fhus,..i;;;.;;;cerned, through it as if the
f$y. "."p."ito?i.acoupring
Therearescarcelyanyelectroniccircuits
carryingacwhichdonotincorporate
oneor more capacitors,ei_ther for coupringor shapingtrr" o'.on-i"qu"n"y
responseof the netwolk. In the tattei?i,-a
resistorto form an RC cornbination capacitoris associatedwith a
phenomenon GJtiiapter.6). The charge/discharge
associated_wittr
*pr.i-t-")" *.],"*
circuits(e'g', trrephoto-graphic be usedin otfr", typ"* or
"r*troni"il'.r, is-operatedby the
subsequent dischargeof a capacitorttiggurJat chargeand
the appropriatemoment).
 a ?

ktikls up d chargewlpn connected

Fig.5-1.Illustratinghowa capacitor to a dc
ttochingcurrentfow.
ooltage,

maybedesigrred
Likeresistors,capacitors to havefixedvaluesor berrariable
in capacity.Fixedcapacitorsarethe mainbuildingblocksof a circuit(together
aremainlyusedfor adjustingtunedcircuits.
witl resistors).Variablecapacitors

FD(ED CAPACITORS
Fixedcapacitors fall into two maincategories: non-polarizdcapacitors, and
polarized or electrolyticcagacitors. Themainthingwhichdetermines thetypeof
capacitoris the dielectricmaterialused.
Non-polarized capacitorsconsist,basically,of metallicfoil interleaveswitlt
sheetsof soliddielectricmaterial,or equivalentconstruction.The important
thingis that the dielectricis readymadebeforeassembly. As a consequence, it
doesnotmatterwhich plate is madepositive or negative. The capacitor works in
just thesameway,whicheverwayit is connected in a circuit,hencethedescrip
tion "non-polarized." is
This obviously convenient, butthisformof construction
doeslimit ttre amountof capacitance which can be accommodated in a single
packageof reasonable physicalsize.Up to about0.1 microfarads, the package
canbemadequitesmall,butfor capacitance valuesmuchaboveI microfarad, tle
physicalsizeof a non-polarized capacitortendsto become excessively large in
comparison with othercomponents likelyto be used in the same circuit.
This limitationdoesnot applyin the caseof anelectrolyticcapacitor.Here,
initialconstruction consistsof two electrodes separated by a thin film of elecfuo
bte. Fs a finalstageof manufacture, a voltageis appliedacrossthe electrodes
whichhastheeffectof producing averythinfilmof nonconducting metallicoxide
onthe surfaceof one plate to formthe dielectric.Thefactthat capacitance of a
capacitorincreasesthe thinnerthe dielectricis mademeansthat very much
highercapacitances canbe producedin smallerphysicalsizes.The onlydisad-
vantageis that an electrolyticcapacitormadein this waywill havea polarity
corresponding to theoriginalpolaritywith whichthedielectricwasformed,tlis
correctpolaritybeingmarkedon tlre bodyof the capacitor.If connected tbe
wrongwayin a circuit,the reversedpolaritycandestroythedielectricflm and
permanently ruin the capacitor.
Thereis alsooneothercharacteristic whichappliesto anelectrolyticcapaci-
tor. A certainamountof unused electrolyteremainsafterits initialforming.This

30
acts as a conductorand canmakethe capacitorquite leakyas far as dc is
concerned. This mayor maynot beacceptable
in particularcircuits.

NONPOLARZED CAPACITOR TI"ES

varioustypesof constructionareusedfor nonpolarizedcapacitors,mostof
whichareeasilyidentifiedby theshapeof thecapacitor-seeFig. s-2.Thereis
noneedto gointodetailabouttheactualconstructions.Theirspecificcharacter-
isticsareimportant,though,astlese candeterminethe besttpe to usefor a
particularapplication.

Paper Dielectric capacitors. Generallyrecognizable by their tubular

form,arethelestexpensive but generallybulky,valuefor value,compared with
moremoderntypes.Theirothermainlimitationis that tley arenot suitablefor
useat frequencies muchabove1 MHz,whichvirtuallyrestrictstheirapplication
to audiocircuits.Theyaregenerallyavailable
in varuesfrom0.0bpF upto I or
2 pF, withworkingvoltagesfrom200to 1,000volts.Plastic-impregnated paper
dielectriccapacitors
mayhavemuchhigherworkingvoltages.

ceramic capacitors. Nowwidelyusedin miniaturized audioandrf circuits.

Theyarerelativelyinexpensive andareavailablein a widerangeofvaluesfrom
1 pFto 1 pF with highworkingvoltages,andalsocharacterizedbyhighleakage
resistance.
Theyareproduced in bothdiscsandtubularshapes andasmetallized
ceramicplates.

silver-mica capacitors. Moreorpensivethanceramiccapacitors

buthave
excellenthigh-frequency
responseandmuchsmallertolerances,
soaregenerally

^mmf/
"frN s H
n -r'x
' \l-M
f
t
c
A-Ceramic Dsc
B-Gramic Ptate
C-SilveredMca
H
F-Tantalum Bead
G-Electrolytic(Polarizcd)
F
I
H-Non-PolarizedElectrolytic
D-Polystyrene J-Plug-InType(Sienens)
E-Polycarbonate
Fig, &2. Erample^sof modern capacitors

31
regardedas superior for critical applications.They can be madewith very high
working voltages.

Polystyrene Capacitors. Madefrom metallicfoil interleavedwitl polysty-

rene film, usuallywith a fusedpolystyreneenclosureto ensurehigh insulation
resistgrce. They are noted for their low lossesat high frequencies(i.e., low
induptafce and low seriesresistance),goodstability andreliability. Valuesmay
range from l0 pF to 100,000 pF, but working voltage generallyfalls substan-
tially with increasingcapacitance(e.g., as low as 60 volts for a 100,000 pF
polystyrenecapacitor).

Polycarbonate Capacitors. Usually producedin tlte form of rectangular

slabswith wire end connectionsdesignedto plug into a printed circuit board.
They offer high values(up to I pF) in very smallsizes,with the characteristicsof
low lossesand low inductance.Like polystyrene capacitors,working voltages
becomemore restricted with increasingvalue.

Polyester Fitm Capacitors. Also designedfor use with printed circuit

boards,with valuesfrom 0.01 1B up to 2.2 pF. Valuefor valuethey are generally
larger in physicalsizethan polycarbonatecapacitors.Their low inherent induc-
tancemakesthem particularly suitablefor couplinganddecouplingapplications.
Valuesof polyesterfilm capacitorsare indicatedby a color codeconsistingof
five color bands(seeFig. F3).

Mylar Film Capacitors. A general-purposefilm type, usually availablein

valuesfrom 0.00f pF up to 0.22 1$, with a working voltageup to 100 volts dc.

ELECTROLYTIC CAPACITORS
The original material used for electrolytic capacitorswas aluminium foil,
together with a pasteelectrolyte, wound into a tubular form with an aluminum
outer cover, characterizedby dimpledrings at one or both ends.The modern
form of aluminum electrolytic capacitor is basedon etched-foil construction,
enablinghigher capacitancevaluesto be achievedin smaller can sizes.Values
availablefrom I pF up to 4,700 lE (or even larger, if required). Working volt-
agesare generallylow, but may range from 10 volts up to 250 or 500 volts dc,

- lstDigit
ffi_2dDisit
W Multiplier
rc Tobrance - Black*OR-20%
vort"g"n"tiog whiter oR- lolo
l:'l- \ -
E:fr?'rKB
l l
FA. 5-?.C;olorcodefor poly.stercafuibr*

z
 Working
Capacitancein pF 3rd Ring dc Voltage

1QOLOR Ring Ring and Multiplier Color Voltage

Black 0 x 1.00 White 3

Brown 1 1 x Yellow 6.3
Red 2 2 Black 10
Orange 3 3 Green 16
Yellow 4 4 Grey 25
Green O D Pink 35
Blue 6 6
Violet t t
Grey 8 8 x 0.01
White 9 9 x 0.10
Fig. 54, C,olorcdc for tantalumbad capacitors.

dependingon valueand construction.A singleleademergesfrom eachend,but

singleendedtypes (both leadsemergingfrom oneend), andcan-t1peswith rigid
leadsinone endfor plugginginto a socketare alsoavailable.single-endedtypes
are preferred for mounting on printed-circuit boards.
The other main types of electrolytic is the tantalum capacitor. This is pro-
duced both in cylindrical configurationwith ddal leads, or n tantalumhead
configuration.Both (anathe latter type particularly) can offer very high capaci-
tance valuesin small physicalsizes,within tlre range 0.1 to 100pF. voltage
ratings are generallylow; from 35 volts down to less than 10 volts dc.
All electrolytic capacitorsnormally have their value marked on tlre body or
case,togetler with a polarity marking (* indicatingthe positive lead). Tanta-
lum-beadcapacitors,however, are sometimescolor codedinstead of marked
witr values.This color codingis shownin Fi g. s-4,while other codeswhich may
be found on otfier types ofnon-polarizedcapacitorsare given in Fig. F-b.

2ndDgit
Multiptier \ rst Digit

'
: }}J1
q"/
iTffi:
Murtiprie.53{'"**

MultiplierTolerance w
Toterancell tr*'r*u .^,.-..-l I

lst Digit 2nd Digit Multiplier

i l |

i l |
Fig. 5-5. Aher codingsysbmsuvd on capacitars.

3:)
Tolerance of Fixed Capacitore
As a generalrule, only silver-micacapacitorsare madeto closetolerances
(plusor minus1 percentis usrul).Thetoleranceonothertypesof capacitors is
usuallybetween 10 and 20 percent and may be even higher (as muchas 50
Because
percent)in thecaseof alurrinumfoilelectrolytics. of thewidetolerances
choice
norrralwith electrolytics, of value
actual is seldom criticat

VARIABLE CAPACITORS
Variablecapacitors arebasedoninterleaved setsof metalplates,onesetbeing
fixedandtheothermovable. Theplatesareseparated by a dielectricwhichmay
beairorasoliddielectric. Movementof onesetofplatesdterstheeffective area
of the plates, and thus the ralue of capacitance present.
Thereis alsoa generaldistinctionbetweentuning capaa;i/airsv*d for fre'
quentadjtstment(e.g., to tute a radio receiverto a partiorlar station)and
trimmer caprciforsused for initialadiustment of a hmedcircuit.Tuningcapaci-
tors are larger, more robust in constnrction and generallyof airdielectrictype.
Trimmercapacitors are usrully based ona mica orfi}n dielectricwitha smaller
numberof plates,capacitance being adjusted by trrning a ceotralscrewto rary
thepressurebetweenplatesandmica. Becausetheyaresmallerinsize,however,
a trimmercapacitormaysometimes beusedasahmingcapacitor onasubminia-
ture radiocircuit, althougbspecial miniature hning capacitors are made,de-
signedto mountdirectlyon a printed*ircuit board"
In thecaseof tuningcapacitors, theshapeof tbernanes determines themanner
in whichcapacitance charryes with spindle movemeot" Tbese cbaracteristics
usully fall underoneof the followingdescriptions:
e Linear-where eachdegreeof spindlerotationproduces anequalchangein
capacitance. Tbis is the mostusualtne chosenfor radioreceivers.
o Logaithmic-where eachdegreeof spindlemovement poducesa constant
fercentage
-Ewn change n frequncy of a hmed circuil
o freqtuncyI whseeachdegreeof spindlemovement p&rcs m equal
change in frequency in a tuned circ'uit.
o Squirelaw- wherethechangeintapacitance ispropodionalto thequare of'
the angle of spindle movemeot.

BASIC CIRCUIT RI'LES FOR CAPACITORS

The rules for total capacitance of capacitorsin series andin paralleltare
opposite to that for For
resistors. connectednseria (Fig.5-6)' the
capacitors
totaleffectivecapacitance (C) is given by:

-l HHI--
I -i-'1,-A
TotalCapacitance Cl
' '
C2 Ci!
Fig.ffi. &Pcitors itsriss

a
 - C1+ C2+ Ci|
TotalCapacitance

FA. e7. Cafacitorsin parallel.

lc: : +
c ll + l +' c 3
'c2

or, in tle caseof hro dissimilarcapacitors

A clcz
ar:f,ffi

In words

: product-ofcapacitances
total capacitance
'
sumofcapacitances

Fc capacitorsconnected
in parallet(FiS.$Z):

C - C l + C 2 + C 3 +. . .
Thiscapacitanceefrect,of course,isonlyapparentin anaccircuiLIn adccircuita
capacitorsimplybuildsup a chargewithoutpassingcurrent.In a practicalac
circuit,a capacitoralsoorhibits reactance(seeChapter2), andbecarceof its
ao$itruction,mayalsoexhibita certainamountof.indrctance(seeCbapterZ).

ffi
6
capacitorand RC Circuits
Oneofthe principalusesofa capacitoris asa couplingdevice capable ofpassing
ac but acting as a block to dc. In any practical circuit, tlere will be some
resistance connected in serieswith the capacitor(e.g.,tle resistiveloadof the
circuit beingcoupled),This resistancelimits the currentflow andleadsto a
certaindelaybetweentle applicationof a voltageto the capacitorandthe
build-upof chargeon tle capacitorequivalentto tlnt voltage.It is this charge
voltagewhichblocksthe passage of dc. At the sametime,tbe combination of
resistance with capacitance,generallyabbreviated to RC,actsasafilterapprbb
of passingacfrequencies, depending onthechargedischarge timeof thecapaci-
tor, or the time consfuntoftheRCcombination

TIME CONSTANT
the time constant(t) is quitesimple:
The formulafor calculatirrg

t -R C

where:

t : time constantin seconds

R - resistance
in ohms
C: capacitance in farads

fi
 0t canbenotedthatthesamenumerical raluefor T is givenif R is in ohmsandC
in farads,but megohmsandmicrofaradsare usully muchmore convoient
units.)
The time constantis actuallythetime for thevoltageacrossthecapacitorin
an RCcombination to reach63 percentof the appliedvolt4ge(this63 percent
foure is chosen asa mathernatical convenience). ThevoltageacK)ssthe capaci-
tor goeson buildingup to almost(butneverquite)100percentof the applied
roltage,as shonmin Fig. Gl.
T\e time+onstantfadorrcfersto the durationof timein termsof the time
ftctor; e.g., at I (whichrs the time factorof the RCcombinations) 63 percent
full voltagehasbeenbuilt up, in a time equalto 2 timesthe time consbnt,80
percentfull rcltage;andso on. After a time constantof 5 the full (almost100
percenDvoltagehasbeenbuilt up acrossthe capacitor.
The dischargecharacteristics of a capacitortakeplacein essentially the b
yercemantrer;e.g.,aftera periodof timeequalto tle timeconstanttbevoltage
acrossthecapacitorbasdropped100- 63 - 37 percentof thefull volt4geand
so orl"
In theory,at least,a capacitorneverchargesup to full appliedvoltage;nor
doesit fully discharge. In p'ractice,full charge,or completedischarge, canbe
considered as beingachievedin a periodof time equalto five time constants.
Thus,in the circuit identifiedwith Fig. G2, closingswitctr1 producesa fdl
chargeon ttre capacitorin 5 timestime constantseconds. If $ritch 1 is now
opened, thecapacitorthenremainsina conditionof storingavoltageequiralent
to the originalappliedvoltage,holdingthis chargeindefnitelyif there is no
internalleakage.In practice,it very slowlylosesits charge,as no practical
capacitoris perfect,but for someconsiderable time it remainseffectivelyasa
potentialsourceof full*tnrge voltage.If the capacitoris part of a high-voltage
circuit,foroanple, itisreadilycapable of givinganelectricshoc.kif touc.hedfor
sometime afterthe circuithasbeenswitchedoff.
To completethecycleof chargedischarge asshownin theseconddiagramof
Fig.&1, switch2 is closed, whenthecapacitor discharges throughtheassociated
resistance, tahng a finiteamountof time to completeits discharge.

0 1 2 3 { 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
Tim Coostatrt
Fact6 Tiuc CosteatFactc
FA. eL. Penentageodtageaclor*calacitor nlated to tittu ubn bing cluryed(W
anddialurge (ighil.

tr
 TimeConstantFactor TLncCortrnt Frctr
Fig.62 Closingwihh 1allouscaluitor b clwrgcigltt upin a tisu c.qulb 6 ritu
a similarpriod todinluryefil$ throrgha ld rcifur tfrcs
cmstantsIt thcntahos
witch2isclovd.

Figure&3 showsavery simplecircuitthatworksonthisFinciple.It coosists

of aresistor(R)andcapacitor(C)connectedin seriestoasource ddcvoltage.Ar
a visualindicationof ttre workingof the circtit, a neonlampis connectedin
parallelwith thecapacitor.Thelamprepresentsavirtully opencirctit until its
thresholdvoltageis applied,whenit imnediatelyconductscurrentlike a low
resistance andglows(seeChapter10for moreaboutneons).Tbevoltagesouroe
for this currentmustthereforebe abovetbat of the neontum-onvolt4ga
Whenthiscircuitis switchedon,the capacitorstartstobuiH upa c.harge ata
rate dependfuig on tle time constantof R andC. Tbe lampis fed by voltage
developed acr$s the capacitor.Oncethis reachesthe turnon voltqged ttre
hmp, the lampswitcheson andcausesthe capacitorto disc.harge tlrowb the
neongas,causingit to glow.Orcethecapacitorhasdischarged, nom6€ qrrrent
flowsthroughthelampandsoit switcbesoffagainutil thecapacitorhasbuiltup
anotherchargeequivalent to theturnon voltage,whenit dischargeathrowh the
lamp,andsoon.In otherwords,theneonlampwill flashat a ratedetermined by
the time constantof R and C.
Usingthe component valuesshown,tbe time constaotfor tle cirqdt iss

t - 5 (megohms)
x 0.1(niaoftrads)
- 0.5seconds

Fig. ffi. Sinpleneonfoshcr circuit (notctheqnbl lor a ,wrr lanfu). Ttu oalucEof
the rcsisbr (R) and ca!rcitor (C) detemiw thcfoshing rate.

I
 Thisisnot necessarily theactualflashingrateof thecircuit.It maytakeaperiod
of morethanonetime constant(or less)for the capacitorvoltageto buildupto
the neonturn-onvoltage-more if the turn'on voltageis greaterthan 63
percentof thesupplyvoltage;lessif theturn'onvoltageislessthan63percentof
the supplyvoltage.
It atsoiollowsthattheflashingratecanbealteredby alteringthevdueof R or
C, either by substitutingdifferentvaluescalculatedto give a differenttime
constant,oi wittra paraUit-connected resistoror capacitor.Connecting asimilar
valueresistorin parallelwith R, for example,woulddoublethe flashingrate
(sinceparalleting iimitar resistorvalueshalvesthetotalresistance). Connecting
a similar valuecapacitor in parallel
with c halves the flashing rate.
This type of ctcuit is knownas a relaration osillator. Usinga variable
resistorfor R it canbeadiusted for aspecificflashingrate.It candsobeextended
in theformof anoveltylightingsystembyconnecting aseriesofRCcircuits,each
with a neonlampin cascade, eachRCcombination with a differenttimeconstant
-Fig. &4. Thi; produces randomflashingof t11e neonsin tle completecircuit.

CAPACITORSIN AC CIRCUITS
Asfar asacis concerned, thefactthattheappliedvoltageis alternatingmeans
that duringone half cyclethe capacitoris effectivelybeingchargedanddis-
chargedwith onedirectionof voltage;andduringthesecondhalfof t]1eaccycle,
ctrarieaanddischarged with oppositedirectionof voltage.Thus,in effect,ac
uottaie.pass*noughttrecapacitor, restrictedonlybysuchlimitationsas maybe
appffr UvtfreRCtimeconstantwhich determineswhat proportion of the applied
niit"g" is Uuittup anddischargedt}rough the capacitor.At the same time,the
to the passage
of acthrough reactance (see
."p.Jitot offersa certainopposition
Ciiipt* 3), althoughthisdoesnot actuallyconsume power.Its maininfluenceis
on frequencyresponse of RCcircuits.

SIMPLE COUPLING
Couplingonestageof a radioreceiverto the next stagevia a capacitoris
commondesignpractice. Althoughthecapacitance onitsown,
isapparentlyused
by
represented
with aneffectiveseriesresistance
it is associated the loadofthe

thiswayand will fash in

Fig. &4. Randomcasadefla.slprcircuit. Any numfurof lampscanbeconnecbdin
rardomorfur.
stagebeingfed-Fig. &5. This, togetherwith the capacitor,forms an RC
combination whichhasa particulartimeconstant.It is importanttlat this time
constantmatctres therequirementsof theacsignalfrequenclbing passed from
onestage to the other.
In the caseof AM radiostage,the ma:rimumsignallikely to be presentis
10 kIIz. The cycletime of sucha signalis U10'000- 0.1 milliseconds. How-
ever,to pass this frequency
each cycle representstwo func-
charge/disc;harge
tionsasfarasthecouplingcapacitoris concerned, one positiveandone negative.
Thusthetimeperiodfor a singlecharge/discharge functionis 0.05milliseconds.
The RCtime constantnecessary to accommodate mustbea
this application
valuecapableof passing63 percent of the appliedacvoltage-and preferably
moretlnn 63 percentof the appliedvoltage.
Thesefigres cangiveyou a clueas to the optimumralue of the coupling
capacitorto use.For example,the typicalinput resistanceof a low power
transistoris of the orderof 1,000ohms.The time constantof a matchingRC
couplingwouldbe 0.05milliseconds (seeabove),givingthe requirements:
f
t:RC.'.C:=
t(

-9W
1X ld
:0.05 x 10-5
:0.05 pF

(or higtrer,sincethis wouldensuremorethan63 percentvoltagepassed).

In practice,a muchhighercapacitance wlue wouldnormallybeused;evenas
higb as lpF or more This usuallygivesbetter results,at the expenseof
(Anapparentcontradiction,
efficiencyof ac(in tlis caserf) transrnission. but it
happensto work out that waybecause the loadis reactiteratherthanpurely
reistive.) Whatthe simplecalculationdoesshowis that capacitivecoupling
becomes increasingly lessefrcientwith decreasingfrequencyof acsignalwhen
associated with practicalvaluesof capacitors usedfor couplingduties.

FILTER CIRCUITS
A basicRCcombination usedasafllarcirczitis shownin Fig. &6. Fromthe
reutance,witha
a resistorin serieswith a capacitive
inputside,thisrepresents

acSigld EficcrivcRceicrncc
Gcocntcd

Copling
SuScf C.Fcit6

is b W o signalsad tlu* dc
Fig.ffi. fusicf*tution of a couflingcapacitor
dgnals.It ab lases uwlulating dc signals

4)
FiS.6$. fusiefilter circuit.It Huhsrcfnquncieshighcrtlvn theilbtfnq.cnct of
thccoabination ofR andC,

voltagedropacrosseachcomponent. If the reactanceof the capacitor()b) is

muchgreaterthanR,mostof tle inputvoltageappears acrossthecapacitorand
tlus the outputvoltageapproaches the input voltagein value.Reactance is
inverselyproportional to frequency, however,andsowith increasing frequency
the reactanceof the capacitordecreases, andso doesthe outputvoltage(an
hcreasingproportionof tbe inputvoltagebeingdroppedby the resistor).
As far aseffectivepassage of acis concerned, tlere is a criticalfrequeocyat
wbichthereactance component becomes sodegraded in valuetlat suchacircuit
st rts to become blockingratherthanconductive; Le.,tle ratioofvoltqd/volt%
startsto fall rapidly.This is shom in simplifieddiagrammatic formin Fig. C7.
Thecritical point, knownastheroll-off point or catotrfreqaenq(4),is givenby:
I
f -
..
2nRC
where:
R is in ohms
C is in farads
z- 3.1416
0dB

gd
\ -t*
!
I \ -uorE
g \ -r* .E
I I
g \ -o*F
g 0.rE
0.125
a
\

\
I
-$dB!
-"*$
0.09 -21 dB>
h0 t/to -rfirqu4t [ 1&f,
FA.e7. Sinllifieddiagramoflnw thcratioof ooltsinl ooltsnt dnhsralidb u the
cntoffteWenqofafiltq b e,rualcd.
All Ebrrole
Uorr tb cubt Inryenq an lM
sitho*t attenuatio*
 previously,
ButRC,asnoted isegual
tothetimecmskntdtheRCombinatio.
Ilence:

\. : mt
whereT irsthe time constant,in seconds.
Theperforrnance of suchafilter is definedby its cutofrfrequencyandtherate
at whichthe volts5/volts"nratio fallsabovethe cutofffrequency.Thelatter ic
normallyquotedas(somany)dBperoctave(or eachdoublingdfrequency)(see
Fig. e8) whichshowstherelationship betweendBandvoltqbfrcttsdratio,and
alsothe tnre form of thefrequencyresponse ctree.

IOW.PASS FILTDRS
Circuitsd this type are ealledlowlass filtersfuu* they passsg siguts
belowthe @crrt-off frequencywith little or no loss or atbntutios e Jgnal
streryth" with signls abovethe cutoftfrequency,thereis increasingatteotn-
tim. suitablecomponent rnaluesare readilycalcnlated"For examplga typical
sratch filbrassociatd with a recordplayeror amplifierwonHbedesigned to
attmuatefrequencies above,say,l0 kHz-Fig. Gg. Thisraluerepresenrts the
oilofr frequencyrequired;i.e.,Anycombination d R (in obns)ad C (inhrads)
giyingthis prodrctrnaluecouldbe r$ed.

EIGtr.PASS FILTERS
High-passfilters work the other way around.They attenuatefrequencies
belowthe ortoff frequency,but passfrequenciesat andabovethe cutofrfre

0dB
-3 dB >.
Ro[offpointor
I
\

-6 dB cutofftrequency
.9
E -edB \
&
\
$ -udB
-15 dB \
\
-18 dB

-2r dB \
Vl00 V10 t r0 x i
Frequency
Fig.ffi Theoctr.olrollof fodntot ttu fnqrercy nsfurt* crtw of a fiItet is mt
*r-tV defr,ten"Theilbt fnqunq b nallXa nninaifigun andgeturalgtthtn as
tlelrcwcaq at uhichtlun iso J biM lossora cr/lts
inl ,dltsmt itu ofi.mz rhiEie
qtiulest b a 50pncnt las offuwt

c
 (R)
Resistor

low-PassFilter
Fig.&9. simplcvrahhfiltcrcitcuit.Anycombination
ofcomfionent giainga
aarues
lraductofRC- 7ffi0will worh.

quencywith no attenuation. To achievethis modeof working,the two compo-'

nentsin the circuitare interchanged(Fig.6-10).
This typeof filter is againcommonlyassociated with recordplayercircuits,
incorrporatedto eliminatelow-frequencynoiseor "rumble" which may be
present.The desigltcutofffrequency mustbe lowenoughnot to interferewith
bassresponse, andso the valuechosenis usuallyof the orderof 15 to 20llz.
Exactlythe sameformulais usedto determinethe cutofffrequency,hence,
usinga desigrralueof 20llzz

,r-#'.,Ji
RC: 125

of R (in ohms)andC (in farads)grvinsa productof.l'25

Again,anycombination
wouldwork.

Capocitor(C)

High-Pass
Filtctr
FA. 6n. Rteh[ High-tdssor ntmblefilters cut of lowlreqrenciesfut passhigh
A typicalaalrcfor thelroduct RC in thiscav wouldb 125.
frequencies.
 ln practical circuits, such filters are normally inserted in the preamplifier
stage,or in tlre amplifierimmediatelyin front of the tone control circuit. For hi-fi
systems,the type of filter circuits usedare considerablymore complicatedthan
the onesdescribed.
For more advancedfilter designs,seethe appendix.

tU
 Coils and Inductances
magneticfield.Thiscreationof magneticenergyrepresents a powerlossduring
thetimethatfieldis beingcreated,whichismeasurable in termsofavoltagedrop
9r bachemf,Thisis quitedifferent(andadditional) to thevoltagedropproduced
by the resistanceof the conductor,anddisappears oncestabli conditionshave
beenreached.Thus,in a dc circuit,the backemftendsto preventthe curent
risingrapidlywhenthecircuitis switchedon.oncea constantmagneticfieldhas
beenestablished, tre backemf disappears sinceno further "n*gy is being
extractedfrom the circuitandtransferredto the magneticfield.
In thecaseof anaccircuit,thecurrentis continuallychanging, creatinga back
emf whichis alsochangrngat a similarrate. The valueof the backemf is
dependentboth on tlre rate of changeof current(frequency)andto a factor
dependent on the form of tle conductorwhichgovernsits inductance.Induc-
tanceis tlus anotherformof resistance to ac,generated in additionto the pure
resistance.
Every conductorhasinductance whencarryingac, althoughin the caseof
straightwiresthis is usuallynegligible(exceptat very highfrequencies). If the
wireiswoundin theformofacoil,however, itsinductanceisgreatlyincreased.If
thecoilisfittedwith anironcore,thenits inductance is evenhigheifor tlresame
numberof turnsandcoil size.
TViththe acflowingthrought}recoil,tlre "resistive"conditionestablished is
notasdrasticasmayappearat first sight.Thepolarityof thebackemfis always
 suchasto opposeanychangein current.Thuswhilethe currentis increasing,
workis beingdoneagainstthebackemfby storingenergyinthernagnetic field.
On the next part of the currentcyclewhenthe curent is falling,tle stored
energyin tlte magneticfield returnsto the circuit, tlrus tendingto keepthe
current flowing(seeFig. 7-1). An inductance,in fact, may be a very good
conductorof ac,especiallywhencombined with a capacitorrn a tunedcircuit
(seelater).Onthe otler hand,it maybedesigned to workasa resistivecompo-
nentot chohe.
Theinductance ofasingle-layercoil,woundwith spacebetweenadjacent turns
canbecalculated from the formula:

R2 N2
L-
9R + 10L

where:

L is the inductance in microhenrys

R is the radiusof the coilin inches
N is the numberof turns
L is the lengthof the coilin inches.

Written as a solutionfor the numberof turns requiredto producea given

inductancewith R andL predetermined:

' - : 1 @lo[,)xL
-l-
Thisformulaappliesregardless of the actualdiameterof the wire used(also,it
doesnot matterwhetler barewire or insulatedwire is used),providedttrecoil
diameteris muchlargerthanthewire diameter. Forpracticalsizesofwiresused
for coilwinding,this meansa minimumcoildiameterof at least1 inch(25 mm).

+
I
E
a
(J

switchoo SwitchOn
Time -* Time*
Fig. 7'1. fuch emfinducedin a dccircuit onxtitching on eristson\t momcntarig.In
an accircuit, thcfuchemfis continuallychanging.

/to
 For smallerdiametercoils,thewiresizehasanincreasing modifyingeffecton
the actualinductance, andeventhe lengthof leadsat the endsof the coil can
upsetthe calculation. Thussuchcoilsarenormallydesigned on empiricallines
(i.e.,basedona specifiednumberofturnsofagivensize ofwireknowntoproduce
a giveninductance whenwoundona specificforrr diameter).
In practice,smallcoilsarenormallywoundona formintendedto takeaniron
core. The positionof this core is adjustable,relativeto the woundcoil, by
screwingin or out.Thust}e actnalvalueof inductance canberariedfor tuning
purposes (Fig. 7-2, left).
Alternativelya pot coremaybe usedwherethe coil is woundon a form or
bobbin,subsequently in aniron housing.Providedthesiecific iniluc-
enclosed
tanceof.the pot coreis known(it is usuallyspecified
by the manufacturer), the
numberof turns (p) to be usedfor the windingcanbe calculatedwith good
accuracy fromthe formula
t=
N: -/3
YA"

whereL is the inductance required,andA" is the quotedspecificinductance

of
the pot corein the sameunitsasL. .
Practicalvaluesof inductanceusedin electroniccircuitsmay rangefrom
microhenrys(in mediumand high frequencycircuits)to millihenrys(in low
frequencycircuits),up to severalhenrysfor chokesin powersupplycircuits.
Normally,aninductance will bewoundfromthelargestdiameterenameled wire
it is convenientto use(andstill gettherequirednumberof turnsontlte formor
bobbin),because this will minimizeobmicresistance andtlus improvetle effi-
cimcy or &factarof.the coil

RESONANTCIRCUITS
A coil(inductance) anda capacitorconnected in seriesacrossanacsupplyhas
theveryimportantcharacteristic that it is possiblefor thereactiveeffectof one
to cancelouttle reactiveeffectsof theother.Thusin thedemonstration circuit
shownin Fig. 7-3,L is the inductance, andC the capacitorconnected acrossa
sourceof ac,the frequencyof whichcanbe varied.A resistor(R) is shownin
serieswith L andC, asaninevitablepart of a practicalcircuit.
If theacsupplyis adiusted
to a lowfrequency, thecapacitivereactance will be
verymuchlargerthanR, andttreinductivereactance will bemuchlowerthanR

E ffi
g g
E ffi
Fig. 7-2 Coilform (lcfi) and tot con^c(rieht)-

47
 Th€oreticalCirqrit PracticalEqrdnkrt

whichmahea resnantcircait.
Fig. 74. Components

(andthusalsoverymuchlowerthanthecapacitive reactance). SeeCbapter3 for

the formulasfor capacitiveandinductivereactance,andhowtlese valuesare
dependent on frequency.
If the ac supplyis adjustedto a highfrequencythe oppositeconditionswill
apply-inductive reactance muchlargerthanR,andcapacitive reactance lower
thanR andL. Somewhere betweenthesetwo e:rtremesthereis anacfrequency
at whichthe reactances of the capacitanceandinductance areequal,andthis is
the really interestingpoint.I[hen inductivereactance(X") equalscapcitive
reactance (Xc),thevoltagedropsactosstiese two components will beequalbut
7& degrees out of phav. This meansthe two voltagedropscanceleachotler
out,with theresultthat onlyR is effectiveastotalresistance to currentflow.In
otler words,maximum currentflowsthroughthecircuit,determined onlybythe
valueof R andthe appliedacvoltage.
![orking undertheseconditions, thecircuitis saidto be resnant.Obviously,
resonance occursonlyat a specificfrequency,whichis thuscalledthe resonant
frequency.Itsvalueis givenby the simpleformula:

. l
':ffiLC

where:

f: resonantfrequencyin IIz
L - inductance
in henrys
C - capacitance
in farads.

A moreconvenient
formulato useis:

106
'.
? : -

2nJfr,
wbere:

f - resonantfrequencyin kilohertz(kIIz)

tt8
 L - inductance
in microhenrys(pH)
C: capacitancein picofarads(pF).

Notethattlreformulafor resonant frequency

isnotaffectedbyLy resistance(R)
in thecircuit.Thepresence of resistance
does,however,affecttheeualityfactor
or 0 of the circuit.Thisis a measureof how sharfgthecircuit canbetunedto
resonan@, thehighertlle valueof Qthebetter,in thisrespect.Theactualvalue
of Q is givenby:

o:*
whereX is thereactance in ohmsof eitherthe inductanceor capacitanceat the
resonantfrequency(theyareboththe same,soit doesnot matterwhichoneis
taken)andR is the valueof the seriesresistance in ohms.
The practicalresonantcircuit (or tuned circuit) is basedon just two
components - aninductance andacapacitor.Someresistance isalwayspresent,
however.At lowto moderately highfrequencies,mostof tltis resistance
comes
fromthewirefromwhichthecoiliswound.At verymuchhigherfrequencies, the
najority of the resistancemay comefrom the frequencyenergylossin the
capacitor.

TUNED CIRCUITS
The combination of an inductanceandcapacitance in seriesis the standard
Iormof.tunedcircuitu#nalmost everyradioreceiver.Figurez-4illustratesa
tunedcircuit with the inductorandcapacitorin a parallelconfiguration. The
impedance (Z) of thiscircuitis oppositein effectto thecircuitshownin Fig.Z-3.
As previouslydiscussed, whentlte resonantfrequencyis appliedto ttre circuit
shownin Fig.7-3,thecircuitcurrentis at its highest(meaning its impedanceisat
minimum).Thecircuitillustratedin Fig.7-4presentsits highestimpedance at its
pointof resonance.

TheoreticalCircuit PracticalEquivdent
Fig. 74 TheoreticaQ, on$ a capacitor and indrctance are inoobed in a resnant
circuit. In practice, snc resistanceis alway frexnt as uell.
 To make the circuit tunable over a range of resonant frequencies,either
componentcan be a variable type. The usualchoicefor antennacircuits is to
maketlre capacitorvariable.In practice,tlte coil may alsohavevariablecharac-
teristics. It is usudly wound on a sleevefitted on a ferrite rod, and capableof
being moved up and down the rod, providing a meansof varying tlre effective
inductance.Oncean optimumpositionhasbeenfoundfor the coil, it is cemented
to the rod. ln other words,the variablecharacteristicsof the coil areusedonlyfor
initial adjustment.After that, all adjustmentof resonantfrequency,or tuning, is
doneby the variablecapacitor.
To assist in selecting suitable componentvalues, the resonant frequency
formula can be rewritten:

1012
LC:
4n2 f2

where L is in mictohenrys,C is in picofarads,and f is the frequencyin kIIz.

Maximum valuesof variablecapacitorusedare normally 300 pF or 500 pF.
The working formula for calculatinga matchinginductancevalue is:

L(microhenry
n: #

Asanexample, supposethetunedcircuitistobedesignedtocoverthemedium
waveband, from500to 1,600kHz;anda 500pFtuningcapacitor
or frequencies
is to be used.It followsfrom the resonantfrequencyformulathat ma:rimum
capacitance will correspondto the lowestresonantfrequency(with a fixed
inductance),whichin thiscaseis 500kHz.lnsertingtlese valuesin tle working
formula:

L(microhenrysr:Z;#,
*
:200

Nowcheckthe resonantfrequencywhen the capacitoris turnedto its mini-

mumvalue (whichwill probably
be about50 pF, associated with this valueof
inductance:

FM
: 1,600kIIz
4nzX200X50

This showsthat a 50-500 pF variablecapacitorwill tune the circuitfrom

50
Fig. 7-5.A series-rennantcircuit. Tlv impedance acrosstlrctcrminab
of tlu circuit b wry lou at thefrequencyof rennance;at thcconnection
btween tlv capacitorand inducta4 the imfodanceis wry higrL Thc
cafrcitor is usual$ theoariablcelcmentin thisanangement

1500kHz (the highestfrequency),downto 500kIIz satisfactorily.In other

words,it coversttrewholeof the mediumwavebroadcast band.
T
If the finalresultsachievedin the circuitdo not providequitetlre coverage
required(for example, a stationnearoneendof the bandis not pickedup)then
thereis stillthe possibilityofshiftingthefreguencyooverage inonedirectionor
the otherby adjustingtheinductance (i.e.,slidingthecoilupor downtheferrite
rd).
Thereareotler typeof tunedcircuitswhichnormallyrequireadjustment only
wheninitiallysettingup.Thesenormallyemployatunableinductance (e.g.,acoil
woundona formwith anadjustable powdered-iron core).Suchcircuitsmayalso
be tunedby a trimmer capacitor,or both a trimmer capacitorand tunable
inductance. The latter combination providesdoubletuniqg.

SERIES.RESONANTCIRCIIITS
Anottrerarrangement of the coil-capacitorcombination is to connectthemin
series(Fig.7-5).Thisproducesaseries-resonantcraitwherein thereactances
of the coil andcapacitorare againequalbut opposite.The differenceis that it
presentsa lowimpedance at the terminalsof the circuit(topandbottom).This
lowimpedance hastheeffectof shuntingtheacfrequency of resonance outofthe
circuit.Frequencies otherthanthe resonantonearenot affectedby the tuned
circuit,asthe off-resonance impedance is undisturbed.
A common usefor thistypeofcircuitis to remove,or reducein amplitude, any
unwantedsignals,whileallowingall othersto pass.A popularapplication of the
series-resonant circuitisin theantenna or rf-amplifierstagesofreceivers,where
it is oftencalleda waoe-trap.Itcanalsobeusedquiteeffectivelyin transmitter
power-amplifier stagesto trapunwantedmultiples (harmonics) oftlefundamen-
tal frequencyof operation.

RADIO.FREQUENCYCHOKES
A radiofrequencychoke(rfc) is a coilor inductance
sodesigned that it hasa
relativelylowohmicresistance
buta veryhighreactance at radiofrequencies. It
 Fig. 74. ?ypicalapfuaranceof clnhx woundon a ferrite core.

can thus passdc but blockshigh frequencyac when tlte two are present in the
samecircuit (Fig. 7-6). ln other words,it really works the oppositeto a capacitor
as a circuit element in this respect.
The characteristicsof any rfc vary with frequency.At high frequenciesit has
characteristicssimilar to that of a parallel-resonantcircuit; and at low frequen-
cies characteristicssimilar to that of a series-resonantcircuit. At intermediate
frequencies,it has intermediate characteristics.The actual characteristicsare
relatively unimportantwhen an rfc is usedfor seriesfeedbecausethe rf voltage
acrqss the choke is negligible. If used for parallel feed (where the choke is
shuntedacros{ra tank circuit), it must have sufficienfly high impedanceat the
lowest frequenciesand no series-resonancecharacteristicsat the higher fre-
quenciesin order to reduce power absorption to a suitable level. Otherwise,
there is a danger of the chokebeing overloadedand burned out.
Chokesdesigred to maintain at least a critical value of inductanceover tlre
likely range of qrrent likely to flow through them are calledswinging chohes.
They are usedas input filters on power suppliesto reduce riiple, or residualac
content. Chokesdesignedspecificallyfor smoothingripple, and having a sub
stantially constantinductance,independentofcbangesin current, are known as
snmthing ch&es.

52
 Transformers
A transformerconsistsof two coilssopositionedthat theyhavemutualinduc-
tance.Thismagrretic couplingeffectcanbefurtherenhanced bywindingthetwo
coilson a commoniron core(seeFig. &1). The coilwhichis connected to tlrc
sourceof supplyis calledthey'rimary,mdtheothercoilis calledthewcondary.
In orderto transferelectricalenergrfromprimaryto secondary, the magretic
fieldmustbe continuallychangrng; i.e.,the supplymustbe ac.
Oneof the mostusefulcharacteristics of a transformeris its abilityto step
down(orstepup)acvoltages.Thestepdown(orstepup)ratioisproportional to
the numberof turnsin eachcoil:

V,=NNrx%
where:
V. : secondaryvoltage
N, : numberofturns on secondary
\ : numberof turnsonprimary
V, -prinaryvoltage.

Thecurrentsffowingin theprinaryandsecondaryfollow
a similarrelationship,
but in oppositeratio:

L:Nn/N,x t

53
 Iron Core

".,.71IF:.'**
Secondary

Fig. 8-1. Thesimpleiron+oredtransformcr.

where:

l: secondarycurrent
- nrimaw current
|

ln other words, a stepdown in voltage producesa step-upin current, and vice

versa.
In practice,there are alwayssomelossesdueto the resistanceof tlte coilsand
energy lost in hysteresisand eddy currents in the core (in the caseof an iron-
coredtransformer),andalsofrom reactancecausedby a leak of inductancefrom
both coils.Thus, the powerwhich canbe takenfrom the secondaryis alwaysless
than the power put intothe primary, the ratio of the two powersbeingameasure
of.the eftciencyof the transformer.
Typically, efficiencymay rangefrom 60 percentupwards,but is not necessar-
ily constant.A transformer is usuallydesignedto haveits maximumefficiencyat
its rated power output. Its actual efficiency figure decreasesif the output is
higherorlower.This lossofpowerappearsintheformofheat.Thus,overloading
a transformer can both reduce its efficiency and increasethe heating effect.
Operatingat reducedoutput hasno harmfuleffect, exceptforreducing efficiency
becausethe actual power loss (and thus heating effect) is lowered.

TRANSFORMERS AS POWER SUPPLIES

By selecting a suitable turns ratio, a transformer can be used directly to
convert an ac supply voltage into a lower (or higher) ac output voltage at
efficiencieswhich may be as high as 90 percent lpig. 8-2). There are also
applicationswhere a I : 1 turns ratio transformer is used,providingthe sameac
output voltage astlte ac input voltage,where it is desirableto isolatetlte supply
from the output circuit. All transformersdo, ofcourse, provide physicalsepara-
tion of input and output circuits, but the degreeof isolationsafety is very muc.h
dependenton the actual constructionof tlte transformer.
The more usualpower-supplyapplicationof a transformer is to stepdown an
ac voltage into some lower dc voltage output. The transformer only provides
voltage conversion.Additional componentsare neededin the output circuit to
transform the convertedac voltage into a dc voltage.
Two basiccircuits for doingthis are shownin Fig. 8-3. The first usesa single
diodeandprovideshalf-waaeratification,passing onehalf of eachaccycleasdc

51
 Power loss 10 Percent
or More

ac ln

StepDownTransformer StepUp Trandormer

Fig.&2 stct4owrr ard step-uptransformersdefined,In fractice, transfotztcrsare oftcn drawn in slmbolic
fottl uith bth coilsof tlv vme length,regardless
of actual turns ratio.

andsuppressing theotherhalfcycle.Thepurposeof thecapacitoris to maintain

the dc voltageoutputasfar aspossibleby discharging on eachsuppressed half
cycle,andfor this a largevaluecapacitoris required.Althougha very simple
circuit,it hasthe inherentdisadvantage of generatingttrgh peahvolkgesand
currents,especiallyifahighcurrentisdrawnfromtheoutput.Also,thedcoutput
is far from smooth.It hasa rippleat tlre acfrequency.
Muchcanbedoneto smooththeoutputbyaddinganinductance or chokeanda
secondcapacitor,asshownin theseconddiagrarn.Thesetwo components work
as a filter (seealsochapter 6). The designof the chokehasto be specially
matchedto tlte requirements, offeringlow resistanceto dc withoutbecoming
saturated, whichcouldreduceits inductance. In particularcircuitstheinductance
maybea swingingchoke,whenit is possibleto eliminatethereservoircapacitor
c1.
Thefirst diagramof Fig.84 showsa sinplefulr-wau rectifiercircuitaddedto
tlte transformer(thesecondary of whichmustbecentertapped).For the same
secondary voltageasthehalf-wave rectifier,thedcoutputvoltageis nowhalved,
but the currentwhichcanbedrawnfor a givenrectifierratingis doubled.The
reservoir capacitorchargesand dischargesalternately.This producesa
smootherdcsupply,butrippleis still presentandin tlis caseisequalto twicethe
acfrequency.
Themoreusualformof full-waverecffier isthe bridgecircuit,shownin the
seconddiagramofFig.8-4.Thisgivesapproximately thesameno-loadvoltageas
a half-waverectifier with the advantage of full-waverectificationandbetter
smootldng.

*l Vob 2!l0 Volts

r ac

Fig. &3. Half-wau rectificationof ac.

55
 Fig. 8.4. Full-waaenctifuation of u.

A practicalcircuit of this type is shownin Fig. &5. A singlehigh ralue

electrolyticcapacitoris usedfor smoothing.Additionalsmoothingbetrreen
stagesfedfrom sucha powersupplymaybeprovidedby a resistor,associated
with a decoupling capacitorQikeFig.8-3).Theresistorrraluecandsobechosen
to dropa specificamountof voltageif thepreviousstage(s)
donotrequirethefrdl
power-supply outputvoltage.

TRANSFORMERSAS COUPLING DEVICES

Transformersare very usefulcouplingelementsfor ac circuits.As well as
providingcouplingtheycanstepupa voltageor current,andevenmoreimpor-
tant for imPedance matching.By choosingthe properturnsratio,the imped-
anceofafixedloadcanbetransfornedto anydesiredhigherorlowerimpedance,
within practicallimits.This canbe a particularlyimportantrequirementwhen
couplingtransistorradiostages.
For impedance matching,the followingrelationshipapplies:

*-,8
where:

Altmat'w! Symbda
f6 BridS! Rccdfa

Fig. &5. Practicalpower-svpfl1circuit. A hiSh wluc capacitoris usd. Thefur

@
diodesdreboaght a 8 a
singlecom|oneil calleda bridgerectifer.

56
 ac
Output

FiS,e4. Theaubtransformer
is a singlcfuil-lcrgthcoilwitha tallittg loint

Znis the impedanceof the tran$ormerlookinginto ttre primaryterminats

z. is the impedance
of the loadconnectedto the secondary of tle trandormer

For impedance matching,it is thereforenecesvry to designthe primaryto

providethe requiredZo^d selectthe turnsratio to satisfythe equation

AUTOTRANSFORMERS
An autotransforzarisa one.winding coilwith anintermediatetappingpoinl
The full lengthof the coil (usually)formsthe primary,andthe lengthof coil
betweenthe tappingpointandoneendof tlre coilsenesastlre secondary (Fig.
&6). It worksonoractlythesameprincipleasa conventional transformer,with
the voltagedeveloped acrossthe outputproportionalto the turnsratio of this
lengtl ofcoil to thefull lengthofcoil.Thebiggestdisadvantage ofanautotrans"
formeris that it doesnot provideisolationbetweenthe primaryandsecondary
windings.This canbe critical(or evendangerous) in somehigh-powerapplica-
tions.

57
9
Semiconductors
Resistors,capacitorsandinductances are knownas passiu components. De-
viceswhichproducechanges by reactingto appliedsignals
in circ'uitconditions
are knownas actioecomponents. The majorityof activecomponents usedin
modernelectroniccircuitsue smiconductors,or morecorrectlyput, devices
basedon semiconductor materials.
Very simply,a semiconductor materialis onewhichcanbegivena predomi-
nanceof mobilenegativechargesor electrons,or positivechargesor holes.
Currentcanflowthroughthematerialfromthemovement of bothelectronsand
holes.This is quitedifferentfrom the behaviorof a normalconductor,where
clrrrentflow is the resultof electronsthroughthe material(seeChapter1).
Semiconductor propertiescanbe givento a strictly limitednumberof mate-
rials by dopingwith minutetracesof impurities.The two mainsemiconductor
materialsaregermaniumand silicon(bothnon-metals or "semimetals").Doping
canproducea materialwith eithera predominance of .fusitivecharges(holes)
resultingn a P-tyfe material;or with a predominance of l\&gtive charges
(electrons),knownasm N-$pematerial.
This doesnot becomeparticularlysignificantuntil a singlecrystal(of gerrna-
niumor silicon)is treatedwith botha P-typedopeandanN-typedope.In this
case,twoseparate regionsareformed-a P-regionandanN-region.Sincetlese
regionshaveoppositechargesthereis a tendencyfor electronsto miratefrom
theN-zoneto theP-zone,andholesto migratefromtheP-zoneintotheN-zone.
Theeffectis a cancellation of chargesin the regionof thejunctionof the P- and
N-zones,formingwhatis calleda dePtetionlayr(Fig.9-1). This layer,which

58
 P-Dope

lis. s't. Fourstages

diagrammatic form.
in theconstntction
ffi.w
ofa xmiconductor
dide, slnut in simplc

containsnofree electronsorholes, tlenactsasabarrierbetweenthep-zoneand

t.heN-zone,preventinganyfurther migrationof either erectronsor holes.In
effect,the barrieror depletionlayersetsup a potentialdifferenceberweenthe
two regionsandthe deviceremainsin a stablestateuntil anexternalvoltageis
appliedto it.
Figure9-2 showswhathappenswhenan qrternalvortageis appriedto tle
device.In thefirst diagram,the * voltageis connected to the p-zone.provided
this voltageis sufficientlyhighto overcomethepotentialdifferencesetupin the
construction of thedevice(whichmaybeonlya fewtentls of a volt (it willrepel
holesin theP-zonetowardstheN-zone,andattractelectronsin theN-zoneinto
theP-zone.Effectively,thebarrieror depletionlayerwill disappear andcurrent
will flowthroughthedevice.Voltageappliedthiswayis knownas/orward bias.
If theexternalvoltageis appliedtheotherway,asin tre seconddiagram,t.he
oppositeeffectiscreated;i.e.,thetlicknessofthedepletionlayerincreases, tlrus
buildingupa higherpotentialin thedevice,opposingtheexternal voltage.The
backvoltagedeveloped is equalto thatof theappliedvoltage,sonocurrentflows
throughthe device.Voltageappliedthis wayis knownas negatioebias,
Thedevicejust described is a semiconductordiode.lttnsthebasiccharacter-
istic of actingas a conductorwhenconnected to an externalvoltageonevxay
Gorwardbias),andasaninsulatorwhenconnected theotherway(reversebias).
Diodecharacteristics are describedin somedetaillater on, but tle same
principlescanbe appliedto e:rplainthe worki4gof a transistan

Fonrard Bias ReverseBias

Fig.92 Thctw mdes in whicha diodecan b operated.

59
 TRANSISTORS
Basically,atransistoris twodiodesplacedback-to-back with acommon middle
layer,tlre middlelayerin thiscasebeingmuchthinnerthanthe otjrertwo.Two
confgurationsare obviouslypossible,PNPor NPN (Fig. g-3).Thesedescrip
tionsareusedto describethetwobasictypesof transistors. Because atransistor
containstwo seperatesemiconductor junctions,it is referredto as a bipolar
device,or bifolar transistor,
A transistorhasthree elements,andto operatein a workingcircuit it is
connectedwith two externalvoltagesor polarities.one externalvoltageis
workingeffectivelyasa diode.A transistorwill, in fact,workasa diodeby using
justthisconnection andforgettingaboutthetophalf.Anexample is ttresubstitu-
tion of a transistorfor a diodeasthe detectorin a simpleradio.It worksiust as
well asa diodebecause it is workingasa diodein this case.
The diodecircuitcanbegivenforwardor reversebias.connectedwith for-
ward bias,as in the first diagramof Fig. 9-4, drawnfor the PNP transistor,
currentflowsfromP to thebottomN. If asecond voltageis appliedto thetopand
bottomsectionsof the transistor,with the samepolaityappliedto thebottom,
the electronsalreadyflowingthroughthe bottomN sectionpromotea flow of
currentthroughthe transistorbottom-to-top.
By controllingthe degreeof dopingin the differentlayersof the transistor
duringmanufacture, this abilityto conductcurrentthroughthe secondcircuit
throughtle resistorcanbe very marked.Effectively,whenthe bottomhalfis
forwardbiased,the bottomsectionactsasa generoussourceof freeelectrons
(andbecauseit emitselectronsit is calledthe emitter).Theseare collected
readilyby the tophalf,whichis consequently calledthe collector,butthe actual
amountofcurrentwhichflows throughthisparticularcircuitiscontrolledbytle
biasappliedat tle centerlayer,whichis calledthebase.
Effectively,therefore,trere aretwoseparate workingcircuitswhenatransis-
tor is workingwith correctlyconnected polarities(Fig. 9-S).Oneis the loop
formedby the biasvoltagesupplyencompassing the emitterandbase.This is
calledthe 04s,circuitor inlut arcwt Thesecondis the circuitformedby the

PNPTransistor NPNTransistor
FA.A?.ConstnrctionofPNPand NPNtransistors,shownin simplediagrammatic
form,

ffi
 shoundiagrammaticalll
taa PNPtransistor
Fis,94. Biasandsvpfll connections
(lcfi)andin symbol
form (neht).

collectorvoltage supplyandallthreeelements ofthetransistor.Thisis calledthe

collectoretrqitor outputglrcJjlt (Note: this description appliesonlywhenthe
emitter connection is common to both circuits-known as commonemittcr
configuration. This is tlte most widely used way of connecting transistors,but
there are two other alternative configurations-common base andcommon
collectonT\esame principles apply in the working of thetransistor in eachcase.)
The particularadvantage offered by this circuit is that a relatively srnallbase
cgrrentcancontrol and instigate a very much larger collector current (or,more
correcdy,a small input power is capable of producing a much larger output
power).In otherwords,tle transistorworlrsasanamplifier.
Withttrismodeof working,the base-emitter circuitis the inputside,andthe
emitterthroughbase to collectorcircuitisthe outputside. Althoughthesehavea
common path throughbase and emitter, the two circuits are effectivelysepa-
ratedby thefacttlat, as far aspolarity of the base circuit is concerned, tle base
andupperhalfof the transistor are connected as a reve6e biased diode. Hence
thereis no currentflowfrom the basic circuit into the collector circuit.
For the circuitto work, of course,polaritiesof both the baseandcollector
circuitshaveto be correct(forwardbiasappliedto the basecircuit, andthe
collectorsupplyconnectedso tbat the polarityof the commonelement(the

O{put Cirsuit

FtS.g44,.Trtctw cparatc citeuitsinoolutt in olerating a transisbr. Ditz.ctianol curnnt fuw is for a PNP
tlarrsis/lor..

61
emitter) is the samefrom both voltagesources).This alsomeansthat the polarity
of the voltagesmust be correct for the type of transistor. In the caseof a PNP
transistor, asdescribed,the emitter voltagemustbe positive.It followsthat both
tlte baseandcollectorare negativelyconnectedwithrespecttothe emitter. The
symbolfor PNP transistor hasan uurowon the emitter indicatingthe direction
of.current flow;i.e.,alwaystowardsthe base.(P for pcsitive,witl a PNP tran-
sistor.)
In the caseof anNPN transistor,exactlythe sameworking principlesapplybut
the polaritiesof both suppliesarereversed,Fig. 9-6. The emitter is alwap made
negative relative to baseand collector. (N for negative in the caseof an |rIPN
transistor). This is also inferred by the reverse direction of the arrow on the
emitter in tlre symbolfor an NPN transistor; i.e., cgrrent flow away from the
base.

PRACTICAL DIODES
The typical appearanceof a semiconductordiode is shown in Fig. 9-7. The
cathodeend is usuallymarked by a red dot or color band,or a * sign, and also
usuallywith a type numberconsistingof oneormore lettersfollowedbyfigures.
This identifiesthe diodeby manufacturerandspecificmodel.Specifict1ryenum-
bers are usuallyquotedfor specificcircuit designs,but many circuits are fairly
noncritical as regardsthe type of diodeused.
Diodesmay also be describedin more generalterrrs by the crystal material
(germaniumor silicon), and by construction.Here, choicecan be more impor-
tant. C"tt oiurn diodesstart conductingat lower voltagest}an silicon diodes
(about 0.2 to 0.3 volts, as comparedwith 0.6 volts), but tend to have higber
leakagecurrents when reverse biased,this leakagecurrent increasingfairly
substantialwith increasingtemperature. Thus, the germaniumdiode is inher-
ently less efficient as a rectifier than a silicon diode, especiallyif reverse bias
ctrrent is high enoughto produceappreciableheatingeffect. On the other hand,
a gerrnaniumdiode is preferred to a silicon diode where very low operating
voltagesare involvedbecauseit starts to conductat a lower forward voltage.
The constnrction of a diode governs both its curent{arrying capabilities

Fig. 94. Biasand wpp$ connections diqramnaticalll

toan NPNtransistor,sltoum
form (right).
(lefi) and in syttrlu,lic

e
 Dodes
AiF

.r'.;.-i
@
m
Volts
F ReverseBias
Volts -.....---
-
Forward Bias

Forward Voltage Needed

to Overcome
Fig.97. AlerationalcharactzrMics
ofa ffiical vmiconductor
diode.

whenconducting, andits capacitance effect.Thelargertheiunction areaof.a

diode,tlte highertlrecurrentit canpasswithoutoverheating-for example, tltis
characteristic is desirable in high-power rectifiers.Ontlte otherhand,increasing
thejunctionareaincreases the readiness with whicha diodewill passacdueto
inherentcapacitance effects.To reducethiseffectto a minimum,a diodecanbe
madefromasingledopedcrystal(usuallyN-type),onwhichthepointof apieceof
springwire rests.The endof this wire is givenoppositedoping(P-type).This
reducesthe junctionareato a minimum,suchas a diodebeingknownas a
point+ontacftype.It is afavoredtlpe for usein circuitscarryinghighfrequency
ac signals,andfor this reasonis sometimes calleda signal diode.
Thetypicalcharacteristics of a diodearealsoshownin simplegraphicformin
Fig.9-7.Biasis represented by thevoltageappliedto thepositiveside,referred
to asanodewltage.Currentflowingthroughthe diodeis referredto asanode
current.
With forwardbias(positivevoltageappliedto the anodeendof the diode),
ttrereis at first no anodecurrentuntil the inherentbarriervoltagehasbeen
overcome(0.3 volts for a germaniumdiode,0.6 volts for a silicondiode-
regardlessof the constructionof either tne). Any further increasein anode
voltageproduces asteepriseof anodecurrent.In practice,it isnecessary to limit
this currentwitl a resistoror equivalentresistiveloadin thecircuitto prevent
the diodebeingoverheated andthejunctiondestroyed.
Withreversebias(negativevoltageappliedto theanodeendof thediode),tlre
only currentflowingwill be a very smallleakagecurrentof the order of mi-
croampsonly, and normallyquite negligible.This leakagecurrent doesnot
increase appreciably with risein (negative) anodevoltage,onceit hasreached its
saturationvalue.
It will beappreciated thatadiodewillworkin bothadcandanaccircuit.Inadc
circuit,it will conductcurrentif connected with forwardbias.If connected the
opposite way,it will actasastopforcurrentflow.Anexample ofthistypeofuseis
wherea diodeis includedin a dc circuit-say the outputsideof a dc power
supply-to eliminateanypossibilityofreversepolarityvoltage surgesoccurring
which could damagetransistors in the samecircuit (seeFig. 2&1).
In an accircuit a diodewill "chop" the appliedac,passinghalf cycleswhich are
positive with respect to the * end of the diode, and stoppingthose half cycles
which are negativewith respect to * end of the diode.This is rectifieractton,
widely usedin transforming an ac supply into a dc output. The sameaction is
requiredof a detector in a radio circuit. Here the current appliedto the diodeis a
mixture of dc andac.The diodedetector transformsthis mixedinput signalinto a
varying dc output,the variationsfollowingthe form of ttre ac contentof the
signal.

BASIC TRANSISTOR CIRCUITS

The transistor in common-emitter configuration works as an amplifier, as
previouslyexplained.It needstwo separatesupplyvoltages-one for bias and
the ot}rer for the collector-but tlese do not necessarilyhave to come from
separatebatteries.Theycanbeprovidedbyasinglesupply(battery)takentothe
commonconnection(the emitter) and the collector, and tapping t}te collector
sideto applythe necessaryforward biasvoltageto the base,droppedthrough a
biasresistor.
A basicamplifiercircuit then lookslike Fig. 9-8. To makethe circuit do useful
work, tie collector current hasto be fed through an output load, suchas a load
resistor. These two diagramsalso show clearly input and output as separate
entities, andcan clarify the point about amplification.The power derived in the
output is far greater than that put into the input.
This very simplemethodof supplyingboth collector andbiasvoltagesfrom a
single source is known as current biasing. It needsonly one resistor, and it
works.The resistor valueis chosento give a base-emittervoltageof the order of
0.1 to 0.2 volts for germaniumtransistors; and about 0.6 to 0.7 for silicon
transistors.It is not asstableasit shouldbe for manycircuits, however,particu-
larly if a germaniumtransistor is used,so voltage bias is often preferred (Fig.
e-9).

Fig. 98. Simfle current biascircuitsfor transistaroforation,

fl
FA. 9-9. Voltage
biascircuitsfor transistor
oferation.

Withvoltagebias,two resistors(Rl andR2)areusedto workasa divider.A

resistor(R3)is alsoaddedin tlre emitterlineto provideemitterfeedbackauto
matically,to controlthe biasvoltageundervaryingworkingconditions.This
latterresistorisalsousuallyparalleledwithacapacitortoprovidefurtherstabili-
zation (but this maybeomittedwitl silicontransistors).
Determination of suitablecomponentvaluesis nowmorecomplicated since
tlree resistorsareinvolved.Theactualbasevoltagecanbecalculatedfromthe
followingformula:

R2
basevoltage: X supplyvoltage
(R1+ RA

The emittervoltageis equalto this lessthevoltagebetweenbaseandemitter

(acrossthe transistor).ln mostcases,a voltagedropof I volt in the caseof
germanium transistorsand3 voltswith silicontransistorsis
thedesignaim.The
emitter resistor(R3) alsoneedsto be quite largeso that there are minimal
changesin emitter currentwith anyvariationin the supplyvoltage.This can
causea little re-thinkingaboutsuitablevaluesfor R1 andR2, for tlre voltage
developed acrossR3 mustbevery muchgreaterthanthe voltagedeveloped by
tlte basecurrentacrosstlte sourceresistance formedbytheparallelcombination
of Rl andR2.

TRANSISTORCONSTRUCTION
Theoriginaltransistorsweremadefromgermanium crystalswith point<on-
improvedperformance,
tact construction.Latettypes,with considerably areof
alloy-junctionor alloy4tfusion construction.Silicontransistorsare usually
madebythep/azarprocess(siliconplanarprocess). Theircharacteristicscanbe
further improvedby adoptinga modifiedphnarprocessdescribed asePitarial,
basicallyinvolvinga preliminaryprocessof forminganorientedlayer(epitaxial
hyer) of lightlydopedsiliconoverthesiliconsubstrate.Thetransistorelements
aresubsequently formedwithinthelayerratherthanwitlin thesiliconsubshate
itself(asin the normalplanarprocess).
Epitaxialsiliconplanartransistorshave
superiorcharacteristicsfor highfrequencyapplications, notablein rf andi-f
circuitsfor superhetradios.

Gemanium and Silicon Transistorg

Justlike diodes,transistorsaremadefromeithergermanium or siliconcrys-
tals.Germanium transistorshavelowvoltagelossesbuttheircharacteristics are
moreliableto varywith temperature,sot}rattlrespreadofcharacteristicsunder
which they work in a circuit canbe quite wide. They are alsolimited to a
maximumworkingtemperatureof about100'C.
Silicontransistorsaregenerallymorestableandcanoperateat temperatures
upto I 50"Cor more.Theyhavelowerleakage lossesandhighervoltageratings,
andaregenerallyfar bettersuitedfor usein highfrequencycircuits.

The Shapeof Transistors

Transistorscomein dl sortsof shapesandsizes.However,the onlyproblem
typeof transistoristo beusediscorrectlyidentifying
wherea specified thethree
leads.Thepositionof thesecanbeidentifiedbyreferenceto Fig.9-10.Themost
common leadconfigurationisin line,with acircularcase,whentlreleadsfollowin
logicalorder-collector, base,emitter, with the collectorlead beingmore
widelyspacedfromthe middle(base)leadthanthe emitterlead,lookingat the

Collector
$ l r
2 ,
3 .
J
---|
.330Max
.440IUax

#T,- Collecto
to Case

.292itu
h 2 l - l a

TO18 To4r .SzsMax TO92 |

lHl I TO98
G]l=fl7*
\91 " -l#-

-"/L
B
\ )c
.'ooJ '+1*hf
h
%## 3
Caseto A

Collector Collectorto Case

Fig.910. Somecommontransistoroutlines(iliagramsbyElefirooalw, all dincnsionsin ircheg.

ffi
 bottomof thetransistorfromwheretheleadsemerge.Thisdoesnotapplywhm
the caseis partly circularwith oneflat side.Herethe threeleadsare equally
spacedandwith tle flat sideto the left (andlookingat the bottom),the lead
arrangement maybe bce,cbe,or ebc.
Powertransistorsaremorereadilyidentifiedby their elongated bottomwith
two mountingholes.In t}riscasetlere are only two leads-the emitter and
base-and thesearenormallymarked.Thecollectoris connected internallyto
thecan,andsoconnection to thecollectoris viaoneof themountingboltsor the
bottomof the can.

FIELD-EFFECT TRANSISTORS
T\e Field-EfectTransistor(orFET)is reallya differenttypeof semiconduc-
tor devicetlan abipolartransistor,with characteristics morelikeavacuumtube
thana bipolartransistor.Its correctdefinitionis a unipolarkansistor.Theway
in whichit workscanbeunderstood bypresenting it in electronicpictureformas
in Fig.9-11,whereit canbeseenthatit consists of a channelof.erfherP-typeor
N-typesemiconductor materialwith a collaror gateof.opryite tlpe materialat
tlre center.This forrrs a semiconductor junctionat this point.Oneendof the
channelis calledthe source,andthe otherendthe drain.
An FET is connected in a similarmannerto a bipolartransistor,with a bias
voltageappliedbetweengateandsource,anda supplyvoltageappliedacrossthe
centerof the channel(i.e.,betweensourceanddrain).The sourceis thusthe
commonconnection bet'n'een the two circuits.Compared with a bipolartransis-
tor, however,the biasvoltageis reversed.That is, the N-gatematerialof a
PthannelFET is biasedwith positivevoltage,andthe P-gatematerialof an
N-channelFET is biasedwiti negativevoltage(Fig. 9-12).This putsthe two
systemvoltagesin opposition at thesource,whichis responsible for thecharac-
teristicallyhigh input resistanceof.FETs.
The effectof this reversebiasis to form an enlargeddepletionlayerin the
middleof the cbannel,producinga pinchingeffecton the flow of electrons
tbrougbthechannelandconsequently onthecurrentflowin thesource-todrain

"."Gfl
Cbannel Synbol

Symbolfor
InsulatedGate
FE"T
N+hannel FET P-channelFET
Fig.911. Consttution offield<fecttransistorsslnwn in simlle diagrammaticform,
tqether with afProPriateVnblsfor FETs.
 P4hannel FET N{hannel FET
Fig.912. fusic biasrequirenents
for fieldcfecttransistars

circuit.If enoughbiasvoltageis applied,the depletionlayerfills the wholegate

("shutsthe gate"),causingpinch of,when the source.todraincurrentfallsto
znro(n practicenearlyto zero,for there is still someleakage).With no bias
appliedto the gate,the gateis wideopenandsomaximumcurrentffows.
ln effect,then,tlte amountof reversebiasappliedto the gategovernshow
muchof thegateis effectivelyopenfor currentflow.A relativelysmallshanggin
gatevoltagecanproducea largechangein source.to-drain current,andso tle
deviceworksasanamplifier.In thisrespect,a P-channel FET worksverymuch
like a PNPtransistor,andan N+hannelFET as an NPN transistor.Its main
advantage is tlat it canbemadejustascompactinsize,butcancarrymuchmore
power.ln thisrespect-and thefactthat it hasa highinputresistance, whereas
a bipolartransistorhasa lowinputresistance-it is morelike a tubein charac-
teristicsthana bipolartransistor.[t alsohasother advantages over a bipolar
transistor,notablymuchlowerinherentnoise,makingit amorefavorablechoice
for anamplifierin a highqualityradiocurrent.
The type of field-effecttransistordescribedis correctlycalleda junction
field-effect transistor,ofIFET. Thereareothertypesproduced bymodifuingthe
construction. Theinsulated-gate field-effecttransistor,or TGFETis self-orplan-
atory.TheIGFEThasevenhigherinputresistance (because thegateisinsulated
fromthechannel), andis alsomoreflexiblein application sinceeitherreverseor
forwardpolaritycan beappliedto thegatefor bias.FETs,of eithertlrye,canalso
bemadewith two gates.ln this casethe frst gatebecomesthesignalgab(to
whichtlre inputsignalis applied)andthesecondgatebecomes the controlgatc,
with similarworkingto a pentodetube(seeChapter12).
FETsarealsoclassified by themodein whichtheywork.AJFETworksin the
depletionmode;i.e., controlof the extentof the depletionlayer,andthusthe
"gateopening"beingby the
application of a biasvoltageto thegate.An IGFET
canworkin thismode,or with oppositebiaspolarity,in whichcasetheeffectisto
producean increasing"gate opening,"dth enhanced (increased) source.to-
draincurrent.This is calledthe enhancement mode.
AnFETdesigned specifically
to workin theenhancement modehasnochannel
to start witl, onlya gate.Applicationof a gatevoltagecausesa channelto be
formed.
The basiccircuitof anFET amplifieris very simple,Fig. 9-13(with polarity
drawnfor a P-channel FET). lnsteadof applyinga definitenegativebiasto the
gate,a highvalueresistor(R1)is usedto maintaintle gateat substantially zero
voltage.The valueof resistorR2 is thenselectedto adiustthe potentialof the
sourceto therequiredamorntPositiaetothe gate.Theeffectis thentle sameas

I
Fig. 913. fusicFETamplifiercircuit.Perfonrance
isgenerally
sufieriorb tlat ofa
bipolartransisbramplifur.

if negativebiaswereapplieddirectto tbe gate.This arrangement is alsoself-

compensating with variationsin source'todraincurrent.Thethird resistor,R3,
is a loadresistorfor the FET to setthe designoperatingcurrent.CapacitorCl
actsasa conductive pathto removesignalcurrentsfrom the souroe.
Both junction-type (JFET)andinsulatedgateOGFET)field-effect transistors
arewidelyused,thelatterhavingthewiderapplication, particularlyin integrated
circuits.Themetaloxidesemiconductor FET, generallyreferredto asa MO$
FET, canbedesignatto workin eithermode;i.e.,asa depletionMOSFET,or
enhancement MOSFET.TheformerisusuallyanN+hanneldeviceandthelatter
a P-channel device.P-channel MOSFETS workingin tlte enhancement modeare
by far the morepopular,mainlybecause they are easyto produce.In fact, an
N<hannelMOSFETcanbe madesrnallerfor t]te sameduty, andhasfaster
switchingcapabilities, andsoreallyis to bepreferredfor LSI MOSsystems(see
alsoChapter13).

69
10
NeonLamps,LEDs,
and Liquid Crystals
NEON LAJI{PS
Many circuits useneonlamps,LEDs, or liquid crystal displays.The neonlampis
a glow lamp consistingof a glassenvelopefitted with two separatedelectrodes
and filled with an inert gas (neonor argon). If connectedto a low voltage, the
resistanceis so high that the neonprovidesvirtually an opencircuit, but, if the
voltage is increased,there comesa point where ttre gas ionizesand becomes
highly conductive,as well as giving off a glowing light locatedon tlre negative
electrode.If the gasis neon,the glow is orangein color.Argon is sometimesused
as the gas,in which casetlre glow is blue.
The characteristicperformanceof a neon lamp is shown in Fig. 10-1. The
voltage at which the neon starts to glow is calledthe initial breakdownvoltage.
Once this has been reachedand the bulb triggered into firing (glowing), the
voltage drop acrossthe lamp will remain virtually constant regardlessof any
increasein current in the circuit. At the sametime, tlte area of glow increases
with increasingcurrent, up to the point where the entire surfaceof the negative
electrodeis coveredby glow. Any furttrer increasein current then pushesthe
neoninto an arc condition,where the glow changesto a blue-whitepoint of light
on the negativeelectrodeand results in the rapid destructionof the lamp.
To operatea neonlampsuccessfully,tlerefore, it is necessaryto haveenough
voltage for the neon to fire, and, after tlat, enoughresistancein the circuit to
limitthe currenttothat whichwillensurethat thelampremainsoperatinginthe
normal glow region. Becausethe resistanceof the neonitself is very low after

70
 GlassBulb I

€
I Constant
Voltage

ffir$
Fig.10-1.Trpicalneonlampconstruction
-_--_-.>
Current
performance
andclwrocbristic
firing, this requirestlre useof a resistorin serieswith the lamp,knownas a
ballastresistor.Typicallythe firing, or breakdown, voltagemaybe anything
fromabout60to 100volts(in somecasesevenhigher).Thecontinuous current
ratingis quitelow, usuallybetween0.1 and10 millianrps.The seriesresistor
valueischosen accordingly,relatedto thevoltageof thesupplytowhichtheneon
will beconnected. In thecaseof neonlampsto beoperatedoffa 250volt (mains)
supply,a 2201<{2resistoris normallyadeqrute(seeFig. 10-2).With some
commercial lamps,theresistormayactuallybebuiltintotle bodyof theassem-
blv.
Lackinganyspecificinformationonthissubject,it canbeassumed t}at aneon
lamphasnoresistance whenglowing,but drops80 volts.A suitablevaluefor a
ballastresistorcanbecalculated onthisbasisrelatedto theactualvoltageofthe
supplyto be used,andassuming a safecurrentof 0.2 milliamps,for example.
For a 250-voltsupply,tlre resistorhasto drop 250- 80 - 170volts.The
currentthroughresistorandneon(in series)is to be 0.2 mA. Therefore:

volts
KesFumce:-
amp.s

L70
0.2x u1000
:850 kQ, or aboutI MQ

Thisshouldbeplayingsafewith mostcommercial lamps.If theglowis notvery

bright,thevalueof theballastresistorcanbedecreased
to operatelampfarther

Fig. 1A2. In a practical circuit, a neonlamp is alwaysconnectcd

in sries with a
fullost resistorto limit currentfow.
Mitri.tw
Non

/4t2Wttel
Attjustabteratc
FiS.nA. Adiustable ctrcutt'
flashercircuit.

be de'
alongthe normalglow region.However,the resistanceshouldnever
of the negative electrode is covered by glow; this
o*irA * .uch ttrit ttrewtrole
is becoming overloaded and approaching the arc condi-
indicatesthat the lamp
tion.
:
Gotner pointaboutthe strengthof the glowlight is that it normallyappears
glowmaybe
O4iniri'yghtthan in dark.In fact, in completedarknessthe
erritic and/oirequirea higher breakdown voltage to start it. Some lampshavea
minutetraceof iadioactiie gas added to the inert gas to stimulate ionization
nrakingttrisparticulareffect unnoticeable.
Because of the constant-voltage characteristics of a neonlampundernormal
grc* *nation , it canbeused as a voltage stabilizing device.Thus,in thecircuit
iu"*" ir, Fig. ro2, the output tapd from each side of the lampis a sourceof
constantvoitage aslongasthe lampremainsworking inthe normalglowregion'
This voltageir O" ot" asthe nominal breakdown voltage of the lamp'
Theuseof a neonlarnpasafosherin a relaxation oscillator circuithasalready
(Fig.
beendescribed Gi, Chapter 6). A variation on this is shown in Fig' 10-3'
as the ballast resistor and two 45-volt or four
usinga t megohmpoteotiomJter
iZ{nvonOty U.ttitio asthe source of supply. The potentiometer is adjusted
just
*ttif tU" f.-ir lights.Thecontrolis thenturnedtle otherwayuntilthelamp
go." o"t. fri"ittg thepotmtiometerin thisposition,thelampshouldthenflashat
"An interrralsdeterminedby the valueof the capacitor'
-iegular
adaptionof this circuitis shownin Fig. 1G'1,wherethecircuitis switched
bfa MorL key.Phonescanbeconnected acrossthe pointshownto listeninto
ift"-tttot " .ig*lr, whichare also visible as a flashinglight. An ordinarybulb
wouldwork iust as well as a visible indicator (andwith a muchlowervoltage
r.quit"d),Uotinthiscasethe signalswouldonlybeheardas clicks'TViththeneon

FiS.101 Mors codcfoshercircuit'

n
 Fig. 10-5.Simpletonegeneratorbasd on an NE-2miniature neonlamp.

circuit, tlte actual oscillation of the relaxation oscillator is heard. The time
constantof the circuitis governedbythe rralueof the capacitorandthe settingof
the ballastpotentiometer.
A further extensionof the use of a neonlamp as an oscillator in a relaxation
oscillatorcircuit is shownin Fig. 10-5. This is a true signalgeneratorcircuit, the
output of which shouldbe audiblein headphonesor even a small loudspeaker,
witl the tone adjustableby the potentiometer.
Neonflasherscanbe madetoworkinrandomfashion(agarnseeChapter6), or
sequentially.A circuit for a sequentialflasheris shownin Fig. 10-6. More stages
can be addedto this circuit, if desired,taking the connectionof C3 to the last
stage.
Finally, an astable multioibrator circuit is shown in Fig. 1G7, using two
lamps.Thesewill flashon andoff in sequenceat a rate determinedby Rl andR2
(which shouldbe equalin value)and Cl.
As a generalguideto flashertiming, increasingthe valueof the ballastresistor
or the capacitorin the relaxationoscillatorcircuit slowsthe rate of flashing;and
vice versa. To preservetlre life of a typical lamp, however,the value of ballast
resistor usedshouldnot be less than about 100 kQ; and best results in simple
relaxation oscillator circuits can usually be achievedby keeping the capacitor
value below 1 microfarad.

I ur*rn
I

Cl, C2andC3 tuc All

0.5!F

Fig. 104. &quentialfoshcr rsing NE-Zminiature neonlamPs(or equiaalent).

73
 1/F Crp.€l'ttr

Fig.1&7.Astablcmultiaibrator
circuil erchwonfuhing in tun.

LEDs
LED is short for Light-EmittingDiode.This is essentiallya two element
semiconductor devicewherethe energt producedby conductionin a specific
directionisradiatedaslight.Theintensityof thelightis governed
by thecurrent
flowingthroughthediode.In theserespects,LEDsaresomewhat similarto neon
lamps,but they light at very muchlower forwardvoltages(typically1.6 to
2 volts)andcangenerallydrawhigherforwardcurents without burningout
(typically20mA).Originallythecolorof lightemittedbyIJDs wasred,butnow
orange,yellowandgreenLEDsarealsoavailable.
Againlikeneonlamps,anLEDisinrariablyassociatedwith aballastresistorin
seriesto limit thevoltageappliedto theLEDandthecurrentflowingthrotUhit.
The valueof resistorrequiredis:

p- v';vr
l1

where:

Vr:dc supplyvoltage
Vr: ratedforwardvoltageof the LED
11: ratedforwardcurent of the IJD at specifiedforwardvoltage

Thus,for operatingoBsay,a &voltsupply,atypicalvaluefortheballastresistor

wouldbe(6 - 2)lQ0 x 10-1 : 200 ohms
In the caseof anac supply,a diodeis connected in inverseparallelwith the
LED andtheresistorraluerequiredis onebalfthatgivenby theaboveformula,
seealsoFig. 10-8.
LEDsareoftenusedin groups,suchasin calculators, or digitalinstnrments.
?he mostcommon formis a seven-segment displayandassociated point,seeFig.
1S9. Suctra displaycan light up truneralsfrom 0 to 9, dependingon the
individualsegmetrtsenergized,with or withoutthe decimalpointligbt€d"Dach
segment(or poin0is, d courre,anindividrulLED.
Specificadvantages of LEDsaretbat theyrequireonlylowvoltages,arefast
switchingandcanbeproduced in very snnll si2g6,if required.Themostwidely
usedseven-segment displays,for example,give figureswbichare 0.3 io or

74
 -Or
Common
* Supply Forward Volts Vr EarthLine
Voltage

Fig.10-8.LEDsareconnectcd in seiestndrofthesufufllwltqe in
witha ballastresistnr
thenqaindforlusnlwltrye.Notethcqnbolfor anLED (lfuN-ntittinsdiode).

0.5 in. high.Powerconsumption is relativelylow,but an8digtt seven-segment

displaycouldhavea maximumpowerconsumption in excessof 2 watts (e.9.,
SXZX20mAat2volts).
Thiscanplacerestrictionsontheir applications to displayspoweredbyminia'
ture batteries,as in digitalwatches.To providea reasonable batterylife, tlte
displayis normallyleft in opencircuitandonlyswitchedonfor the shodperiod
whenit is requiredto readthe display.

LIQTND CRYSTAL
T\e liquid crysialovercomes this particularpowerlimitationsinceit canbe
actiratedbyverymuchlowerpower(actuallyatiny xnotntof,heat,whichcanbe
produced by anequallytiny amountof electricalenergy).Also,thedisplaycanbe
mademuchlargerwhilestill workingat mictoscopic powerlevels,sotlat it can
beleft onallthe time.Theliquidcrystalhasits disadvantages, however.It is far
lessbrightthananLEDdisplay,andalsosuffersfromdarkeffectflikeaneonlamp
in thisrespect).Thusto belegiblein dimlight,theliquidcrystaldisplayneedsto
be illuminatedby a separatelight course.
Liquidcrystaldisplaysoperatewithlowvoltageandlowcrulent.Curent drain
canbe as little as 1 microamp(1419 per segpent.A later development, tln
field+ffectliquidcrystal,canworkonevenlowervoltagesdrawingmicroscopic
currents(of the orderof 300 nA), againmakingtheman attractivechoicefor
battery-powered displays.Thefield-effectliquidcrystalalsohasbettercontrast,
gving a blackimageon a light background.

OneSideof Each
LED Segment has LED
Seven-Segrnent
a Common Connection
(Maybe* Sideor
- Side).Not AI Pins
May beConnected Ihcimal PointLED

Fig.I0-9. TyfubalLED rlisflay, as usedin calculators.ThceightLEDsarc intcntally

unnuted h a amnon catWe or commonanodefin,
11
Other Components
Othertypesof components likelyto bemetin electroniccircuitsaredescribed
in
this chapterfor easyreference.Manyare variationson standardcomponents
previouslydescribed, butwith differentworkingcharacteristics.Thediodefam-
ily, for example,is particularlynumerous.

THE DIODE FATT{ILY

Seechapterg for information
Diodesareusedin awidevarietyofapplications.
on generalpurposediodes.

?.enetDiodes
The Zenerdiodeis a siliconjunctiondiode.Whenreversebiasvoltageis
appliedandincreased, tlere comesa pointwherethe diodesuddenlyactsasa
conductorratler thananinsulator.Thepointat whichthis occursis calledthe
breahdown ooltage(orZenerpoint).oncereached,it remainsconstant,evenif
tlte reversebiasvoltageis increased.
In otherwords,oncereversebiasedto, or
beyond,the breakdownvoltage,the voltagedrop acrossthe dioderemains
constantat its breakdown voltagevalue,regardless
of tle actualcurrentflowing
throughthe diode.
This importantcharacteristicmakeszener diodesparticularlyusefulas a
sourceofconstartdcvoltage,or for stabilizing
asupplyvoltage,usingthet1ryeof
connection shownin Fig. 11-1.A seriesresistor(R) is necessary to limit the

76
 VohageTappedAcrG Zeo6 D@
EqudsAner &eeldom Vdtry

FA.n-1. A Zenerdiode,worhingwithreoer&bias,breahs dowtat a Wifrc ?lu?a

ooltage,
Connated asshown, it canb usd asa autxeolconstant
ooltqcsuf!L1.Nob
thcqabolfor a Zencrdidc.

amountof curent flowingthroughthediode;othenrise,it couldbeburnedout.

Regardless of theralueof theinputvolts,thevoltagedroppedacrosstheZen€r
dioderemainsconstant,soanyvariationsin tle inputvoltagedonot affectthe
orhut voltagetappedfrom acrosstheTr,nerdiode.This voltageis the break-
downvoltageof thediode,whichmayrangefromabout2.7voltsupto 100volts
or more,depending ontle construction
of tle Zenerdiode.Iftheinputvoltage
fallsbelowthebreakdown voltage,of @urse,theZenerdiodewillstopcondrrct-
ing andbreakthe circuit.
Performance of a Zenerdiodeasavoltage-stabilizingdevice
is limitedontyby
the powerrating,whichmaybequitelow-under 500 mWfor thesnrallZrner
diodes,butupto 5 wattsormoreinlargersizes.ItsstabilityisalsoaffectedWthe
beatingeffectof the actualcurrentflowingtlrough if causinga shift in the
breakdown voltage,so the nominallyconstantvoltage€n wry with working
temperature.If thisislikelytobetroublesome(thet}'peofZenerdiodeusedbasa
fairly higbtemperaturecoefrcientof resistance), thenconnecting two similar
diodesinseriescangreatlyimprove thetenperaturecoefrcient.Also,thepower
ratingis inaeased"

Varicap Diodes
Anotherspecialtypeof diodeis the aaricapor oaractonThesebehaveas
capacitorswithahighQ (seeChapter6)whenbiasedinthe reversedirection,the
actualcapacitance valuebeingdependent on the biasvoltageapplied.Typical
applications are the automaticcontrolof tunedcircuits,"electronictuni4g,"
adirctingcapacityin the circuit, andthusresonantfrequency,in responseto
cnanges in signalvoltage;automatic frequencycontrolof localoscillatorcircuits
in superhetsandTV circuits;andalsoasfrequencydoublersandmultipliers
Symbolsforararicapareshownin Fig. U-2.

7l
 F;9. 11-2.Alternatiu symblsfor a oarbap.

Tunnel Diodes
The tunnel diodeis another type with specialcharacteristics,unlike that of
any other semiconductordevice.It is constructedlike an ordinary diodebut the
crystd is more heavily doped,resulting in an extremely thin barrier (potential
hyer). As a consequence,electrons can tunnel through this barrier.
This makesthe tunnel diodea goodconductorwith bothfonn'ardandreverse
voltage.Behavior,however,is quite extraordinarywhen the forward voltage is
increased,seeFig. l1-3. Forward current at first rises with increasingfonnrd
voltage until it reachesa peak value. With increasingforward voltage, current
then drops, to reach a minimum, or oalley value. After that it rises againwith
further increasein forward voltage.T9orkedin the region from peakvoltage to
valley voltage, the tunnel diode exhibits negatioe resistancecharacteristics.
fuiother interesting feature is that anyforward cu:ent valuebetweenpeakand
valley ralue is obtainablethree times (at three different forward voltages).
Tunneldiodeshavea particularapplicationforvery high speedswitching,witl
a particular applicationto pulseand digital circuitry, e.g., digital computers.

Schottlry Diode
T\e &hotthy diode is a metal semiconductordiode, formed by integrated
circuit techniquesandgenerallyincorporatedin ICs asa clampbetweenbaseand
emitter of a transistor to prevent saturation.Voltage drop acrosssucha diodeis

QQ. E
(J

Q" Symbolr
<-
RcvcrseVdtr Valley
Fo,nradVottr-|l

Fig. 113. $'rrrbls (W) and claracEristicfurfonnarcc of d tanul di&. fuun peah b wllq it e*hibib nqatiu
nsistane.

n
 Symbolfor
SchottkyTransistor
Fig. 114. Tyfical cittuit for a *hotthy diodc(lefr)and tlv equioalentsingb confu
nent,a *hottky trunsistor.

less t}an that of a conventionalsemiconductordiode for the same forward

current. Otherwise,its characteristicsare similar to that of a germaniumdiode.
A gpical circuit employinga Schottlry diode is shownin Fig. 11-4.
For circuits using a Schottky diode as a clamping device associatedwith a
transistor, diodeandtransistor may be producedat tlte sametime in processing
the transistor. This combinationdeviceis calleda &lnftfu transistar(w als
Fie.11-4).

Photodiodes
It is a generalcharacteristic of semiconductor diodesthat if theyarereverse
biased andthejunction is illuminated, the reverse currentflowvariesin propor-
tion to the amount of light. This effect is utilizednthe plntodrodewhich hasa
clear window tlrough which light can fall on one sideof the crystaland acrossthe
iunctionof the P- and N-zones.
In effect,sucha diodeworksin a circuitasavariableresistance, ttreamountof
resistance offeredby thediodebeingdependent ontlreamountof lightfallingon
thediode.In thedark,thephotodiode will havenormalreverseworkingcharac-
teristics;i.e., provide almost infinitely highresistance with no currentflow.At
increasinglevelsof illumination, resistance becomes proportionately reduced,
thusallowingincreasing currentto flow The
throughthediode. actual amount of
currentis proportionate to the illuminationonly, provided there is sufrcient
reversevoltage.In otherwords,oncepastthe "knee" of the curve@ig.11-5),
thediodecurrentat anylevelofilluminationdoesnot increase substantiallywith
increasingreversavoltage.

Symbol

ReverseVolts------.-+
Fig. 11-5. $mbl (left); and claracteristic perfontance of a plntodidc.

79
 $ Photodiodc

stgnalCirqdt

FiS.Il4. Prntdiodcust asa light saitcr,"Thorie in cunentuhenthcdido is illumhutedfiahasttenW

gallin amlletingan e*tenal citttrit thrw4hthenlat contutc

Photodiodes are extremelyusefulfor workingaslightoperatedswitchesas

shown in Fig. 11-6.Theybavea tairlyhigbswitchingspeed,sotley candsobe
usedas @unters, cormting eachintemrptionof a beamof light as a pulseof
cunent.
Therearetwoothertlpesof light-sensitive diodes:thephotovoltaicdiodeand
thelight-emittingdiodeOED). The photowltaic diodegenentevoltagewhen
illuminated bylight,the current
resulting produced in anassociatedcirodt being
proportional to theintensityofthe light.Thispropertyisutilizedin the constnrc-
tionoflightmeters.Theamout of ctnrent produced byaphotodiode can bevery
emall,andso someamplifrcation of the current may be introduced in sucha
cirflit Specialtypgsof photodiodes are known as Photuellsand are generally
moresuitablefor useaspracticallight meters.
T\e lightemitting diodcworksin an oppositemannerof a photodiode. It
emitslight whena currentis passed througb it Ligbt€nitting diodes are de-
scribedin Chapter10.

t--- r:j- - - -| I

20 k Potentiometer
Fig. 11-7.Practicaltight stlitchcircuit*sing a flntotrunsistor.Thenlay shottldb of a sasitiu W ail cdlittst'
a n butt in at ab*t 2 miltiamla Thelotzntiomctcris a vnsititity control

&)
 jb-
Photocell
Amplifier l___ J
F!e.11! fusicrhotodtaicdiodecittuit.$ornon the dghtis theWhl lor a
furtotrtL

TEE PHOTOTMNSISTOR
Thephototransistor is muchmoresensitivethantle photodiode to changes in
levelof illumination,tbusmakinga better switchingdevicewherefairly small
changes inleveldilluminationarepresentandmustbedetected" Itworksboth
as a photoconductive deviceand an amplifur of tbe current generat€dry
incidentlight A simplecirorit employing aphototransistor isshoumin Fig. u-i.
A phototransistor anda light-emittingdiode(seeChapten10) mayte con-
binedin a singleenvelope asan oltoifitofor. In thiscase,the LEDproddestle
sottrceof illuminationto whic;hthephototransistorreacts.It canbeusedintwo
wcking modes-eitler as a photadide (Fig. u-9) with the emitter of the
bansistorpart left disconnected, or 8s a phototransistol(Fig. 11-g).Itr both
case8,workiqgis governedby the crrrent flowiqgthroWhthe LED sectim"

Solar Cells
?he photodiode is a photoooltarc cell.Light faling onits junctionproducesa
voltage.Thisvoltagemeasured anopencircuit(e.g.,withavery-high-resistance
voltmeterconnected acrossthe cell),is knownzathellntowlfuic \oterrt;atof
thecell In thisrespectit is likea dry battery.Connected to anexternalload,the
cellvoltagewillfalltosomelowervaluedependentontheresistrrceinthecircu
(seeChapter18).

f,8. t!9 OlMar GonbirudLED anil phototransisbr),

oleratiry a.sa lhobdiodc(bfi) aut phototransis-
b?(Ntt).

8T
 Photovoltaiccellsdevelopa potential when illuminatedby any sourceof light.
The photovoltaicpotential dependson the constructionof tlte cell, but for any
given cell, is proportional to the intensity of the light.
The solarcell is a photovoltaiccell (siliconphotodiode)designedto respondto
sunliglrt. Modern photovoltaiccells (commonlycalled solar cells)are commer-
cially availablein cell sizesup to 4 inchesin diameterwith anoutput of .45 volts at
1.5 ampseachin bright sunlight.
To get higher voltagesand currents from a solar battery, a number of cells
have to be used connectedin series-parallel.Series connection gives a cell
voltageequalto tlre sumof the individualcell voltages.Parallelconnectiongivesa
current equalto the sum of the individualcell currents.
Suppose,for example,the solar battery was intended to operate a circuit
requiring a nominal2 volts andgive a current of 15 milliampsthrough a 100 ohm
load. From the voltage consideration,number of cells required:2 divided by
500 mV (voltage per cell) : 4 cells.
From current considerations,number of cells required: 15 divided by 3
(current per cell): 15 cells.
The solarbattery requiredwouldthus haveto consistof five rows eachof four
cells, eachrow consistingof four cells connectedin series,and eachrow being
connectedtogether in parallel @ig. 11-f0).
A singlesolarcell canbe usedto measuresolarpower (the strength of sunlight
at any time). The cell is simply mounted on a suitable panel, sensitive side
(negative side) facing outwards, and the two cell leads connectedto a 0-500
milliammeter, Fig. 11-114. Directed towards the sun, tlre meter tlten gives a
readingrepresentativeof the strength of the sunlight.To measuremaximumor
peakradiation,point the cell directly towardsthe sun.To usethe instrument asa
deviceforplottingsolarenergy(asaradiometcr)the panelshouldbepointeddue
south and tilted upwardsat an angleapproximately10 degreesmore tlnn the
locallatitude.Readingsare thentaken at intervalsthroughouttheday, indicating
how much solar energy the panelis receiving.
If the meter readingsare very low, add a shunt resistor acrGssr tlrc meter

\
--l t-
/**,,*
f sohrceu

for a 2qlt ular futtcry to gioe a current of 15 milliamis

Fig. 11-10.Connections
throryha 7N ohmlud

p
 @ o
- 1
I

o
Arrangeat anAngleof
10 DegreesMoreThan
LocalIatitude
.t
\ €n
f
I
J

Mlliasuneter
Fig.11-11. tomeasure
Aligningafhotocell nlar enerpQeft).Thecircuitontheright
nla/ enelgtmeter,a 0-5Nmilliamptype.
is a comfuletc

(shownin brokenlines)in Fig. 11-118.Thisneedsto bea verylowvalue(1 or 2

ohmsonly).Finda suitablevalueby trial anderror to givenearmaximummeter
readingin the brightestsummersunlight.

RECTIFIERS
Theconventionaldiode is arectifier,itsmaximumforward currentcapabilities
beingdeterminedmainlyby its junction:rea. For signalrectification,point
contactdiodesareusuallypreferred(seeChapter9),whichmaylimit maximum
fonnrardcurrentto 30 to 50 mA,depending on type.Wherehigherpowersare
required,largerrectifierdiodes canbeused,withmaximumcurrentratingsupto
severalhundredamps.
In thecaseofpowersupplies (Chapter26),fourdiodesin bridgeconfiguration
arenormallyusedfor full-waverectification.Physically, thisdoesnotmeanthat
four separatediodeshaveto be connected up (Fig. 8-5).Bridgerectifiersare
availableasintegralunits.Theaveragevoltageoutputfromsucha bridgeis 0.9
timestheroot-mean-square voltagedeveloped acrossthesecondary ofthetrans-
former,lessthe voltagedropacrossthe rectifieritself.
For highvoltageapplications, semiconductor diodes(usuallysilicon)canbe
placedin aseriesarrangement to increase theoverallPIV(peakinverse voltage)
rating.Forexample, if youneeda diodewith a PWof 500volts,youcanconnect
5 diodesin series,eachhavinganindividualPIVof only100volts.Themaximum
currentratingin suchanarrangement is the lowestmaximumcurrentratingof
anyindividualdiodein the string.Selenium rectifiers,originallywidelyusedfor
voltagesupto about100rms,havenowbeenvirtuallyreplaced bysilicondiodes.
Siliconcontrolledrectifiersor SCRs(alsoknownas thyristors)are silicon
diodeswith anadditional electrodeulled,agate.Ifa biasvoltageis appliedto the
gate to keep it at or near the samepotential as the cathodeof the diode, the
thyristor behavesas if working with reverse voltage with both directions of
appliedvoltage, so only a smallleakagecurrent flows. If the gate is biasedto be
more positivethan the cathode,the thyristor behavesasa normaldiode.ln otler
words, the gatecanbe usedto turn the rectifier on (by positivebiason the gate),
thus enablingforward current to be controlled(e.g.,preventingforward current
flowing over any required portion of a half cycle).
A triac is a further variationon this principle,providingbidirectionalcontrol. It
is virtually a double-endedthyristor which canbe triggered with either positive
or negativegate pulses.
Structurally, an SCRis a four-layerdiode,with connectionsto the inner layers.
The terminal connectedto the P-regionnearestthe cathodeis the cathodegate,
and the terminal connectedto the N-region nearestthe anodetlte anodegate,
(Fig. 11-f2). Both gates are brought out in a triac. Only the cathodegate is
brought outinathyristor. Bothdevicesare essentiallyacswitches.Thetlyristor
is effective only on one half of an ac voltage, and the triac is effective on both
balves.

THERMISTORS
A thermistor is designedspecificallyto exploit the characteristic of many
semiconductormaterialsto showmarkedreductionin resistancewitl increasing
temperature. This is the opposite effect exhibited by most metal conductors
where resistanceincreaseswith increasingtemperature.
The obvious value of a thermistor is to balancethe effect of changesin
temperatureon componentcharacteristicsin a particular circuit, i.e., work as a
compensatingdeviceby automaticadjustmentof its resistance,down(or up), as
working temperaturesrise or fall and resistancesof other componentsrise or
fall. Compensationfor temperature changesof as much as 100'C are po.*sible
with thermistors-a typical applicationbeing shown in Fig. 11-13. Here, the

Anode

CathodeGate

Cathode

scR TRIAC
Fig.11-12.Symbols
for SCRandtrirc.

u
Fig. 11'13. Practical circuit incorforating a thermistor to counteractfluctuations in oalue of otlvr raistors in
thecircuit duc b hcating efects or tcmperature changes.

tlermistor is used to stabilize the working valuesof the resistors in an audio

amplifier circuit.
Another use for a thermistor is to eliminate current surgeswhen a circuit is
switchedon. Certain circuits offer relatively low resistancewhen first switched
on, which could producea damagingsurge of high current. A thermistor in the
supply line with a relatively high cold resistancelimits the initial peak current
surge. Its resistancevalue then drops appreciablyas it warms up so that the
voltagedroppedacrosstlre thermistor undernormalworking conditionsis negli-
eible.
Thermistors are madein the form of rods, looking rather like a carbonrod,
sintered from mixtures of metallic oxides. They are not madefrom the usual
semiconductormaterials (germaniumand silicon) sincethe characteristicsof a
thermistor madefrom these materialswould be too sensitiveto impurities.

85
L2
Tubes
Tubes(vacuum-tubes) are distinctlyold-fashionedin thesedaysof transistors
andothersemiconductor devices,yet they are still widelyusedin commercial
wherehighpowerlevelsareinvolved.
circuits,especially
The basicform of a tube is an evacuatedglassenvelopecontainingtwo
electrodes- acathode andanode. Thecathode isheated,causing electronsto be
emittedwhichareattractedby the anode,thuscausingcurrentto flowthrough
the tubein the basiccircuitshownin Fig. 12-1(6rst diagram).
The originalform of heatingwasby a separatelow-voltagesupplyto a wire
filamentformng the cathode.Thelaterformis a cathodein theformof a tube
with aseparate heaterelementpassing throughit. Thisis knownasaninilirectly
heatedcathode, particuhradvantages beingthat thereis novoltagedropacross
the cathode(andthuselectronemissionis moreuniform),andalsothe heating
filamentcanbe connectedto a separateac supply,if necessary, ratler than
requiringa separatedc supply.otherwise,the workingof the tubeis identical.
Bothrequirea filamentsupplyanda separatehighvoltagesupply.

DIODES
Thesimplestformof tubeshownin Fig. 12-1is calleda diode,because it has
two internalelements.Its workingcharacteristics
arethat whenthecathodeis
heated,application of voltageacrosstheanodeandcathodewill causea current
to flow,the cu:ent valueincreasingwith anodevoltageup to the saturation
point (Fig. l2-2).

6
 filament(Iefi)and iulirectly
Fig. 12-1.t6de oacuumtub.suith directll heated
heatcdfilament(righ|.

A diodetubeonlyconductscurrentin onedirection.In ottrerwords,it is a

rectifierjust like its solid-statecounterpart(seeChapter9).
Note tlat in this workingcircuit a loadresistoris includedin the circuil
Withoutanyorternalloadin circuit,allthepowerinputto atubewouldbeusedup
in heatingthe anode.To dousefulwork,a tubemustworkwith a loadof some
kindor another,sothatpoweris developed in theload.To workefficiently,most
of the inputpowermustdo useftrlwork in tle load,ratler thanin heatingthe
anode.Thusthe voltage&op acrossthe loadshouldbe muchhigberthrn the
voltagedropacrossthe tube.

TRIODES AND TETRODES

If athirdelement,knownasagnd, isinsertedbetweentie cathode andanode,
a negativebiasooltageeanbe appliedto this to controltheworkingof the tube
andthusthe anodecurrent.Sucha tubeis knownasatriode.A basiccircuitis
shownin Fig. 12-3,with characteristic perforrrancecurves.The advantage of
thismodeof workingis that a smallchangein Diasvoltage (or voltageappliedto
thegrid)isjust aseffectiveasalargechange in anodevoltagein b'ringingabouta
cbangein anodecurrenl
AnodeLoad

Ic:
g
3
o
€tr

AnodeVolts+
Fig. 12-2.Tr|ical diodeclaracteistics (lefi). To do uvful worh,tlw ande cunent
nust fow througha lud rcsistor.
 t
O

GridVolts+

Fig. EA. A bidc b a threc+lement

tub. Ano& current is controllcdbl theSlid biasooltage.

The triode is a particularlyversatile t1ryeoftube whichcanreadilybe madeto

work as an amplifier or an osillator (an oscillator is really only an amplifier
working with excessivefeedbackproducingself-sustainedoscillation).It doe,
however, have certain limitations which may be disadvantageousin certain
circuits. Oneis that the inherent capacitancegeneratedbetweenthe anodeand
grid can materially affect the pcrformance of an amplifier circuit where tlte
presenceof this capacitanceis aggravatedby what is called"Mller effect." To
overcometiis particularlimitation, a positivelybiasedsecondgrlrdcalleda*reen
grid canbe inserted betweenthe grid and anode.This acts as an electrostatic
shieldto prevent capacitivecouplingbetweenthe grid and anode.Sucha four-
element tube is known as a tetrode(Fig. 12-44).
Even the tetrode is not witlout its faults. The cure for one limitation (inter-
electrode capacitance)has producedanotler fault. The screen grid tends to
attract vcondary emission electrons bouncingoff the anodebecauseit has a
positivebias,whereasin the triode the onlygrid presentis negativelybiasedand
tends to repel secondary-emission electronsstraight back to the anode.

Anode
SuppressorGrid
ScreenGrid
Control Grid
Cathode

Fig. 124. Tetrofu (left) and penbde (/ight) tt&s slpwn in simplediagrammatic
form.

88
PENTODES
To overcome thiseffectin a tetrode,afifth elementcalleda aepressorgridis
added,insertedbetweenthescreengridandtheanode(Fig.12aB).Thisactsas
a shieldto preventsecondary emissionelectronsbeingattractedby the screen
gnd. A five-elementvalveof this type is calleda pentade.

THE CATHODE.RAY TUBE

The cathode-ray tubehasthe samenumberof elementsasa triodeOeated
catlode,anode,andgrid)but worksin anentirelydifferentrnanner.Insteadof
electronsemittedby the cathodeflowingto the anode,they are ejectedin the
form of a niurowstreamto impingeon tlre far endof the tube,whichis coated
with aluminescent materialor phosphor, soproducinga pointof light.Thispoint
of light canbestationaryor moving.Its directionafteremissionfrom thefar end
of the tubeis influenced by the magneticfieldcreatedby two additionalsetsof
electrodes or platespositioned at right angles(Fig.12-5).Thisplatesaredesig-
natedX and Y. Voltageappliedto the X plate displacesthe light spot in a
horizontaldirection;voltageappliedto the Y platesdisplaces the light spotin a
verticaldirection.(SeeChapter23for amoredetaileddescription of theworking
of a cathode-ray tube.)
A cathode-raytube canbeusedasa voltmeter,witlt tlte adrrantage thatit puts
no loadon tlre circuit beingmeasured. Cathodeandanodeare connected to a
separate supply,tltevoltageto bemeasured beingconnected to theY plates.A dc
voltagedisplaces thespotaproportionddistanceabove (orbelow)thecenterline
of thetube.If thevoltageappliedis ac,thelight spottravelsupanddownat the
frequencyof the supply,whichis usuallytoofastfor the spotto beidentifiedas
such,so it showsa traceof light in ttre form of a verticalline, Fig. 12-6.The
lengthof this line is proportionalto the peak-to-peak voltageof tlre ac.
Themoreusualapplication of thecathode.raytubeisin anoscilloscope, where
a voltagewhichis increasing at a steadyrateis appliedto theX plates.Ifanother
varyingvoltageistlen appliedto theY plates,tlrespotdrawsa timegrafhof.tltis
voltage,or apictureof the waaefornof.tlnt voltage.TheX platevaryingvoltage
supplyis usuallyarrangedsothatoncethespothassweptthewidthof thescrem
it returnsto the start andrepeatsthe pictureoverandoveragain.
Therateof repetitionis deterrrinedbythetimebaseof theX platecircuit,this
beingone of the most importantfeaturesin oscilloscope designin order to

FA. U-5. Sinplified diagramof a catMe-ra1 tuh.

&
 . \
6I
_:._.
I
I

;
\ l - /

Fig. 124. Simpledisflay of dc uoltage(Ieft)and ac ooltage(ight) on a cathode-ra1

tub. Thcaerticaldisplacement is a measvreof theoalueof tlv ooltageconcerned.

achievea steadytrace at the requiredfrequency.Separateshift controlsare also

usuallyprovidedfor both X andY deflectionsothat the startingpoint of the light
spot canbe set at any point on the screen.Amplifier circuits are alsoessentialin
order to be ableto adjustthe strength input signalsappliedto the Y plates,and
alsothe Xplatesif tlese are alsotobefedwithaninputsignalinsteadofthetime
base.With theserefinements(andothers) the cathode-rayoscilloscopeis oneof
tlte most usefultools an electronicsengineercan have.

n
 13
Integrated Circuits
An integratedcircuit,or IC, consistsof a singlecrystalchipof silicononwhich
hasbeenformedresistors,capacitors, diodes,andtransistors(asrequired)to
makea completecircuitwith all neoessary interconnections; the wholelot in
micro-miniature form (Fig. 13-1).The cqstof an IC chipis surprisinglylow,
considering howcomplicated it canbe.This is dueto the largequantitiespre
cessedat a time. A l-inch squarewafer,for example,maybe dividedinto 50
individualIC chips.A singleLSI (arge scaleintegration)chipcancontainthou-
sandsof components in anareasmallerthanthe top of a pencileraser.
Apartfromtlte convenience of havinga completecircuitin sucha srnallsize,
ICsarevery reliablebecause all components arefabricatedsimultaneously and
tlere areno soldered joints.
Diodesandtransistorsin anIC chipareformedby exactlythe sameprocess
usedfor producingindividualdiodesandtransistors,but in very muchreduced
physicalsize.Integratedresistors aremuchsimpler. Theycanbe averytinyarea
ofsheetmaterialproducedbydiffusioninthe crystal,orthinfilm(amillionthofan
inchthick)deposited ontlre siliconlayer.Practicalresistorrangeswhichcanbe
achieved are10obmsto 50kilohms,depending ontheactualconstmction, in an
areatoo tiny to seewith the nakedeye.
Capacitorsarea little moredifrcult.Theycaneitherbebasedona diode.tne
formulation(diffusedjunctioncapacitor)or on t}rin-filmconstruction(MOSca-
pacitor).Typicalcapacitorvaluesachieved arc0.2 pF perthousandth of aninch
area.Usualma:dmumvaluesare 400 pF for diffusedjunctioncapacitors, and
800pF for MOScapacitors.
 ffi u,*f
*o'u Mar

ffi
I

20,32t62E I
16 l€adsof 0,4$ a 0,076

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II 7,29+ 0,25 7,29t02s

+ +0,1
T3l t,27 |
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tl
6,35
=+J o*oT
rL 10,13
9l
ct

Fig.1&1.Snu cunllos of thcphysicat

afpararcc of ICs

Inductances areanotlerstory.Theycannot-as yet-be produced satisfac-

torily onsiliconsubstrates usingsemi-condrrctor or thin-flm techniques. Hence,
if a circuit specifically
needsan inductance in it, the corresponding IC chipis
producedwithoutit andanindividualinductance is connected externallyto the
IC.
This is oornmon practicein the application of manyICs.The IC is not abso-
lutely complete.It containsthe bulkof the components, but the finalcircuitis
completed by connecting upadditionalcomponents externally.It is alsousually
designedas a multi-purpose circuit with a numberof alternativeconnection
pointsgivingaccessto differentpartsof the circuit, so that whenusedwith
externalcomponents, connection canbernadeto appropriate pointsto producea
wholevarietyof differentworkingcircuits"

MONOLITHIC AND EYBRID ICS

lntegratedcircuitsbuiltintoa singlecrystalareknownas monolithiclC,s,and
incorporateallnecessaryinterconnections. Theprobleurofelectricalisolationof
individualcomponents is solvedby the processing techniqueused.
ln anothertypeof construction, individualcomponents,
or completecircuits,
are attachedto the samesubstratebut physicallyseparated. Interconnections
aretlrenmadeby bondedwires.Thistlpe of constnrction is knownasa hybrid
circuit.

c2
MSI AND LSI
MSI standsfor medium-scale integration;andLSI for large-scaleintegration,
referringto tle componentfunsity achieved.For example,a densityof 50
components per chipis typicalfor manycommercidlyarailableintegratedcir-
cuits.Thesefall into the categoryof MSI chips,definedashavinga component
densityof morethan12 butnot moretlnn 100components perchip.LSI chips
haveamuchhighercomponent density- asmanyas1,000,000components per
chip.
Thisislargelydueto theconsiderable savingin component sizespossibleusing
thin-filmtechniques insteadof diffnsiontechniques, particularlyin the cased
transistors.For example,an MOStransistorcanbe one tenth the sizeof a
diftsed bipolartransistorfor thesameduty.Hencemanymorecomponents can
bepackedinto the samesizeof IC chip.

oP Alt{Ps
Theoperationalamplifieror opamf is a typeof IC usedasthe basicbuilding
blockfornumerous analogcircuitsandsystems-amplifiers,computers, filters,
voltage-tecurentor current-to-voltage converters,modulators,comparators,
waveformgenerators, etc. It is a tlpical, almostcompletecircuit,usedin con-
junctionwithafewexternalcomponents tocompletetheactualcircuitrequired.
Threetpical circuitsusinga simpleop ampchipare shownin Fig. 13-2.

DIGITAL SYSTEMSICS
Digtal systemswork in discretesteps,or virtudly by countingin termsof
binarynumbers.Basically,this callsfor the useof logic elementsor gates,
togetherwitl amemoryunitcapable of storingbinarynumbers, generallycalled
a flil-flot. Thus,a digitalsfntemis constructed from gatesandflipflops.Inte-
gratd circuitscapable of performingthefunctionsof binaryaddition,counting,
decoding, multiplexing(dateselection),memoryandregister,digitaltoanalog
conversion, and analog-todigital conversion,are tlte basicbuildingblocksfor
digital sptems.
Thesegiveriseto a considerable numberof differentlogicfamilies,whichare
difficultto understand without a knowledge of logrcitself. Most of tlem are
NANDgatesbecause all logicfunctions (except memory)canbeperformedby
this typeof gate,thefunctionof NANDbeinge:rplained verysimplywith refer-
enceto Fig.13-3.A andB aretwoseparate inputsto thegafe, andY istheoutput.
Therewill beanoutputif thereis inputat eitherA or B, but zof whenthereis
inputsimultaneously at A andB-NOT A AND B (NOT-ANDis simplifiedto
NAND).
The sameprincipleapplieswith moretlmn t'woinputs.Further,the NAND
gateis easilymodifiedto form anyof the otherlogicfunctionsby negationor
inoersion,modffigtle response. Thesefunctionsare(stillrestrictingdescrip
tion to two inputs):
AND-output whenA andB inputsignalsarebothpresent
OR-output wheninputA orB is present
 'ffi
100K

100K

amfulifers
Fig.13-2.Three IC,allgioingagainofabout100.All erternal caQacitors
fosedontttcCA3035 are70
mbroforad.

(Thisis differentto a NANDgate,for wit} noinputat A or B thereis nooutput,

but with a NANDgatethereis output.)

NOR-NOT-OR

Pursuingthesubjectof logiccouldfill therest of thechapter,or eventhewhole

book,sowe will get backto digitalintegratedcircuits.
DigitallogicICsareproducedin variousdifferenttamilies,identifiedbyletters.
Theseletters are an abbreviationof the configuration of the gatecircuit em-
ployed.The mainfamiliesare:
o TTL (transistor-transistor
logic)-The mostpopularfamilywitl a capability
for performinga largenumberof functions.TTL logicis basedon multiple
NAI.IDgates.
. DTL (diode-transistorlogic)-Another majorfamily,andagainbasedupon
multipleNANDgates.
o RTL (resistor-transistor-logic)-BaseduponmultipleNORgateswhichoc-
cupyminimumspace.
. DCTL (direct*oupled-transistor logic)-Based uponmultipleNOR gates
similarto RTL but withoutbaseresistors.

91
I
Fig. 13-3. The NAND gate slnwn in simple diagrammatic font.

. ECL (emitter-coupledlogic)-May be baseduponmultipleOR or NAND

gates.
o MOS(metaloxide'semiconductor logic)-Also calleda CMOSsinceit uses
complementaryMOSdevices. Thesechipsareof LSIconstruction,
witl avery
highcomponent density.Some5,000MOSdevicescanbeaccommodated in a
chipabout0.15in. cube.CMOSis usuallybaseduponmultipleNANDgate
logic.
Regardless of thefamilyused,thebasicAND,OR,NANDandNORgatesare
combinedin oneintegratedchipof the samefamilyin variouscombinations of
gatesandflipflopsto performspecificcircuitfunctions.Thesefunctionsrnayor
maynot be compatible with otherfamilies(e.9.,TTL functionsarecompatible
with DTL).Alsotheremaybedirectequivalents of tlrecompletechipin different
families(e.9.,TTL, DTL andCMOS).Familydevelopment continuesandmore
andmorefunctionsarecontinuallyappearing, performedby yet moreandmore
ICsappearing on the market.
Thecomputeris adigitallogicsystem.A computerconsistsoffourbasicparts:
o The inputsection
o The CPU(centralprocessing unit)
r The memory
r Theoutput
In orderfor a digitalsystemto becalleda computer,it mustmeetfiveessential
criteria:
o It musthaveinputcapability
o It musthavememoryto storedata.
o It mustbe capableof makingcalculations.
o It mustbe capableof makingdecisions.
r It musthaveoutputcapability.
A blockdiagramof a computeris shownin Fig. 134. Theinputsectionaccepts
informationfroma selectedinputdeviceandconvertsit intodigitalinformation,
whichcanbeunderstood by the centralprocessingunit. The CPUcontrolsthe
timinganddataselectionpointsinvolvedwith acceptinginputsandproviding
outputsby meansof theinput/outputaddress bus.TheCPUalsoperformsallof
thearithmeticcalculationsandmemorystorage/retrievaloperations. Themem-
ory address
busdefinesaspecificareain thememoryto beworkedupon,andthe
memorydatabuseitherstoresor retrievesdatafromthat specificlocation.The
outputsectionacceptstlte digitalinformationfromtheCPU,convertstheinfor-
mationinto a usableform,androutesit to tle appropriateoutputdevice.
 Input/OutputAddressBuss

FA, 84 Blochdiagramill*;trating ttv fusicolerationofa conpttcr.

The centralprocessing unit (CPU)of a computercanbefrrther dividedinto

the arithmeticlogicunit (AtU) andthe readonlymemory(ROIU).The ALU
controlsthelogicalstepsandorderfor performingaritlmeticfunctions.It inter-
actswith the ROMfor instnrctionsfor performingredundantoperations. The
ROMalsocontainsinstructionspertainingto start-upandpowerlossconditions,
andinstnrctionsfor conversion of higher-levellanguages to machine-language
programs(MLP).TheCPUusuallycontainsttrerealtimedoch(RTC).TheRTC
is usedto cycletheCPUandtimethereal-timeprogramsaswrittenbytheuser.
The popularityandsuccess of the computeris governedby the speedof its
operations, nottheoperationcomplarity.Basically, acomputerisonlycapable of
adding,subtracting,andaccumulating data.Because it is capableof perforrring
thesesimpleoperationsatamaaaflyhighspeeds, complexmatlematicalcalcu-
lationscanbe brokendowninto simplestegswhichtle computercantlen
calculate.For example, a computeractuallymultipliesby redundantadditionof
tlre samenumber.Divisionis accomplished by redundantsubtraction.
Thesmallestsingleoperationperformedby a computeris the machine cycle.
This consistsof two stages:the fetchcycleandthe executecycle.Duringthe
fetchcycle,theprocessor fetchesaninstructionfrommemory. Then,duringthe
executecycle,the computerperformssomeactionbaseduponttre contentof
that instruction.Theprocessor knowswhichinstructionto goto nextfromtle
address storedintheprogramcounter.Italwayscontainstheaddress ofthenext
instruction.TVhenprograminstructionsare written, tley are arrangedin a
sequential order,andthe programcountersimplyincrementsby onefor eac.h
machinecycle.

ln
 iscontainedin
If thecentralprocessingunit asingleintegratedcbcuit,theICis
referredto asa microprocessor.
A computerbasedona microprocessor chipis
calleda microcomputer.

COMPUTERCONTROLOF ANALOG SIGNALS

TVhena computerneedsto examine acontinuouslyvariablesignal(referredto
asananalogsignal),theanalogsigralmustbeconvertedto a digitalwordbefore
ttrecomputercanunderstand it. A logicsystemdesigned to dothis is calledan
converter
analog-todigital (commonly symbolizedbv4D). If, for example, you
wantthe computerto storean analogvoltagelevelof + 16.78volts,tle A/D
converter would convert that voltage level to a digital word of
0010100100011011. Thenumerous 0's and1'sarecalledDdfsandthe entire
wordiscalledabyte.Thtsoneword, orbyte,representsthe*16.T3voltagelevel
to the computer.
To reconstructtheoriginalanalog adigital-to-ana-
signal,oranyanalogsignal,
log converter(symbolized bv D/A)is required.TheD/A convertsdigitalwords
fromthecomputerto analogvoltagesandoutputsthemat t}terateat whichthey
wereoriginallycollectedby the A/D. In this manner,a computermayreador
outputanyanalogsignal.Mostimportantly,it canalsoanalyzeandmanipulate
analogsignalsin the sameunnner.

97
T4
IC Arrays
IC chipscanbedividedbroadlyinto two maincategories-completecircuitsor
subcircuits with internalconnections, andalays.Thehtter consistof anumber
ofindividualcomponents connected to theexternalpinsoftheICchips,or, in
only
somecases,t*o (or possiblymore)internallyconnected components together
with individualcomponents. For example, Darlington pairs of transistorsin-
cludedin anarraywouldbe connected within the chip'
Rn exampteof a simpleIC arrayis shownin Fig. 14-1.It consistsof three
transistors(two interconnected), two typesof diodes,anda Zenerdiode.
circuits are commonlydesigredaroundIC arrays,in this case'a voltage
regulatorusingtwo of thetransistors,the SCRdiode,andtheZenerdiode'This
ciriuit designis shownin Fig. l4-2. The components to be utilizedwhichare
contained in theIC are enclosed in the dashed outline, Q/,Q},SCR, andZl. The
othercomponents in the chip (Ql and Q4) are not required. Resistors Rl, R2,
R3,andR4anda capacitor C, are all discretecomponents connected externally.
Figure 14-3showsthis circuit redrawnas a physicaldiagram,relatingthe
connection of externalcomponents to thechip.Ptnsin thisdiagramareshownin
the actual physical order they appear on the integratedcircuit. For easeof
pins
reading, areshown numbered and enclosed in circlesrathertlrannumbered
tags.Oncircuitdrawings, pinnumbers may be shown circledor not.For clarity,
ttreintegratedcircuitisdrawnmuchlarger inproportionto tle externalcompo-
nents.

98
 $bd.
FA.&1. CA?$7E (5K3616)IC anal shematic.

for completingtlre circuitof Fig. 14-3are:

C,onnections
. I€ads L,2, and3 are ignoredasQl is not used.
o L€ad4 connectsonesideof the Zenerdiodeto the commongroundline.
. l€ad 5 to Iead 13,connectstlre Zenerdiodeto tlre correctsideof the SCR.
o L€ads11 and12 connecttogether(the SCRis usedasa simplediodein this
circuit,andthe gateconnection is not required).

I I
I
I
I I
I
-1 I
I I
I I
I I
I
I
I
I
J
Fig. 1*2 Voltageregulator citcuit rl,;sittgCA % (5Kffi13) anay.

99
 Fig. 1/H. Completeaoltageregulator with wiing cornections.

Now to pick up the transistor connections;The baseof Q2 (15) connectsto the

externalresistor Rl, andthe collectorlead(14) to the otlrer sideof Rl, which is
also the input point for the circuit. The emitter lead (16) connectsto output.
Q3 andQ4 in the chip are interconnected,but only oneof thesetransistorsis
required.Connectinglead(6) to (9) shortsout Q4, whichis not wanted.Connect-
ing the emitter lead(8) of Q3 to 11- 12 (alreadyjoined), the collectorlead(9) to
(6), and the baselead (7) to tlre center tap of the external potentiometer R3
connectsQ3 into the circuit.
It only remains for the external componentconnectionsto be completed.
These are:
o R2 to lead(14) andlead(12).
o Capacitor C to lead (6) and ground point. Lead (10) on the IC is also the
substrateor groundpointof the IC, soshouldalsobeconnectedtotle common
ground line.
o One end of the potentiometerR3 to the top (outpu0 line.
o The other end of the potentiometerto R4.
o The otler end of R4 to the bottom conmon ground line.

100
 You'llnoticefromthis circuit,anda studyof others,that the numberof compo-
nentsin anarraymaynotbeusedin a particularcircuit,butthecostof thesingle
IC canoftenbe lessthanthat of the equiralenttransistorsor diodesordered
separatelyandusedindividuallyto completethesamecircuit.Acircuitusingtle
IC is alsomorecompactandgenerallyeasierto constmct.
A little studysometimes showswherefurther savingsare possible.Figure
14-5for example, showsa voltagedoublercircuitfor a 1-kHzsquare-wave input
signal,basedonaCA3096EICarrayFig.14-5whichcontains5 transistors.Only
threeof thesetransistorsareusedin this particularcircuit,leavingtwo spare.
Thecircuitcallsfor two diodes,Dl andD2 (aswellasthreeresistorsandtwo
capacitors), to beaddedasdiscretecomponents. Transistorscanalsobeusedas
diodes(byneglecting thecollectorlead),andsot]tefunctionsof Dl andD2could
be performedby the two "spare"traosistorsin the array(ttrusnsingup all its
components).
Alternatively,sincetlte currentneedsa squarewaveinput signal,the two
sparetransistorscouldbeusedin a multivibratorcircuitto providethisinput,in
tltis caseusingdiscretecomponents for Dl andD2. Sincediodesare cheaper
tlan transistors,tlis is a moreeconomic wayof usingall the componentsin tlte
originalarray.
The fact that popularICsare quitecheapmeansthat is seldomworthwhile
goingto elaboratemethodsof trying to useall the components availablein an
array,unlesssuchutilizationis tairly obvious,asabove.Usingonlypart of an
arraycanstill showsavingsoverthepurchase of individualcomponentsformany
circuits.

-1
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I

- J
o @o g
+
Fis.lU. *hematic diagramof CAililTFXSnill

101
*12 Volte

Fig. 1+5. Awltage dotrbbrcircuitusinstheCA (5K920!i)anal

valuesfor Fig.14.4are:
C.omponent
Rl:10 ohms
R2:1k
Ct-2.5 tts
C2:2.5 ttF
Dl andD2
Diodes

102
 15
Transistor Characteristics
A transistoris a three-electrode
device,the connectionsbeingto Da.s(desig-
natedB orb), emitter(designated E or e), andcollector(designated
C or c).
Invariably(exceptwhena transistoris beingusedasa diode),oneelectrodeis
commonto bothinputandoutputcircuits-usually the emitter(common emit-
ter), or sometimes the base(commonbase).The common*ollector configura-
tion is seldomused.

DC PARAMETERS
Thefour mainparameters
governingtle dcperformance
of a transistorare:
o inputvoltage
o inputcurrent
o outputvoltage
o outputcurrent
averagevoltagesandcurrents,andlower-
Capitallettersareusedto designate
caselettersto designateinstantaneous
volumesof voltageor current:
o Vforaveragevoltages
r v for instantaneous
voltages
o I for averagecurrents
o i for instantaneous
currents

103
For example:Vs, %, V" meansaveragevaluesof base,collector, and emitter
currents respectively,andv6, vc, vc meansinstantaneousvaluesof base,collec-
tor, and emitter current, respectively.Is, I", I. meansaveragevaluesof base,
collector, and emitter currents, respectively,and io, i", i" meansinstantaneous
valuesof base,collector, and emitter currents respectively.
TVhereinstantaneoustotal values of voltage or current are referred to, a
capitalsubscriptis used,with a lowercaseletter designatingvoltageor current.
Thus vs, v6, vB rn€aninstantaneoustotal valuesof base,collector and emitter
voltagerespectively,or i3, is, iBmeaninstantaneoustotal valuesof base,collec-
tor and emitter current respectively.
It is alsonecessaryto definethe electrodesbetweenwhich thesevoltagesor
currents apply. This is done by using the appropriateletters in the subscript:
V3p: averagebase-emittervoltage
v6": instantaneousbase-emittervoltage
vsp: instantaneoustotal baseemitter voltage
V6s : av€rdgecollector-emitter voltage
V"" : instantaneouscollector-emitter voltage
vg3: instantaneoustotal collector-emitter voltage
Vss : ?v€ragebase-collectorvoltage
vs" : instantaneousbase-collectorvoltage
vss : instantaneoustotal basecollector voltage
Iogrcally, these shouldconform to the voltage direction (positive to negative),
dependingon whether the transistor is a PNP or NPN tlTe, as in the following
order:
PNP transistor: EB, BC, BE (or eb, bc, be)
NPN transistor: BE, CB, EB (or be, cb, eb)

INPUT CHARACTERISTICS
The input characteristicsof a transistor show the rariation of input current
with input voltage.ln tlte common-emitterconfguration,input is to tle base,and
basecurrent (Io) is plotted againsttlte basevoltagemeasuredbetweenthe base
and emitter (VbJ. In the common-baseconfiguration,input is to ttre emitter, so
the input characteristicsshowthe variation of emitter current (IJ againstemit-
ter voltage measuredbetweenemitter and base(V"J,
Theserelationshipsare given graphicallyin Fig. 15-1. The input resistancein
eachcaseistltereciprocal of the slopeof the curve andisthereforelow. Because
the input characteristicsare non-linear(shownby a curve rather tlan a straight
line), input resistanceis not constantbut dependson the current at which it is
measured.Becauseof tlte non-linearcharacteristicsof tlre input, a transistor is
normally current biasedanddriven from a current ratler than a voltagesource.
This is providedby usinganeffectivesourceresistancewhichislarge in compari-
son with the input resistance.If this resistance(or, correctly speaking,imped-
ance)is not high enoughto swampthe varying resistance(impedance)of the
transistor under drive, there will be considerabledistortion of ttre input signal.

IM
 3so
!
I
Note-Each Value of
lrnll*a- \'^li-n-

Ilave a Dfferent Cunre

I
llt:ll I
tr I
Innut ,i"J'". "t o"l -
F 6 0 PoiirtBquasBaseVoftale I
E DividedbyBaseCurrent /
b 4 0
(J

A
8i
20
./
1 (

Jj'J

0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0'35 0.40

BaseVoltage
Fig. 1&1. Tltpical transistor input charactcristics.

TRANSFER CHARACTEruSTICS
ofa transistorarenormallygivenasaplotofcollector
Transfercharacteristics
currentagainstbasecurrent,Fig.15-2.Ideally,thisshouldbeastraightline.Any
departurefromalinear(straightline)relationship
impliesnon-linear
di"stortion
of
the outputsignal.

OUTPUT CEARACTERISTICS
Outputcharacteristiccurvesof a transistorshowwhatis effectivelya switch-
onvoltage(or hneeaoltageas it is called),abovewhichalargechangein collector
voltageproducesonly a smallchangein collectorcurrent.Sinceresistanceis
againtlte reciprocalof tlre slopeof this I"/V" surye,it followsthat output

12
**.l*.tl*ot*' I Note: EachCollector

**f
Voltage Value Will Voltage Value Will l{ave
a Different Curve

g
6
ct

8 T"i'""fl
=
J
tr
g 6
5
a
s 4
,jt

-
r\ 2 /

.J
t/
o0.2 0.4 0 0.2 0.4 0.6
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
BaseVoltage BaseVoltage
SrnallGermaniumTransirtor Small SiliconTransirtc
Tranr
Fig. 1&2. Typiedltrans*tor trarcfer characteristics

105
 high.The valueof the collector
resistanceof a transistoris characteristically
crrrent, andto someextentthe slopeof tlte cun'e,alsodependson the base
current.Separate curvesarethusplottedfor (constant)basecurrents,seeFig.
15-3.Again,notetlat aconstantbasecurent isonlyobtained with ahighsouroe
resistance in thetransfercharacteris-
in thebasecircuit.Also,anynon-lineariry
ticsof the transistorshowsuponthe inputcharacteristics asunevenspacingof
the cuves for equalincrementsin inputcurrent.

CTIRRENTAITTPLIFICATION
A transistoris generallyusedasa cufrentamplifier.Here,the basecurrent
controlsthe currentin the emitter-collector circuit,althoughit mayonlybe a
smallpercentage of theemittercurrent.Currentcanbeaddedin theusualway.
Thus,emitter currentequalscollectorcurrentplusbasecurrent;or, alterna-
tively,basecurrentequalsemittercurrentminuscollectorcurrent.
he:cpressing thecharacteristicsof thetransistor,collectorcurrentdividedby
emittercurrentis designated a, andcollectorcurrentdividedby basecurrentis
designated o1. Knowingeitler a or cr, it is possibleto findthe currentsat tle
otler electrodes since

a:ar/(l*ar)
qr:sl(L_a)

Actualvaluesof o andcl canvary with frequencyandcurrentfor tle same

simple,analysis
transistor.Straighfforward, isbased
oftransistorcharacteristics
onlowsignalcurrentsat zerofrequency;Le.,smallchanges in directcqrrent.To

7o'
/

/ 50'

€ o
E
cl
40'
c)
/ 30.
6 a
E
R / qA-

6 2 / T
-
/ BaseCurrr
rnt- Curent-
Mcroamp Microampo
0_ I
2 4
0 6 8 1 0 0 4 8 L 2 1 6 2 0
Volts
CoUector ColectorVolts
Transistc
SmallGermanium SmallSiliconTransistor
Fig.15-3. Typicaltransistoroutputcharactcristics.

106
makethis clear,tlte symbolsan anddor aresometimes used,ttresubsctript "o"
indicatingzerofrequency.
T\e currentamplificationfactorin cornmon-emitter configuration(inputto
thebase)is given (or
byar a"). It islargelyindependent ofcollectorvoltage,but
is usuallymeasured at someconstantcollectorvoltage. thevalued
Specifically,
al is directlyrelatedto tle slopeof the I.[6 curve,or tlte trandercharacteris-
tics. It is alsocalledthesmall-signalgain of the transistor.Actualraluesmay
rangefrom aslow as 10 up to severalhundreds.
In the common-base configuration, with inputto emitter,tle currentamplifi-
cationfactoris designated a (or co) andis equivalentto tlre slopeof the I"/I.
curve.In thiscase,I" is alwaysa little lessthanI., sothevalueof a is alwaysless
thanunity;typicallyof the orderof 0.98.

DC CURRENT GAIN
Specifically,this is the ratio of I"[u in common-emitter configuration andis
generallyreferred to asf (strictlyspeakingf')or hre, thelatternormallybeing
the parameterquotedby manufacturers. f nd hrs are not identical,andboth
wry with collectorcurrent.The quotedhj3 valueis thereforenormallyasso
ciatedwith a specificcollectorcurrent.Commonly transistorsmayhave
available
valuesof h6 varyingfrom about10 to 560 at collectorcurrmts rangingfrom
I mA to 30 A Herearesomeexamples:
o Lowandmediumpowergermanium transistors:typicalhp mnge30-200 at
collectorcurrentsfrom I mA to 300 mA
o Smallsignalhighfrequencygermanium transistors:tlpical hrBrange30- 100
at collectorcurrentsfrom 1 mA to 10 mA
o Germanium typicalhp range40- 150at collectorcurrents
powertransistors:
from 500mA to 1A
o Smallsignalsilicontransistors:tlpical fp range50- 500at collector@rrents
from0.1rnAto 50 mA
o Mediumpowerlowfrequencysilicontransistors:tlpical hst range90- 200at
collectorcurrentsfrom 10 mA to 150EA
o HiBhpowerlow frequencysilicontransistors:tjrpicalhp range25-100 at
collectorcurrentsfrom 150rnAto 5 A
. Smallsignalhighfrequencysilicontransistors:lrpical h6 range40- 100and
collectorcurrentsfrom 1 mA to 25 nA

MANUFACTURER'SSPECIFICATIONS
Manufacturers'normally providecun/esshowingthe static(dc)characteris"
ticsof industrialtransistorsfor bothcommonemitterandcommon baseconfigu-
rations,togetherwith othercharacteristic valuesasappropriate.Sunmarized
transistordatain catalogsor datasheetsshouldgiveat leastthe following:

Vcro(ma:r): ruximum collectorto emitter

voltageon opencurrent

107
 76se(max): maximumcollectorto base
voltageon opencurrent
Vsse (max): maximumemitterto base
voltageon opencurrent
I" (max): nulximumcollectorcurrent
& (max)or P- (max): maximumtotal powerdissipation
hp: dc currentgain(usuallYquoted
asa typicalfigureat a sPecific
collectorcurrent)

To assistselection,suchlistingsmaybearrangedin groupsof (roughly)similar

is alsoshownfor each
tlrpes.It is evenmorehelpfulwhenthe designapplication
transistortype, suchas generalpurpose'switching,audioamp,etc' Hereis a
andguide.
usefulclassification

C'ermaniumTransistofg
o Small,medium-current,switchingandgeneralpurpcse
o Medium+urrentswitching,lowpoweroutput
o Small,medium-current amPlifiers
o AF amplifiers,lowPoweroutput
o Complementary pairs
o Highpoweroutput(powertransistor)

Silicon TransiBtorg
r AF amplifiers,smallsigtal,generalpurpose
o AF amplifiers,low level,low noise
o Small-signal
amplifiers
o RF amplifiersandoscillators
o Medium-current switching,low poweroutput
o Highfrequency,mediumPowers
o General-purpose switching
o Powertransistors
Anyreferenceto powergroupingis largelyarbitrarysincethereis nouniversal
agreement ontherangeof powerlevels(referringto thema:<imumpowerrating
oithe particulartransistor).Thus,low powermaygenerallybetakento cover
100-t50 mw, but sucha groupingmayincludetransistorswith powerratings
upto I watt.Similarly,mediumpowerimpliesapossible powerrangeof 250 mW
t; 1W, but mayextendup to 5 watts.Any transistorwith a powerrating of
asapowertransistor.Informationabout
greaterthan5 wattsis classified select-
is givenin the next chapter.
ing transistorsfor characteristics

BASIC GUIDE TO SELECTING TRANSISTORS

Transistorsare specifiedby codeletters and/ornumbers,by the mandac-
circuitdesignsnormallyspecifya particulartypeorftransistor,
turers.Published

I(E
all ttre associated componentvalues-such as resistors-then beingdeter-
minedwith respectto the characteristics of the particulartransistorspecified.
No problemthere.Simplyusethe specifiedtransistor-unless,ascanhappen,
youfind that it is unobtainable.
In tlnt case,tlere arebasically threeoptions.Thefirst isto useanequioalent
transistor,of differentmanufacture or typenumber,whichhasthesamecharac-
teristics.For this you needa historyof transistorequivalents from whichto
selectan alternative.There are booksavailablewhichgive suchequivalent
listings,or yourlocalhobbyshopor partsdistributormaybe ableto help.
Equivalents givenin suchlistingsareseldomexactequivalents. Tbeyaremore
likelyto be near-equivalent with sufrcientlyclosecharacteristics to beusedin
basic circuitswhere component values are not too critical. Simple radiocircuits
are an example.In manycaseswith elementarycircuits,almostany t1rpeof
transistorof t]tesamebasict1rye(germanium or silicon),or betterstill,tlte same
functionalSoup, will work.
Informationonfunctional groupingisharderto comeby.Manufacturers group
their products in this way, but suppliers usually only list their stocks by type
number,which is not very helpfulwithout manufacturers'catalogs to check on
thefunctional goup to which a particular
transistor conforms. TVhen you can find
transistortypeslistedunderfunctionalgroups,keepthis materialonfile. It can
beaninraluableguidein selectingtransistorsfor a particulariob.

IDENTIFYING TMNSISTORS BY SHAPE

Whiletransistorsare madein thousands of differenttypes,tlre numberof
shapes in whichtley are produced is morelimited andmoreor lessstandardized
in a simplecode:TO (Transistor Outline)followed by a number.
TO1 is the originaltransistorshape-a cylindricalcanwith the threeleads
emergingin triangularpatternfrom the bottom.Lookingat tlre bottom,the
upperleadin thetriangleis tlreDas,tle oneto theright (markedbyacolorspot)
thecollecbr,andtbe oneto the left theemitter.Thecollectorleadmayalsobe
morewidelyspacedfrom the baseleadthanis the emitterlead.
In otherTO shapes, the threeleadsmayemergein similartriangularpattern
Out not necessarily witl thesamepositionsfor base,collector,andemitter),or
in-line.Jrst to confusethe issue,there are alsosubtypesof the sameTO
numbershapeswith differentleaddesignations. The TO92,for example,has
tbreeleadsemergingin line parallelto a flat side,or anotherwisecircularcan,
reading1, 2, 3 fromtopto bottom,with theflat sideto theright (ookingat the
bottom).
To complicate thingsfirrther,sometransistor rnayhaveonlytwo emerging
leads(the third connected to the caseinternally),andsometransistoroutline
shapes arefoundwith morethanthreeleadsemergingfromthebase.These,in
fact, arc integratedcircuits 0Cs), packagedin the sameoutlineshapeas a
transistor.More complexICsare packagdin quitedifferentform.
Powertransistorsareeasilyidentifiedby $ape. Theyaremetalcasedwith an
eloqgatedbottomand two mouting holes.In this case,there are only two
leads-the emitterandbase-and thesearenormallymarked-Thecollectoris
connectedinternally to thecan,andsoconnectionto tbe
thecollectorisviaoneof
mountingboltsor bottomof the can
Examples and
of transistoroutlineshapestogetherwith typicaldimensions
leadidentifrcationare givenin Fig. 9-10.

110
 16
Amplifiers
An amplifiercanbe defnedasa deviceor circuitprovidiqgnultiplicationda
dgnal;Le.,anoutputsignalgreaterthanthe inputsignal
Transistorswork asanamplifierof siglab.In the mostwidelyusedmode d
connectionof transistorsfor suchduties,with input andoutputcircuitsboth
connectedto theemitter(common-enitter mode),tbedegreed amplificatimor
cnrrentgainis calledthe bta(fi of,tbtransistoa

BASIC AMPLIFIER CIRCIIITS

A basictransistoramplifiercircuitis verysimple,andis identicalfor a PNPor
NPN transistor,exceptfor the batterypoladty(Fig. 1G1).Virtuallyanylow'
poweraf transistorcanbeusedin thiscircuit Thebiasresistor(R) mrst havea
valueprovidinga collectorcurrentnot exceeding thenaxinum specified rating
for the transistorused,ttre actnalcurrent flowiqg in tbe cir@it
collector also
beinginfluenced by the voltage ofthe battery.
Knowingtbe transistorcharacteristics, a suitablevaluefc R in Fig. 1&1 can
be calculatedasfollows:
. .- batteryroltage
x-qartrA-
collectorflrrent

_L - batteryvoltage
_oo^___F

t11
 Fig. 16.1.BasicamPlifiercircuit.

where I" is equalto, or preferably lessthan, the specificationfigure for I" ma:r.
For example,a small signaltransistor has the vdues of I" max :250 mA, and
hp : 30 to 90. Taking the maximumgain,and 175 mA asa safeworking figUre
for the collector current:
q
R:90 "
OfZS

- 4,630Q

A suitable(preferred-value)resistorwouldthusb 4-7 k.
Figure1&2 showsthe complete circuitfor anelementary af amplifrerof this
type, coupledto the front end of a basic crystalset. The detector (output)is
coupledto the amplifiervia capacitot C2, a suitable valuefor which wouldbe
l0 pF or higher(20,25,30, 40,or 50 pF): Capacitor C1 (0.001 pF) may notbe
neoessary. Theoutputloadin the collector circuitis formed by high-impedance
phones.

rI 1
I Coupling
I I Capacitor

I +tl
I c2
c1
I
I
I
L
CrystalSetFront Eod
Fig. 1&2. Crxstal vt with one stageof amillifuation.

1L2
 NotethatthePolarityof.thebatteryusedto powertlfs circuitis importantas
far asthetransistorconnections isconcerned andalsobecause oftheconnections
to the diodeandC2(whichnormallyneedsto beanelectrolytictypeto provide
thehigh*apacitance valuerequired).WithanNPNtransistor,thebatterypolar-
ity is reversed,asarethe diodeandelectrolytic-capacitor connections.
Thesametlryeof circuitcanbeusedtoprovideadditional amplification
simply
by addinganotheramplifierstage(Fig. 17-3).Thesecondamplifierstagecanbe
identicalto the first, or basedon a higher-power transistortakingthe output
presentandprovidingevengreatergain.Theloadin theoutput(collector)ofthe
fust amplifierstageis providedby a resistor(R2) (whichshouldbe aboutthe
samevalueasthephoneresistance, 3.3to 4.7 k). Thetwo stagesarecoupled by
a capacitor (C3).Thevalueof R3depends onthesecond transistorused,andmay
be anythingfrom 130to 1 k O. Capacitors C2 andC3 canbe 10pF or larger.
A morecompacttwo-stageamplifiercircuitis shownin Fig. 174. Thismay
provecapable of operatinga smallloudspeaker direct,althoughthecurrentdrain
is quite high.
Alternatively,tlree or four stagesof amplification usinglow-powertransis-
tors,followingabasicfrontendcrystalset,shouldprovideenoughpowerto drive
a smallloudspeakerat thefinaloutput,throughasuitable stepdowntransformer
to provideanimpedance match.
Simpleamplifiercircuitsof this tlpe haveanimportantlimitation:perform-
anceof the transistor(s)tendsto vary with temperature.There is alsotle
possibilityof thermalnrnawaydeveloping, whichcandestroythe transistors,
because, asthe externaltemperature increases the collectorcurrentalsotends
to increase, whichinturncauses afurtherincrease injunctiontemperature. The
effectis cumulative and goes frombadto worse,evento tlte pointof ruiningtie
transistorcompletely. It ispo.*sibleto overcome thistroublebyarrangingforthe
circuitto be self-biasing or dc stabilizedsothat a constantcollectorcurrentis

Fig. IN. Crystalst with tw stag* of amplifcation. Comfonentulucs matehing SK3007Aor nearequiod-
bnt for Ql and Q2

113
 Fig.164 Anlliftcr for lM*akor urWL Corttior*nts
Ql- SKifrM R[- 6.8h
Q2:5K3011 M- 33h
C8- T0nicmfards

provided,regardlessof transistortype or t€mperahrrevariations.In other

words,the workingpointof the collectorcircuitis stabiliz:d.
Afrrther advantage of a stabilizedcircuitis tbat it makesthe perforrnance of
tle amplifierlessdependenton the characteristics d individualtransistors,
whichcandifferappreciably evenfor tle sametype.Capacitoroupliqgbetween
stagesshouldbe used,sincethis nakes eachstageinOepeo0ent rather than
interdependenl
To achievethis,the originalbiasresistoris split into two separateralues,Rl
andR2(Fig. 1G5).A furtlrerbiasresistor(Ri|)is applieddirecdyto tbeemitter,
in parallelwith a capacitor(C) to act asa bypassfor af crrrents.
A receiverdesigpincorporatingtwo stagesd amplificationwith stabilized
circuits,followinga conventional front endis sbo\mio FA. 16.6.This,in fact,is
aboutasfar asit is p'racticalto go with srch a basiccircuit because, although
additionalcompletestagesprovidenoregainandgreaterfnaloutputpower, any
deficiencyin the circtit is alsoaggravated-notabln lack of sensitivityand
eelectivityin tlre front end.
Theamplifierstagesalsoprovideaconvenient pointto insertavolumecontrol
into the receivercircuil This takesthe form d a potentiometerwhichcan
replaceonedthebiasresistors, orbeplacedinserieswitbtheflowof thecurrent
afterthefirst stageof amplification (Fig. 1G7).Tbisintroduces minimumdistor-
6on over the volumecontrolnqge"

Amplifier0utft Stagee
Singletransistoroutputswork in ClaseAoperation,rvhichmeansthat the
vzluesof biasandsignalvoltageappliedto the transistorensurethat collector

711
 t! **
l*

TN

FA. Iffi. Transkbramllifur sbgcuithtubiliud bias.bpicat oatwsfor lofltrudiumpowr transistors

RI- 22h
R2- 10h
R3- 7h
C- 10nicmfarads

currentahnys flows.Figure1&8 showsa basicClass-Aoutputcircuitincorpo-

rating transformercouplingto a loudspeaker.
A moreeconomic wayof producingsatisfactoryoutputpoweris to useasingle
transistordriver workinga complementary pair of transistors(anNPN anda
PNPselect€dwith netchedcbaracteristics)in pustr-pull
configuratioaTheout-

l.
a Orttrrl
t:l
-l t d
- J

FA. \ffi. Twostageanllifier circuit.

115
 I
'l O,rtgt
;' Losd

QT R8

Fig.1&7. Twostageamplifierwith oolumccontml.

put powerobtainedfrom a pairof transistorsin push-pullis considerably more

ihan-doubtethe powerobtainedfrom a singletransistor of t11e same type.
IYithClassBoperation, thetransistorsarebiasedto nearlycutofr,sothatonly
".rtgio.t *rr"nt flowsunderquietconditions.Push-pulloutputsrnay,how-
"uet,
- i.o U"desigredfor ClassABoperation, with ratherhighercurrentdrains'
is lowestwith ClassA operation,whileClassB operation
disto:rtion
Basically,
providesthe lowestcurrentdrainbut introducesthe possibilityo{ crossover
distortionbeingpresent'Thiscanbeovercome by applyinga slightforwardbias
to eachtransistor.classAB offersa compromise betweenthe two.

Fig. lffi. BasicClassA amplifiercircdt.

116
 1\ro typesofbasicpush-pull outputciroritsareshowninFigs.1Sg and1610,
oe with directcouplingandthe otherusingtrandormercoupling,bothinter-
stage(betweeodriverandpush-pullinpu$ andto theloudspeater. Thecoupling
traadormercanprovidevoltagesteFup.An outputtrandormer,on tle otber
hand,is invariablya stetrdownb?e to adjusttie loudspeakerimpedancetothe
reguiredoutputimpedance. Both typesd circuitshavetleir advant4ges and
disadvantages, althorghforsimplerreceivers,all-transistorcircuitsareusn[y
preferred.
Muchalsodepends on the requirements of the receiver.To operatea soall
loudspeaker an audiopoweroutputof 5 nA or betteris reguired
successfrdly,
(higherstill for largerspeakers, of course).At the otherextreme,about10;rA
represenb,for most people,the thresholdof audibilityin higb-impedance
phones;and0.1 mA is a normalminimunfor comfortable listeningandreaf
identificationd sormdsin headphones. For easylisteoingwith higb-impedance
phones,anaudiooutputpowerof upto 0.5 nA is deirable.Hig[er signallevelr
teodto gwampheadphones but can,dcourse, bereducedby a voluneffioL

T
I
I
9Vc
I
I
I
tlrt-J

Fig.b9. Pt dr'ruillontliier. &nPrcn*

C2- 2ilmicmfards
R7- I
C3- 50 nicmlatds
M-I SK I
R3- 7 Ql-
Q2- SKfiO7A
Rl- 7h
Q3- SK3835
R5- 7h IMsfiah,er- 8ohns
C7- 5 nhmlarads

n7
 amflifur sith tra*{ottttt corflittg.QI itttb drirlr; Q2a;il 03' Sf,CII4 Tl}dul q*
Fig.b10. Push-pall
Ftuntuhus
R7,M- bnatchQl (defeillitrgn09cd)
R3:Ih C2- 60micmfards
R4:100 C3- 50nicmlards
R5- L7h T1- cmllitgtm*slorrul
R6- 70 T2- uttltt tmwrorfr"

earpiecee,
Tpical claracteristicsof headphones, ue li*ed
andlotdspea&crs
here.

Headphones
o High-impedancetype: dc resistance2,000-4,000 ohms,tlpical impedance
10,000ohms(at 1 kIIz)
r tnw-impedancetlTe dcresistance15ohms,typicalimpedance 80 ohns(at 1
,*lz)
o t owimpedance
type dcresistance 80ohms,typicalinpedane 120obms(at 1
kllz)

Earpieces
15 ohs
t1rye:dc resistance2,000ohms,tvpicalimpedance
o High-impedance
(at l kHz)
. Highimpedance
type dcresistance 14ohms,tjDicalim@nce 60 ohns(at 1
kHz)
o Highimpedance
type:dcresistance 250ohns(at
60 ohms,typicalimpedance
1-lz)

118
 Loudspeakers
Typicaldc resistance3 ohms,tlTical im@ance8-16 ohms.

StepDown Transfomero
It is obviousfrom a study of thesefiguresthat low-impedance phones,a
low-impedance earpiece,or a loudspeaker will bea mismatchfor couplingto an
outputrequiringa high-impedance load(asin the caseof mostof the simple
all-transistoroutputcircuits).
To employlow-impedance phones,earpiece,or a loudspeakerwith anoutput
requiringa high-impedance load,a matchingstepdowntransformer(output
transformer)mustbe used.The primaryof the transformertlrenprovidesthe
requiredoutputload,indireclycoupledto the secondary to whichis connected
thelow-impedance phones or speaker,Fig. 1&11.Theturnsratiorequiredfrom
tlte transformeris easrlycalculatedas:

Y\ pho""o@ /

Sometypicaltransformerratiosandtheir suitabilityfor matchingare:

Fig. 1&11. Usingan outpttttransfotncr ta balancettc lud

119
 Listening Equivalent Output
Rado Device Load ImpedanceOh'nr

4lzL Speaker 29,000

35:1 4ohm earpiece 20,000
30:1 Speaker 10,000
18:1 14ohmearpiece 20,000
14:1 lSohm earpiece 20,000
9:1 60-ohmearpiece 20,000
5:1 80ohmheadphones 20,000

n0
 L7
Oscillators
An oscillatorcanbedescribed in simpletermsasanalternatingcurrentgenera-
tor. Wbereonlylowfrequencies arerequired,asinmainselectricityforexample,
rotatingmachines offera straighfforward solutionandcanalsooperateat high
powerlevels.ln electroniccircuitswherevery muchhigheracfrequencies are
required,theseareprovidedby oscillatorcircuits.Theyfall broadlyinto three
types:resonant-frequency oscillators,andphase-
oscillators,crystal-controlled
shift oscillators.

RESONANT.FREQUENCY OSCLLATORS
Resonant-frequency oscillatorcircuitsarebasedontheparticularpropertyof
(L)
an inductance and an associated capacitance (C) to e:rhibitresonanc€
wherebythecurrentflowinginthecircuit qscillatesfrompositivetonegativeina
sinusoidalmannerat a frequencydeterminedonly by the valuesof L andC.
Figure18-1illustratessucha circuit.
Intheinitialstate,withtheswitchinposition, thereisasteadyorrentflowing
tlrough the coilbut with no appreciable voltage,andsotle capacitorremains
ucharged.Movement oftlreswitchto position2 putsalargenegativebiasonthe
gateof the FET so that the draincurrentis cut off. The resultantcollapseof
magneticflux in the coil opposes tlte charge,sothat currentcontinuesto flow
intothecapacitor, chargingit up.Voltageacrossthecapacitorcanonlyincrease
at the expense of decreasing current,however,soa pointis reachedwherethe
currentfallsto zeroandtle voltageis a maximum.
 Fig. 17-1.Demonstrationcircuitfor LC osillator.

At this point, the capacitorstarts to discharge,generatinga curent in the

reverse direction, with falling voltage. This continues until the voltage has
droppedto zero, correspondingto maximum reverse current. All the energy
st*"{ in the LC circuit is now returned to L but with reverse polarity. Conse-
quently, the voltage starts to increasein a negativedirection, with the current
decreasing,endingup with the capacitorchargedin tlre reversedirection (maxi-
mum negitiue voltage) when the current againreacheszero. The circuit now
starts to rise againin a positive direction with falling negativevoltage to com-
plete a full cycle of oscillation,as shownin Fig. 18-2. The cycle of operationis
repeatedover and over againat a frequencygiven by:

ZnxJfr
Theoretically at least,with an idealinductanceandan idealcapacitor,neither
havinganyelectricalresistance,the original store of energyis exchangedindefi-
nitetf i.e., oscillationcontinuesindefinitely in a sinusoidalrumner with no fur-
ther energyfed into the circuit (the original sourceofbattery energyis switched
off oncethe switch is movedfrom position 1 to position 2).Ina practicalcircuit'
however, there is someresistancepresent, which producesa gradualdecayor
damping of.the amplitudeof the oscillators(i.e., reductionin rnaximumvoltage
and current values).

'{l
Yoltage

Switch Operated

I
Fig. 17-2 Cfle of oberationof LC osillabr.

122
 FA.nA. Self+xillat'ngosillatorcircuit

The degreeof dampingpresentis dependenton tlre ratio of react nce to

resistancein the LC circuit,or Q. The lowerthe valueof Q, the greaterthe
dampingpresent.If the Q is aslow as 1:2, the circuitis criticallydampedand
doesnotoscillateat all.In otherwords,if conditions
arerightfor theLCcircuitto
start oscillating,this is dampedout completelyin the first cycle.Equally,tle
highertheQ, thegreaterthelengthof timeoscillation continues.However,in a
practicaloscillatorcircuit,someenergymustbesupplied to thecircuitto keepit
oscillating,to replacethe energydissipatedin tlte resistancepresentin tle
circuit. Also, tlris supplyof energyneedsto be providedautomatically in a
practicalcircuit.Figure17-3showshowthe originaldemonstration circuitcan
bemodifiedto provideiust this.
Here, tlre smallcoil inductivelycoupledto L generatesa voltageoactly
synchronized voltagegenerated
with the sinusoidal in theLC circuit.Theralue
of thisvoltagedepends onthenumberof turnsin thesmallcoilandhowcloselyit
is coupledto L. Theinducedvoltagecanworkwith or againsttle voltagein the
LC circuit.[n otherwords,it onlyworksif the coilis connected oneway.If the
couplingis close,andthe coilis connected the right way,sucha circuitcanbe
selfoscillatingstartedup by randomelectronmovements.

PRACTICAL LC OSCILLATORS
Thebasicrequirementsfora practicalresonant-frequencyorLC oscillatorare
thusanoscillatorycircuit(L andC),associatedwith somemeansof maintaining
oscillation(usuallysomeformof amplifrersuchasa transistor,FET,or opamp).

() BasicltartleyOscitlator () BasicColpitts Oscillator

F4.174. Twobasbosillator circuits.

123
 Fig.17-5.PracticalHartletosillatorcircuit.

Twowaysof doingthisusinga transistorasthemaintainingamplifierare shown

in Fig. 17-4.In thefirst (A),theLC circuitis tappedontheinductiveside.Thisis
the basisof the Hartleyoscillator.In the second(B),the LC circuitis tappedon
t11ecapacitiveside.ThisisthebasisoftheColpittsoscillator.Practicalcircuitsfor
tlese two important typesof oscillatorsareshownin Frgs.17-5and17{.

CRYSTAI-CONTROLLEDOSCILLATORS
A quartzcrystalwith electrodesplantedon oppositefaces,is the electrical
equivalentof aninductance (L), resistance(R), andcapacitance (Cf) in series,
with a muchlargercapacitance acrosstlem, seeFig.l7-7.It is, in fact,a
(c2)
completeLC circuitwith a specificresonantfrequencywhich maynmgefroma
fewkHzto severalMHz,depending onthecrystaltype,size,howit iscutandhow
it ismounted. It alsohasthecharacteristicof ahighQwith goodstability'making
it amostusefuldeviceto basean qscillator
circuitaround.It is alsoa moreor less
standardchoicefor a fixedfrequencyoscillator.
A wholevarietyof suchcircuitsarepossible. A basicconfigUration is shownin
Fig. 17-8wheretheactivedeviceis anFET. It shouldbenotedt}at, althougha
tunedcircuit(LCcombination)is included,theoscillatorfrequencyisdetermined

Fig. 174. Prrctieal Colpittsoxillator circuiL

1124
 I
EI

I EquivalentElectricalCircuit

Fig. 17-7.Eleetricalcircuit equioalentof a crystal.

essentiallyby the resonantfrequencyof the cr!'stal and not by the rest of tle
circuit. The tuning of the LC circuit can in fact, be relatively broad aroundthis
frequency,the crystal providing stabilizedoscillator at a specificfrequency.
The frequencyof a crystal-controlledoscillator can be adiustedwithin very
narrow limits (usuallylessthan 5 parts in 10,000)by meansof a rariable capaci-

-22Y

Fig. 17A. 1 MHz crystal osillator.

125
 r-
I I
I
I
f,--;,---,,---'l I
I
I I l I
ln I I Ott I I
I I I I
I I I

Flg.17-9.Pha**hifiosiltabrfusdonfltet cir*iL
acToss
tor connected aresimple,
sincecrystals
it. However, inexpensivedevices
asocket,
wnicncanptuginto of
achangewstalisusrullythe easiestmethodof
frequencyadjwtnenl

PEASF-SSIFTOSCILLIITORS
Itis possibletoproduce onthehmed-circuitprinciple
anoscillato,r byemploy'
dffJffiirot [Aot inductances.Basically,suchcircuitsarefilternetworks
associatedwithlqamplifier. A three'stageRC6lter
Groa.O nCconbinations) between
iit*it is needed to providea totalphasedifrerence d 180degrees
o-*t-d *lt"g., with a toss
srnall nratcUeOby the gaino!thearrp$er.Abasic
dr*itd thirqrBJii.Uo*oinFig.1?-9,usingatransistor fortle activeelemenl
I GiLqdfii*t fc such"-cit*it to *otf is tlat tbeinputto theamplifier
gainof the
r*t t" .i lu".t Uf timestheoutputin strength,wheref-is the gAin
tj3o.i.to" Thisgdera[tcals for theuseofa transistor witha cgrrent d
tbeorderof 50or better.

Fig. 1?-10.Wienhddgeoxilla|rr'

n6
 FA.n-U. Basicresnantcircuitosillatorwithtransisbramfrlifur.

A particularadrantageof phase-shift oscillatorsis t}at tley canreadilybe

variedin frequencyovera wide range, usingthreevariablecapacitors, ganged
togetherandvariedsimultaneously. Their most gsefirl working range is froma
few Hz to hundredsof.lrtlz. At higher frequencies-in the MIIz range and
above-tley are generallyinferiorto resonant+ircuit oscillators.

BRIDGE OSCILLATORS
Oneottrertype of oscillatorworth describingis the Wien-bridge oscillator
(anotherphase-shifttype) wherea balancedbridgeis usedas the feedback
network(Fig. 17-10).To work, the loopgainmustequalunity andmusthave
zerophase.Thisis generallygiveobysuitableselectionof resistorraluessotlat
R2/Gf + R2)is lessthan%.
The frequencyof operationwith this type is tle frequencyof ttre balanced
I
bridge,or Notethatboththetwo resistorvaluesandcapacitor valueson
7;rt5;
theleft-handsideof thebridgeareidentical.Thefrequencyof tle oscillatorcan
be changed by usingdifferentvaluesfor R, or, alternatively,for a variable'fre-
quencyoscillator,tlretwo capacitorsarereplacedby gangedvariablecapacitors
of identicalvalue,variedsimultaneously.
Themajorityof oscillatorcircuits,however,arebasedonresonantcircuitor
LC combinations of conventionalform with a clcsecoupled secondcoilto gqF
moteselfoscillation.A circuitof this typeis shownin Frg.L7'LL.

u7
18
Circuit Diagrams
A circuitdiagramis a planof a particularcircuitshowingallthecomponents and
The
all the circuit connections. components are represented by symbols (see
Chapter1),arrangedto showall connections simplyandclearly,avoidingcross"
ing linesasfar as po.ssible.It is a theoreticaldiagam sinceit doesnot showthe
actualsizeor shapeof components, nor their actualposition in a built-upcircuil
It hasto beredrawnasa practical diagramorworking plan fromwhichthe circuit
is actuallyconstructed.
Certainconventions applyin drawinga circuit diagram,but tlese are not
alwaysfollowedrigldly. The first is that the diagramshouldreadfrom left to
right.Thatmeanswhateveris inputto thecircuitshouldstartat theextremeleft
andbefedthroughthecircuitfromleft to right.In thesimpleradiocircuitshown
in blockformin Fig. 18-1theinputis supplied bytheantenna currentfeedingthe
tunedcircuit,tlen passingto thedetector,thento the amplifier,andfinallytle
loudspeaker output.Thepowersupplyfor thecircuit(sayabattery)is shovmon
thefar right of thecircuit.At first thismayseemacontradiction ofthenrle,if you
think of the powersupplybeing into the circuit.It is not a true input,but is
put
merelya supplyto work t}re circuit. Otherwiseit hasnothingto do with the
circuit,soit is depictedoutof thewayontheright.Thereis anothergoodreason
for this.Althoughthe supplyfeedsall the stagesbachnrards in termsof left-to-
right reading,it probablyis not requiredto power the first stage.Hence,it is
logicalto showfeedfrom the rigbt, stoppingat the approprhtestage.

12Et
 Fig. 1&1. fusicstages
in a simlb radioreceiter.
Nearlyall circuitsarebasedona commonlineconnection; i.e.,components in
variousstagesareconnected to onesideofthesupply.Thiscommonline isdrawn
at thebottomof thediagram,asshownin Fig. 18-2.It is generallyreferredto as
tlte commongroundline, althoughit maynot haveany actul connectionto
ground.
Asimilarcommonlinecanalsobedrawnat tle topof thediagram,represent-
ing the othersideof the supply.Conventionally, this top line is the *, andthe
bottomor commonlinethe-. Thisis notalwaysconvenient in designing transis.
tor circuits,sothis conventional polaritymaybe reversedon somediagrans.
TVorking onthisbasis,andreplacingthe boxeswithindividualcomponents, the
circuitdiagnmlookssomething likeFig. 1&3. Eachcomponent is identifiedby a
number,or mayhaveits actualvaluegivenalongside. Reading thecircuitisfairly
straighdoward - with a little practice.Startingfromtle left, theinputfromthe
antennais fed to L andCl formingthe tunedcircuit.Fromthere,it is passed
throughthe diodedetectorto the amplifier(Q1).Ql thenfeedsthefinaloutErt
stage(transistorQ2)drivingthe loudspeaker. A supplyvoltageis requiredonly
byQl andQ2,sotheuppercommon linestopsstrortat Ql stage.Thereistors in
tlte top halfregulatethe supply;andthosein the bottomhalf(connecting to the
commonbottomline)establishthe workingpointof the transistors.Additiond
componmts(C2andC3)are requiredfor couplingbetweenstages.

fuun wik commonground and fiouers'uppljconnections.

Fig. 1&2 Stages

129
 Stage3 - --t

I 1 l
t: I
I I
I I
L
I

drawnwithall comfonents
Fig. 18.g.Thesamestages rcquired.
andall connections

Notethatallconnecting linesmeetat right angles,andwheresuchconnection

occurs,this is further made clearby a '. If a line on the diagramhasto cross
anotherlinewithoutanyconnection to thisline,it is simplydrawnasa crossing
line,asshownin Fig. 1 8-5 (righ\ . Crossing lineswith a ' at thepointofmeeting
indicatethat allfourlinesare,in fact,connected at that point.To avoidpossible
(or
confgsion accidentally missing the '), connected linesfrom eachsideof
anotherline canbe drawn as shown in the right diagrun of Fig' 18-4'
Sofar, thereshouldbe no confusion at all in reading theoretical diagrams, but
theycanbecome moredifficult to followwhenthe circuit becomes more complex
or containsa largenumberof individualcomponents. Onecornrnon trick of the
tradeusedto avoidtoo many crossing lines (which could lead to mistakes in
followinga particularconnection) is to arrow a connecting point, or seprately
designale ".ot onlineconnection (Fig. 18-5).Arrowingis usuallyappliedto
outfuts,indicatingthat this line is connected asaninputto a separate stage(or
evena separate circui$.Showinga separate ground connection is common wittr
.o*pon"ot .o*"cted betweentlretop line and bottom line. It indicates clearly
that the component is to beconnected to the groundline,andavoidshavingto
drawtlis lini in close proximity to othercomponents or crossingotherlines.
TVhatis lesseasyto readin termsofactual connections is a circuitincorporat-
ing a singlephysicalcomponent whichmay perform two (or more)separate

Ttatonthelight is ofun fureferredforclaitl'

indieatingconnectiontoacommonpoint
Fig.I84 Twometlpttsof

1il
 t
Fig.1&5. Tlv capacitor (C) is connected
shownin a circ*it diagramin eitlvr ofthese
drawingcrosinglkes uith noconnectiol.
clenrerstill.
+
btupentopandbottom lincs,krt mayb
twoway.Otttlp rightarethreewalsof
Method1 ie theuaul waX;mctM 2 is

functions.Asa verysimpleexample, a volumecontrolpotentiometerforaradio

mayalsoincorporate onoff switching . Thefrrofunctional fatwe-softhissingle
component mayappearin quiteseparatepartsof the circuit;e.g.,the volume
controlpriorto anamplifierstageandtle switchfunctioninthe supplylineat the
far right (Fig. 18-6).
Thiscanbeevenmoreconfusingat firstwherea gangedtuningcapacitcca
gangedswitchis involved,with its separate sectionsappearingin differentparts
of the circuit, althoughit is actuallya singlephysicalcomponent. This is the
logical-and by far tle simplest-way of showingthetheoreticalconnections
of thecircuit,butwhenit comesto actualconstruction ofthecircuit,connections
fromtwo ormoredifferentpartsofthecircuithavetobetakentooneparticular
component position

F!s.1Y:-Inthisenmfle,asirybcon2oaent(ttcfuotent;ometerconncctions)apfoars
inhmvparate partsofthe
circtit diagrem.
 WorkingPhnDrawn WithAllComponents
Actual
Size
layoutdrawingorwo*inSPlorr.Thisb thesne cinuit
Fig.1&7. Tyficalcomponent
followingthctunedcircuit(uhiehwouldbeaferriE radrcrial
as Fig.18-?,

Asfar aspossible,actualphysicallayout of components shouldfollowtlesame

flowpath positions in
as thetheoreticalcircuitdiagram,adjusted asnecessary to
getcomponents intosuitablepositionsfor makingconnections. Exceptionsmust
arise,particularlyasnotedabove.Justasa theoreticaldiagrarnis designed to
presentthecircuitin assimplea manneraspossible with alltleoreticalconnec-
tionsclear,the workingcircuitmustalsobeplannedto beasneatandsimpleas
po*sibleandalsoas logicalas possibleas far as placementof components is
concerned. It shouldbepreparedasa complete wiringdiagram,whenit becomes
a workingplan.Almostinevitably,it will lookmoreconfused thanthetieoretical
diagram,with probablya fair numberof crossingwires(unlessit is plannedasa
printedcircuit-see ChapterZO)andleadsrunningin variousdirections.Com-
monconnectingpointsare still indicatedby a ., but crossingleadsare better
shownasdeftritecross-overs, asin Fig. l8-7. Thenthereis lessrisk of wonder-
ing whetheror not a . hasbeenmissedat that pointin preparingthe working
diagram,particularlyasit is lesseasyto checkconnectionsonaworkingdiagnm
thanon a theoreticalcircuitdiagram.
Thetheoreticalcircuitdiagram,however,remainsthecheckreferencefor the
workingplan-and for checkingthe circuitwhenbuilt.It mayalsobethe only
guideavailable for establishingtlrecorrectwayto connecta diodeora polarized
capacitor (electrolyticcapacitor).Followingthe directionof curent flow (and
thusthe polarityat anyparticularpoint),shouldbe fairly straighfforward, re
Collector Collector
Current Cunent

Current In CurrentOut

CurrentIn CurrentOut
P-N-PTransistor N-P-NTransistor
Fig. l88€.Directionof currentfow throughPNPand NPNtransisbr*

12
memberingthat with a * top line,the directionof currentffowis downwards
(fromtoplineto bottomline),tlrough rariouscomponents onsuchpaths.If the
top line is -, the flow direction is obviouslyreversed. It is also easyto checkthe
direction of current flow through transistorsby the alrow on the emitterin the
transistor symbol. Direction of currentflow orf of the transistorvia thecollector
follows in the same direction. Direction of current flow into the baseof the
transistor is opposite to tlat of the emitterarrow direction. Figrre 18-8should
makethis clear.
Theserulesfor readingthecurrentflowthroughtransistorsshouldalsomake
ittairly simpleto deterrrinethecurrentflowwithhorizontallyconnectedcompo-
nentsonthe circuitdiagram,andtlus establishthecorrectpolariff for electro-
lytic capacitors appearing in theselines.

133
19
Circuit Construction
Oneof the big problemsfacingmostbeginnersis howto constructa working
circuit;i.e., turn a theoreticalcircuitdiagarninto a connected-up assembly of
components (with dl the connectionscorrect,of course!).
Thefollowingdiagrams showsixvery simpleandstraighfforwardmethods of
tacklingelementary circuitconstruction-dl capable of givinggoodresultswith
the minimumof trouble,andespecially recommended for absolutebeginnersat
practicalelectronics.

PINBOARD CONSTRUCTION
Drawout tlte component layoutfor the circuiton a pieceof thin ply (or even
hardbalsasheet),usinga ballpointpn (not a leadpencil).Drawin all connec-
tionsandmarkpointswhereconrmonconnections occurwitl a blob(ust ason
circuitdiagrams).
Cut out the panelto a suitablesize.Drive coppertacksinto eachbloband
simplysolderthecomponents in position.Completeadditionalconnections wittr
plainwire, seeFig. 1$1.

SKELETON ASSEMBLY
Startagainwith a component drawing,thistimeonpaper.Iay components in
place,bendingtlte leadsof resistorsandcapacitorsto completeconnections.
Otherconnections canbecomplete with t'ro lengtlsof l&guge copperwirefor

1A
 Circuit Diagram Drawn on Ply CopperTacks
or Balsawood

Ferrite Rod Aerial

Tuning Transistor
Capacitor
(c1) For Common LinesJoinTack
WithBarelVire
Fig. 191.Pinbardconstruetion
starts$rdrawinga uo*ing ptonoftlu cittuit ona
panelofrtlyor folsa.Thendioe in copper
tochsat eae;h
connectionfioint.sotder
comfoncnt leadstotachs,
andcomfleVcircuitasnece.ssary
withary additionalpir-
ing.

"top" and"bottom" control

lines.Solderall theconnecting
points,addingtran-
sistorslast (Fig. 19-2).Properlydone,sucha skeletonassembly canbe quite
rigrd.

BONDED MOUNTING
Thisis very similarto skeletonassembly exceptthat individualresistorsand
capacitorsare stuckdownto a rigid basepanelcut from plasticsheet.use
five'minuteepoxyfor gluingthecomponents in place(Fig.19-3).Thisproduces a
very strongbondin a fewminutes.Withthe maincomponents rigidlymounted,
youcanthenbendleadsto producethe necessary connections andconnection
pointsfor othercomponents (e.g.,transistors).

BUS.BAR ASSEMBLY
Thisisaneatandmoreprofessionalwayto tacklecircuitconstruction.
Thetop
andbottomcommonlinesof the circuit are laid downfrst by mountingtwo
lengtls of l6-gaugetinnedcopperwire in a sheetof plasticas shown.This

Transistor TinnedCoppcrWirc
SpaceFor Territe RodSerid A

16 GaugeTinnedCopperWire

Fig.192. Thesamecircuit as Fig.lCI tuchledb justconnecting cotnfonents

tqether
oia tluir ofun lcads,and usingbarewirefor tofrand bttom lines.
 Transistc Tloating:

Gluedto hse
MainComponents
AdditionalWiring
(erce,ttransis-
Fie.1C3.hniled mountingissimilarto Fig.192btqtall components
tors)areglwd dounb a baepanel.Turnuf endsofleadstnformcoanatingloints
permitsmostof the resistorsandcapacitors to be mountedwitl oneleadsol-
deredin place. asfor skeletonassembly
Completethe rest of tlte connections
(Fie. 19a).

TAGBOARDASSEMBLY
Moredr.rableandneaterthanthe previousmethods,tlis involvesmounting
stripsof solderkgs(calledtagstrips)
ateachofthemainconnectingpointsof the
circuitlayout.Thesetagscanberivetedor boltedthroughthe panel.Individual
components are then mountedbetweentags.Any additionalconnections are
formedbyshortlengthsofwirebetweentags(Fig.f 9-5).Moretimeisneeded to
constructa propertagboardthan with tle previousmetlods,but complete
tagboardstopsarealsoavailablewith up to 36 individualtagsmountedin two
parallelrows.

PEGBOARDCONSTRUCTION
Youcanbuy specialterminalpillarsto pressinto tle holesin ordinarypeg-
boardandso set up connectingpointsfor mountingcomponents (Fig. 1S6).

Diode

16 GaugeTinnedCopPerWire-Bend EndsUp
Under Panelto Hold in Place

Fig. 194. Lay down the to| and bottomlines in tinned copferwin, pernwrcntll
mo*ntedon tlu panel. Slnrter lenglttsof bareuin can b ucd for othcrcommoa
connating points.Cotnflctefu nldeing comlonentleadsin place.

136
 Transistor

IndividualTags

..2?^-.

Tag Strip

Fig. 1!N, All thc connating foints are fonted b tag strils or indiaiduat tags mounted on tlu funeL
Soldctconforcnts b approfriate tags,and completcuith additional wiing as naaessary.

Theseterminalshavescrewconnecting points,soyoucanavoidsolderingcom-
ponentsin place.Themaindisadrantage is thatafairlylargepanelsizeis needed,
evenfor asimplecircuit,with components spreadout.Butit isaneasymethodof
buildinge:rperimental circuits.
Thereare variousproprietarysystemsbasedon variationsof the pegboard
method.Veroboardsarepanels with rowsof copperstrips,eachstripdrilledwitl
a numberof holeseither l mm (0.04in) or 1.3mm (0.052in.) diameter.
Matchingpins(Veropins)canbeinsertedin appropriate holesto forrr terminal
pillars,andthe copperstrips cut as necessary to separateconnecting points.
Special toolsareusedfor insertingtheVeropinsandforcuttingthecopperstrips.
Yerosti| is a similartne of boardorceptthat the boardis narower (LVzin
wide)andthe copperstripsnrn acrossthe boardwith a breakdownthe center.
Components canbemountedacrossor alongtle strips.
Numeroussolderless breadboards havealsobeendeveloped wherecompe
nent leadsare simplypushedinto the boardswherethey are heldby spring
contacts.Contactpointsarearranged in parallelrows,with eitheraprearranged
patternofinterconnection, or with basicbusbarconnections ontop andbottom
rowsandottrersin commongroups.Interconnection betweengroupscanbe
madeby wirespushedinto sparepointsin eachseparategroup.
Theadvantage of sucha systemis that,apartfromavoidingsoldering, circuits

137
cencdy be uff H bt Fld r cqo.dd phregiqgbtoa
difierentpoden
For permanentcircuits,if you'rea beginner,youwill prohbly fnd pegboad
assembly propsition
thebest youhave
after gained
some
erpericnce
incirqrit
construction-and confdencein beingableto draw out componentlayoutr
accurately.
The ultimatefor all formsof compactcircuit constructionis, however,the
printedcircuit.Herecomponents aremounteddirectlythroughholesin a plastic
(or glassfiber)panelonwhichthecircuitwiringhasbeenreproduced byetching.
This is a separatetechniqueon its own,but easyenoughto learn(seeCbapter
20).

GENERAL RULES
Connectionsshouldalwaysb solderedfor bestresults.Thisappliesevenon
pegboards
fitted with screw-typeterminalpillars.Theoneexceptionto thenrle

Spacefor FerriteRod
Aerial-

ffi
x<,\
/-- to
- O -
-a o- l':
:-\"-. -
TerminalPillars
Spacefor
TuningCapacitor

Fig.196d. Pegbarilaavnbb is sinilar to Fig.IlN enert t ut thefunt isrndliUadb

occeftterminalposts.Luatc thcv pastsatatitabb lointsbutasconrctconnatirE
foints.Conncctcomfonentstofo$s,thencomfletcthcadditionaluiitrg osllr;cw;ty
Note;all thes constwctionaldrawingsshowthcvttu citxuit-a si;Phtitrgbtns-
sistorradio receiwr withpreamflifur. Con@wats nquind an:
Fenite rodurial with cottpliry ail
CI- 0-5N0F tuningcapacitor
C2- 0.0l nicrofarcd
R7- 7 Megohn
R2- 22h
Dode - anygcnraniun cqstal dide
Transistor- an1 rf transistot
Tle citxuit w*s of a %ooltfutbry conwted b A andB (|obrity depnds ottohcfrrr
thc transistorued is a PNPor NPNW). For lidelrhE,,coanat high in qlu
hoad-plnusto pointsX and B.
In cas theurial coil connutionsan rntclun
o Tlp endsof thc main coilconnectb thc tw tagsott tltc tuning cafuitu (CO
c Qaecadof thecotpling coil connutsb thccornm(m c(mrrg;tinrNnt of Rl a*l@
o Thcotlur cnd ol thccuglittg coilconnuts to thofusclcod (b)of thetlur*ti*n

18
is solderlessbreadboards whereconnections are madeby springclips.In any
case,neverrely onjointswhichareformedsimplyby twistingwirestogether.
Usea smallelectricsolderingiron for makingall solderedjoints,andresin-
coredsolder(electricalgade). Neveruseanacidtypefltrxonsoldered iointsin
electricalcircuits.
Transistorscanbedamaged by excessive heat.Whensolderingin placeto a
(at
circuit,leavethe leadsquitelong least1 inch).Gripeachleadwith flat ncse
pliers behindthe joint whensoldering.The jaws of the pliers tlten act as a
heatsink,preventingoverheatingof the transistor.Onceyou are proficientat
soldering,however,this precautionshouldnot be necessary, especiallyin tle
caseof silicontransistors.
The mostconrmonreasonwhy a particularcircuitdoesnot work is because
oneor moreconnections havebeenwronglymade.Thisis far morelikelyto be
the causeof thetroublethana faultycomponent. AlwaWcheckoverall connec-
tionsafteryouhave madethem,usingthetheoreticalcircuitdiagram asthebasic
reference.Also,with transistorcircuits,bestreto connxt thebatterytheright
way(asshownon the circuitdiagnm).

139
20
Printed Circuits
laminate.For generaluse,t}ese
phenolicresinlaminate(SRBP)or glass-fiber
(cladononesideonly)andnominally1.5mmthick(about
Loardsaresingle-sided
%oin.). The procedurefor makinga PCBinvolves:
1. Cuttingthe boardto the requiredsizeandcleaningthe coppersurface.
2. Makingadrawingof theconductors requiredfor tle circuitonttrecopperin a
resrsfink.
3. Etchingawayuncovered copperareasin a chemicalbath.
4. Removingthe resistink to exposethe copperconducting areasor pads.
5. Driling the copperpadsreadyto taketIe component leads'
6. Degreasing andcleaningtheboardsasnecessary to ensuretlat ttrepadstake
solderreadily.

PLANNING THE CIRCUIT DRAWING

Familiaritywith the physicalsizeof components to beaccommodated ontle
board is so
essential, thit holesfor etc,
leads, can be correctlypositioned.There
aretwo ways in which and
resistors can
capacitors be mounted: horizontallyor
vertically(Fig. 20-1).Horizontal mountingis usualfor as
resistors tlis reduces
leadlengthto a minimum.Holesare thenspaceda sufrcientdistanceapartto
allowfoi easyg0degreefinger_bends on the leads.The sameconsideration
appliedto tubular capacitors,mounted horizontally.

tun
 ofcomponents
Fig.2G1.Hoimntalmounting onaPCboanltahes upnoresprce,
ktt
thanoerticalmounthg(erceitfor transisbrs).
is uwal$ moreconoenbnt

Thephysicalsizeof capacitors, however,maybemuchlargerthanresistors,

whenverticalmountingmaybe preferredto savespace.Mountingholestlten
onlyneedto bealittle morethanhalfthediameterofthecapacitor, rnatching the
positionof the top leadtakendownttre sideof the capacitor.Somecapacitors
havebothleadsemergingfromthe sameend,especiallyforvedicalmounting on
a PCB.Spacingbetweenholes,however,shouldnot be lessthan twice the
thicknessof tle board(i.e.,% in.).
Transistorsneedreasonably wide spacingfor their leads.Exceptionsare
transistort"pes with leadsintendedto plug directlyinto a PCB,andcertain
powertransistorsneedingspecialmounts.In thesecases,holepositioningfol-
lowsthetransistorleadgeometry.Integrated circuitsnormallyplugdirectlyinto
matchingIC sockets,the latter beingmountedon the boardin holesdrilledto
matchthe pin positions.
Layoutstartswith a tentativedesignof component positions,
sketchingin the
connections required,(i.e.,the areasof copperwhichwill eventuallyform tle
conducting pads).No connections on a PCBcancross,anda certainamountof
trial-and+rrorsketchingis usuallyneededto achievethisrequirement, altering
component positionsasneoessary. If it seemsimpossibleto achievea complete
circuitwithoutcrossingconnections, thensuchpointscanbeterminatedontle
PC drawingon eachsideof the crossingpoint, andsubsequently completed
duringassembly of the circuitby bridgingwith a shortlengthof insulatedwire,
just asa component norrnallyactsasabridgebetweenadjacent conductors(Fig.
20-D.

W
Fig.20-2.If it is (or *ems) imfossibleta aooida cmssingconnectionot a PCbodrd,
sbf thecrossing linesshort(bft) andcomfrlete withabidge ofin*lated
theconnection
uire sldcred in place.

141
FINAL DRAWING
I{avingarived at a suitablelayout,with connectingpointsfor component
leadsindicatedbyblobs('), a tracingcanthenbemadeof thisPCBplan.Certain
generalnrlesapplyin preparingthe fuialdrawing:
1. Conductors shouldnot bele*sthan%oinchwide.
2. Conductors shouldbe spacedat least%zinchapart.
3. Thereshouldbeat least%zinchbetweenaconductorandtheedgeof apanel.
4. Bendsofjunctionsin conductorsshouldbe radiusedor filleted,not sharf
edged.
5. Allowsuffcientareaof copperarounda connecting pointsothat the copper
width at this pointis at leasttwicethat of the holesizesubsequently to be
drilled throughit, and preferablymore.(Typicalhole sizesfor miniatnre
resistors,capacitorsandtransistorsare ys2inch).
Thesepointsareillustratedin Fig. 20-3.
It is not necessary
to drawdl conductorsneatlyanduniformin thickness.
Relativelylargesolidareasc:rnbe left to accommodate a numberof common
connectingpoints,simplifyingt}re amountof drawingnecessary(Fig. 21a).
Largesolidareasshould,however,be avoidedin anypart of a circuitcarrying
highcurrentasthiscouldcauseexcessive heatingof thecopper,possiblymaking
it delaminateas it eraands.Thus,on a PCBfor a mainsoperated circuit,for
example, thenurximum areaof anyparticularcopperpadshouldnotbemorethan
about1 squareinch.
Thefinaldrawingis transferredin reverseonto tlre copper(hencetheuseof
tracing paper).This is becausethe circuit, as origindly planned,showsthe
comfonentsrdeof theboard,whichis theplainside.Thusthetruepatternfor the

At least $" in Conductors

at Leastil" lride
fromEdgeof Panel

rnd Off
Corners
At Least*" Width of
Copperfuound Holes

Fig.m& fusic ncommculationsfor

blannhgcoadrcbruidthsands!rchgs ottN
furdt

le
 I
t l I 1 l
I I
r l r l
I I I
l t

powered
battery
Fis.fu4. QuiElargeanasofcoltercanbelefionlowooltage circuits.
Thereis noncedforconsistcnt
wiilths(orshaies)ofconductors.

coppersideis reversed,mirror-image fashion.Butbeforetransferringthedraw-

ing to the board,the coppersurfacemustbe cleaned.This is doneby washing
with detergentandthendrying.
A test for cleanliness is to holdthe boardcopper-sideup undera tap andlet
waterrun on to it. If the waterflowsfreelyovertJrewholearea,it is freefrom
gease. If dry patchesappearon tlte copper,theseareasare still greasyand
requirefurther cleaning.
After tracingthe (reversedimage)patternon to the copp<ir, this patternis
thenpaintedin with resistink or a resistmarherien (much easierto usethana
bmshandink). Makesurethat all the pad areasare properlyfilled,but avoid
applyingtoomuchink ast}is couldovernrntherequiredoutlines.Finally,allow
to dry, whichshouldtaheabout10 to 15 minutes.

ETCHING
Theboardis thentransferredto anetchingbath.Thiscanconsist of a solution
of ferric chloride, or proprietary printed circuit etching fluid poured into a
shallowplastic tray.The boardisplaced inthe bath copper side up and left untilall
traces of copper have disappeared from the surface. Time taken for this will vary
with the temperatureof the solutionand its strength.The processcan be
speeded up by rockingthe bathgentlyor stirringwith a softbrush.
Afteretchingiscompleted theboardis removed, washed underrunningwater
to removeany traces of chemical, and driedwith a softcloth.Theetchingsolution
canbe kept for re-use, if required.
To removetheresistink,afurtherliquidknownasetch-resist removershould
beused.This can be brushed on to the board and then rubbed with asoftcloth,or
appliedto the cloth first and then rubbed over the board. It shogld onlytakea
minuteor soto remove all the ink, leaving the copper patterns fully uncovered
andclean.I[ash anddry the board again at t]ris stage to remove any residual
tracesof etch-resist remover.
Drillingcomesnext.Thefollowingrulesarevery important:
o Alwaysdrill with the coppersideuppermost;i.e., drill through the copperinto
the board.
o Always use a sharp drill bit (preferably a new one).
o Alwaysusea backingof hard material under the boardto prevent the point of
the drill from tearing a lump out of the backof the boardwhenthe point breaks
through.
o Spot the point to be drilled with a small center punch to prevent the drill
running off its correct position when starting to drill.
Use of an electric drill in a vertical drill stand is best for drilling PCBs.
However, becauseof the small size of drill used,breakagerate of drills can be
high if the work is pushedtoo hard.
The original tracing comesin handy againfor marking the componentposi-
tions on the plain side of the board, as a guide for componentassembly(Fig.
20-5). Componentsare always assembledon the plain side, with their leads
pushedthrough their mountingholesuntil t}le componentis lying flush with the
board (Fig. 20-1). The exceptionis transistors, which shouldbe mountedwith
their leadsleft fairly long (andpreferablywith eachleadinsulatedwitha length of
sleevingto prevent accidentalstrorting if the transistor is displaced).

Fig.20-5.Erampleof a pinted circuit dcsignwith coPferareaslnwn sladed and position

indicated.
of comfionents

lt%
MOUNTING AND SOLDERING
Before mountingcomponentsin positionfor soldering,the coppersideshould
be cleanedagain.It will probablyhavepickedup greasemarksthrough handling.
An ordinarydomesticpowdercleaneris bestfor this, usedwet or dry, andrubbed
on with a soft cloth. The running water test can againbe usedas a check for
cleanliness,but if the board is wetted, dry with a cloth.
Componentsare normally solderedin place,one at a time, with their full lead
length protruding. Excesslength of wire is then cut offas closeaspossibleto the
solder.
Provided solderedjoints are completedrapidly, in not more than about 3
seconds,heatdamageto either the boardor a componentis unlikelp If the iron
has to be held in contact with the lead for longer than this, then somethingis
wrong with the solderingtechniqueandheat damagecouldresult, either to the
componentor by the lifting of the copperpadon the PCB.The most likely causes
of overheatingare usingan iron which is not hot enoughor too smallfor the job;
attempting torework a solderedjointwhich hasnot takenproperly; andtryingto
remove a lead which has been solderedinto the wrong hole.

SIMPLIFIED PRINTED CIRCUIT CONSTRUCTION

As a supplementto drawing-and for making neater straight lines-there
rub-off transfer sheets of lines, bends, blobs for connecting points, etc. are
available,which can be used to build up the required pattern on tlte copper,
supplementedwith ink drawing where necessary.These transfer symbolsare
resistant to etching fluid, so serve the samefunction as drawn or paintedlines.
It is also possibleto buy self-adhesivecopperfoil precut in the form of lines,
bends,etc, similar to transfer strips, but which canbe presseddownon to a plain
panel to completea printed circuit directly, without the need for any etching
treatment. Further shapescanbe cut from self-adhesivecopperfoil blanks.With
PC boardsmadeup in this fashioncontinuous(conductor)sectionscan be made
up from overlapping pieces, provided positive connection is made by solder
appliedover the joint line.

1/t5
2L
Radio
Radiobroadcasts consistof a radiofrequency(rf) signdgenerated at a specific
frequencyallocatedto a particularstation,on whichis superimposed m audio
frequency @f) signal.
Onlyrf workstor transmissioz.Theafpart,whichistle actr:alsoundcontent
of the signalis, almostliterdly, carriedon the backof the rf signal,the two
togetherformingwhatis calleda modulatedsigrnl.
This combined signalcanbeproduced in hn'odifrerentways-amplitude,or
upanddownmodulation, knownasAM; andfrequenrymodulation (actuallya
verysmallvariationinrf signalfrequency aboutits stationfrequencT),
knownas
FM.
AM is the simplertechniqueandis widelyusedfor longwave,mediumwave
andshortwavebroadcasts. Broadcasting hasdwaysbeenreferredto in termsof
wavelengths insteadof signalfrequency,untilcomparatively recently.Therela-
tionshipbetween wavelength andfrequency is:

(meters): =300'000'000
wavelengtlrs
frequency,IIz

300,000,000
IIz:
frequency,
meters
wavelength,
(Thefigure300,000isthespeedof lightin meterspersecond,
whichisthespeed
at whic,hradiofrequencywavestravel)

16
 In the caseof FM, very hightransmittingfrequencies are used-and it is
generallyreferredto asVHF(veryhighfrequency). Actualwaoelengthsare very
short,andsoit is muchmoreconvenient to speakoffrequency,the usualrange
for FM broadcasts being90- 100millionHertz(90- 100MIIz).A simplecalcu-
lationshowstlat thismeansa wavelengt!of about3.2to 2.9meters,or about3
meters.
Regardless of whetherthebroadcast is AM or FM, anyradiofrequency signal
hastle samebasicrequirementfor receivingit. Thepresence oftlissignalhasto
be"found"andthensortedoutfromsignalsfromotherbroadcast stations.The
"6nding" deviceis the antenna,and ttre "sorting out" deviceis the tuned
circuit. Togetler, theyformthe front endof a radioreceiverasshownin Fig.
21-1(theextremeleft-handpart of a circuitdiagram-see alsoChapter18).
A tunedcirarllconsists,basically, of a coilandrariablecapacitor,whichcan
be adjustedto showresonance or ma:ximum responseto a particularsignal
frequencyappliedto it. A full explanation of tlis behavioris givenin Chapter7.
All the broadcast signalsreachingthe tunedcircuitarevery, very weak.Only
thatsignalto whichit is tunedismagntfidbyresonance, sotlat it standsoutat a
very muchhigherlevelof signalstrength.
An actualwire antennaconnected to the tunedcircuit mayor maynot be
necessary. In the caseof AM reception,the coilwindingalsoactsasanefrcient
wire antenna,if woundon a ferrite rod. This dispenses with the needfor an
externalantenna. Theonlydisadvantage is tlat thetunedcircuitis directional,
mininumsignalstrengthbeingreceivedwhen theferriterodispointingtowards
the transmittersendingthe signal,andma:rimumsignalstrengtl whentle
ferrite rod is at right anglesto this direction.This effectis mostnoticeable on
smallradioreceiverswhichhave onlymoderate amplification.Toreceivecertain

Aerial

Y CouplingCapacitorto MinimiseEffect
of Aerial Capacitanceon Tuned Circuit Coil Woundon
Ferrite Rod

VariableCapacitor

Fig.2I-1. A oaiabh capacitorandcoilformtheusvaltunedcirttit. Strictlysfcahing

this tuncstheantcnna,if an erternalaerial wire is uvd. MostAM receiarsue a
fenitc rodanbnna whbhdoesnot requirean ertctzal anbnna.

147
stationsatgoodlisteninglevel, evenwitlmaximumadjustment ofvolume,itmay
be necessary to adjustthe positionof the set. Laryerreceiversnormallyhave
enoughamplificationto compensate for this, but the effectcanstill be quite
noticeable. Also,it is alwaysbestto operatea receiverbelowmaximumampli6-
cationbecause this minimizesdistortionof the signal.
The FM receiverdoesnedan externalantennabecause a woundcoil or a
ferrite rod antennajust doesnot work at this rf. For satisfactoryresults,this
externalantennaalsoneedsto bea specialt1pe,knownasadipole,whichitselfis
tunedbymakingits lengthonehalfofthesignalwaoelength.The lattermayvary
from11.5feetto 9.5feetin the90- 100MHzFM band,soa meanwavelength
figureof about10 feet is adopted,glvinga realisticdipolelengthof 5 feet.
ThethreepracticalFM antennaformsarea verticaltelescopic aerialextend-
ingto 30inches;a horizontalwire (or rodantenna) with 30 inchlegs;or a folded
dipole,asshownnFig.2L-2.

DETECTION
Thetunedcircuitis muchsimplerthantheforegoingdescriptions mayappear
to imply.It is reallya matterof gettingthecomponentvaluesright, andworking
withhighefficiency(see alsoChapter6 andQ-factor). Designofthetunedcircuit
is a little morecomplicated whena radiois intendedto receivemoretltan one
waveband. EvenanAM receiverneedsseparateantennacoils(or at leastsepa-
rated wingson a singleferrite rod) to coverlong wave,mediumwave,and
shortwave. Sothetunedcircuitdesignfor anAM receivercouldinvolvetlree or
moretunedcircuitsselectable by a switch.
In the caseof anFM receiver(or the tuningcircuitfor the FM sectionof a
multi-bandreceiver),tJrcreis really no practicalform of woundantennacoil
whichcanbe used(a theoreticalcoilof this typewouldprobablyrequireonlya
part of a singleturn). Sothe startingpointis a dipoleantenna.This itself is a
hmedcircuit (i.e., desigrred to be resonantwith the meanfrequencyto be

r l

70-75 OhmsImpedance
MatchingFeederCable

r - l

280-300OhmsImpedance
MatchingFeederCable

Fig. 21-2 FM anbnnas tued connecting to tlv et aia a correct$rmaklvd fealcr cablc.

18
 coveredin the FM band),but its amplification of signalis not nearlyasgoodas
that of the coil-and-capacitor tunedcircuitof anAM receiver.
To compensate for tlis, the FM receivernormallyusesan amplifierstage
immediately followingt.heaerial,knownasapreamplifier or rf amplifier(because
it is anamplifierof sigrralsat radiofrequency). Thisamplifiedsignalis fedto the
next stageof tre receivervia a tunedoutput.A tjrpicalcircuit of this type is
shownin Fig. 21-3.
Thedetectorstage followingthetunedcircuitcanbeextremelysimple.In the
caseof AM, it onlyneedsto bea diodeconnected to a potentiometer asits load.
This potentiometer alsoactsasthe volumecontrol-Fig.2l-4.
Thesignalpassed onfromthe tunedcircuitto the detectoris a strengtlened
versionof the originalmodulated broadcastsignal.In otherwords,it contains
bothafandrf. Therf parthasnowdoneitslobin gettingthesignalintothetuned
circuit.Nowit needsto beremoved, whichcanbedonebyrectifyingttresignal.A
diodedoesthisjobbychopping offonehalfof therf signalsothattheoutputfrom
tltediodeconsistsof half-cyclesof rf. Thesehalf cycleshavetheaf contentofthe
signalstill imposed, sothenextrequirement is to filter outtherf partto turn t.he
outputinto anundulatingdc signal.Theseundulations followexactlythe same
variationsasthe af signaloriginallyimposedontlre transmitterrf signalat the
transmittingstationby a microphone, or recording.
As orplainedin Chapter6, a resistorandcapacitorcanact asa filter for any
specificfrequencyrequired.Thusthediodedetectoris associated with a matclr-
ingload(resistance) andassociated capacitorforming therequiredfilter circui$

Tunhg Output
Capacitor to Mixer

Itrputfro@DpoleAerial
RFTransistor

Fig.21-3.fusic rf amplifier (orhreamblifur) circuit as usedin manl FM receioers.

ltt9)
e.g., seeFig.21.4- sothatonlyraryingdcispassed at outputfromthedetector
stage.Itis usuallycoupledto thene!ilstagebyacapacitor, whichhastbefurther
effectof balancing thevaryingdcsignalaboutitszeroline(1e.,givingitpositive
andnegativeralues,ratfier than"all positivevalues).
In practice,theoutputload(R in Fig.214) is usuallyavariableresistor,which
component tlen alsoactsasa volumecontrol.Thefacttbatthisisfollowedbya
couplingcapacitoralsoavoidsanyflowof dcthroughtle movingcontact(wiper)
of thiscontrolandreducesanytendencyto reproduce noisebymovement d this
control
Theaimin selectingthedetectorcircuitcomponents isthatthe signalpassed
by the diodeis exactlythe sameasthe originalsignalgeneratedby ttre studio
microphone (withcertainlossesandpossible distortions!).Fedto a microphone
workinginreverse(i.e., headphones or aloudspeaker)theywouldbeheardasttre
originalspeechor music.But the signalsat thisstagearestill tooweakto have
enoughpowerto drive headphones or a loudspeaker, so the ne$ step is to
amplfy the af signalpa$sed by the detector.

FM DETECTOR
In tle caseof anFM receiver,thedetectoris a little morecomplicated.It has
to detecthowthefrequcncyofthesignatisvarying,notits amplitude, soit hasto
extracttle originalfrequency aswellasapplyrectification.
FM receiversinvari-
ablywork on ttre superhetprinciple,so the frequencyto be srtractedis the
intermediate frequencyof if. A basicdetectorcircuitemploysa three-winding
hansformerwithprimaryandsecondarytuned to theintermediate
frequency Oy
capacitorCl andC2in Fig. 21-5).Thethird windinginiectsa voltageinto the
secondary circuit,eachlegof whichcarriesa diode,Dl andD2,associated with a
capacitorC3 andC4.
Theworkingof thiscircuitis to detectvariationsin signalfrequencyin terms
of an af output,so that the finaloutputis exacdythe same,in termsof signal
content,asthatfromanAI\ddetector. Thusitcanbedealtwithbthesameway.

RF+AF Sisnal

Conpling CapacitcHelps
to Eliminate'noise'
fromVolumeControl
Capacitor
to Filter
OutResidudif on
Superbets VoluneControl
r-

Fig.214 fuh AM detcctorcircuil

150
 t-
l*'
L .

FA.zrc. fush FM detetorcitx*il

Rl andC5 slpwn on tie dingranare to suppreso

The additionalcomponents
unwart€dsignalswhichmaybepresentafter detection

AI}IPLIFIER STAGES
A singletransistorcanprovideamplification of signalstrengthupto 100times
(tr more(seeChapter9 for typicalanplifiercircuits).Themainrequirementof
the amplifierfollowing thedetectoristhat thetransistorbespecificallysuitable
foramplifyingaf (whenitcanactasafurtherblockto anyresidualrfremainingin
the inputsignalto tle amplifier).Ideally,tlere shouldbenorf signalpresentat
the inputto the amplifierstage(it shouldhavebeenfilteredoutin the detector
stage),sinceanyrf voltagepresentedto the amplifierstagecouldcauseover-
loading.
Theoretically,at least,anyamountof amplification canbeproducedbyadding
additionaltransistor-amplifier stages(Fig. 21-6).This does,however,greatly
increasethe chances of distortingthe signal,sottrerearepracticallimitsto the
numberofstageswhichareacceptableinsimplecircuits. Muchbetterresultscan
be producedby more sophisticated circuits, particularlythe superhet(see
below),wherefirst someintermediatesignalis amplifiedbforedefrcton;and
subsequently amplifiedegaiqafier detection

is notnecesvi$ agod thingfor amplifuingan af

Fig.214. Atkling anPlifnr stages
sigwl ascuh stagecan anllib tlistortionlrodrced in thc fl.aniolrsstqe"
OUTPUT STAGE
Theafamplifieroutput (orlastafamplifier stageoutputifmoretlanonestage
is used)can develop enough power to drive a loudspeaker, as in Fig. 21-6,
althoughthere may be some problem in matching the (amplifier) outputto the
(oudspeaker) input,particularlyusinglow to mediumpowertransistorswhich
requirea highimpedance loadto match.Mostloudspeakers havea loadimped-
anceof only4- 16ohms. A basicsolution here is to usean output trandormerto
matchthe differentloadcharacteristics, as in Fig. 21-7.
This relativelysimplesolutiondoes,however,haveoneparticularlimitation
(for the moretechnicallyminded,it is calleda ClassA output).It is relatively
inefficientandsodrawsa highcurrentin providingasuitable listeninglevelfrom
theloudspeaker. for use
It is satisfactory in car radios, but represents tooheavya
currentdrainfor mostotler battery-powered receivers.
Thesenormallyuse a ClassB outputcircuitwherethelastamplifiertransistor
drivesa pairof transistorswhich effectivelyworkinapush-pull circuitoperating
the loudspeaker. The output power is
obtained considerably more tlnn double
the poweravailable froma singletransistor;also, and output transformer is not
neoess3ry. Most modernaf amplifiersfor radios end up in a push-pull output
stageof this type,like the circuitshownin Fig. 21-8.
Thelimitationsof simpleradioreceiversaremainlyconnectedwiththe limita-
tionof a detector.A detectoris mosteffectiveworking with an rf input voltage of

- 1
I
I
FW4
I
I Eil^l
- - I tmoedance
uitoing
Traosfcm

AFSignallnput r-uuPrurs
CouplingCapacitor
Output
I Transistorr

Fig.21-7. fusic clas A otttfut citt*it.

152
 I
I
I
I
I

Coupling
Capacitc
Irputo-l Q1I pecoupling

Fig. 218. fusb classB outputcircuit Ql actsasa |reamplifier. Q2is theilriter. Q3 and Q4area complemen-
"push-prll." Tle two resistorsshownby dudrcdlines may be
tall fair of transistors,wothingalternate$in
addcdto improw t te stabiliti of thc circuit. The* onfuneedto b of oerylow wlue (e.g.,7 ohm).

I volt or more.Signalsderiveddirectlyfromanantennacircuitareseldommore
thana few millivoltsin strength,andthe weakerthe signalthe lesseffectively
theywill bedetectedin anycase.In otherwords,therangeof stationsthatcanbe
pickedupis limited,andnoamountof amplificationaftzrdetxttoncanrnakeup
for this limitation.
This limitation,or lack of vnsitioitl, canbe overcomeby amplifyingthe
incomingsignalbeforedetection,so that the detectoris alwaysworkingwit}
goodsignalstrength.Thiscanbedonebyrf amplificationof theantennasignalby
introducinganamplifierstageright at the beginningof the circuitasin the FM
receiver(Fig.21-3);or by the superhetworking.Thelatter alsoimprovesthe
vlectility of a receiver,or its abilityto tunein sharplyto wantedsignalsand
rejectnearbystationsignals.

TIIE SUPERHET
Havingarrivedat a standardizedoutputstage,it is equallytrue to saythat
nearlyall modernradioreceivers of thesuperhcttype,
are whichis considerably

153
more complicatedthan the circuit traced through above.The whole front end
works on an entirely different principle.
Starting point is the tuned circuit (ferrite rod antenna)in the caseof an AM
receiver; or a dipoleantennafeedingan rf amplifrerin the caseof anFM receiver
(the latter amplifying the modulatedradio signal in conjunctionwith a tuned
resonantcircuit). In both casesthe boostedtuned signalis fed to an osillator-
mixer.
This is a two-functioncircuit, althoughits duty is usuallyperformedby a single
transistor associatedwith a tunedoscillatorcircuit. This tunedcircuit is mechan-
ically coupledto the antennatuning in the form of a gangedcapacitor(i.e., two
separatevariable capacitorscoupled,or gangedto move together when the
tuning control is adjusted),sothat it tracks the aerialcircuit tuning while remain-
ing separatedfrom it by a constant frequencl. This differenceis known as tJ1e
intermediatefrequenq or i-f, andis usually455 kHz abovethe aerialfrequency
(it canhaveother valuesin certain sets,andcanalsobe belowrather than above
the antennafrequency).
The oscillator part of the oscillator-mixeris concernedwith generatingthis
fixed intermediatefrequency,tracking exactly above(or below) the signalfre-
quencyto which the aerial circuit is tuned. The two signalsare combinedin the
mixer part of the oscillator-mixer,which alsolns a firedttned circuit (actually
the primary side of a transformer associatedwith a capacitor)which responds
only to the intermediatefrequency-Fig. 21-9. This i-f signalalsonow hasthe
sameaf modulationas the original signal.In other words, it is a duplicateof the
wanted af signal, but at this stage superimposedon a fxed intermediate frg.'
quency.
There are a number of technical advantagesto this seeminglyunneoessary
complicationofincomingsignaltreatment.First, theprocessof superheterodyn-
ing gives much better selectiaitl or rejection of unwantedsignals.Then, t}1e
signaloutput from the mixer is at a constantfrequency,makingit easyto amplify
with the further possibility of eliminating any remainingunwantedfrequencies
since an i-f amplifier has fixed-and virtually exact-tuning.
In practice,i-f amplificationis usuallycarried out in two stages(AM receivers)
or three stagos(FM receivers).The detector tlen follows after the i-f amplifier
stages-Fig. :1-10. Each i-f amplifier stage consistsof a tuned transformer,
adjustmentof tuning being done by an iron dust core in the transforrrer coil
former. Oncecorrectly adjusted,ttre cores are sealedin this position.

SeparateAmplifier Stages

Fig,21-9.Front endofa xrperlvt receiter,showinghowtlv inconing rf flus af signal

is transformedinto an af signal nowimfuovdon a fired intermediatcfrequenclG-fl.
Thismahesamplificationwitlnut distortionmoresimpleto achboe.

154
Fig. 21-10.Basicdesignofan AM/ FM receiaer slnwn in bloch
forn. Theon\t common
circuit is an af amplifier (usuallya classB output)followingthedetectors.

The remainder of the radio circuit follows as before-rf amplifier stage(s)

following the detector, terminating in (usudly) a push-pulloutput stage. But
there is just onefurther refinementwhich canbe added.By feedinga proportion
of the sigrralpassedby the detector backto the first if amplifierstage,automatic
volumecontrol (normallycalledautomaticgaincontrolor agc)canbeachieved.If
the signalstrength passedby the detector starts to rise to a point where it could
become distorted, then feedbackvia the agc line automatically reduces tlrc
amountof signalenteringat thispoint, somainteningthedetectorworkingunder
optimum conditions.
Agc appliesonly to the control of amplificationof signal in the i-f amplifier
stages.The output or gain of the final i-f amplifier stage(s)is governed by a
separatevolume control (potentiometer), typically located before the frst af
amplifier stage. This potentiometer, incidentally, usually has a capacitorcon-
nectedin parallelwith it toflter out anyresiduali-f whichmayhave got past tle
detector.

155
22
Television
Televisionmakesspecialuseof a cathoderay tube,whichin turn hascertain
characteristics in common with avacuumtube(seeChapter12)'It hasaheater,a
cathodewhichemitselectrons,ananodeto whichelectronsareattracted,anda
.oottot gfid. Unlikea tube,however,the electronsaredirectedat the enlarged
- of tue tou" or &feenwhichis coatedwrthabhos,hormaterial.
end
It is,in fact,aspecialtypeof cathode raytube.Thenarrowendof thetubeacts
asanelectrongun,shootingelectronspasttheanodesection.Electronsimping-
ingontJ1e screengeneratemoreelectronswhichareattractedbackto theanode,
dui*t"ot in eff; to eachelectronreachingthescreenbeingbouncedbackto
theanode.Thusnoelectrons, andhencenocharge,actuallycollectonthescreen'
Meantime,however,eachelectronreachingthe scteenmakestle phosphor
hasbeenbounced badr'
-tt. *ni.n p"t irts for a shortperiodaftertheelectron
gfo*,
phosphor
brightnessof the glowproducedis dependent on the type of
(whichalsi governsthecolorol *re glow),andthe strengthof bombardment of
etectrons. tle htter is controlledbythebiasvoltageappliedtothe grid.Inother
words,grid biasadjustment is the brightnesscontrolona TV tube(Fig' 22-1)'
tne adua brightnessis alsoenhanced by ane:rtremelythin layerof aluminum
depositedou"i th" phosphorto act ratherlike an outward-facing mirror, but
transparentfrom thl othersideasfar aselectronsareconcerned.
To producea picturefrom electronbombardment, two other controlsare
o*""ory. The first is a meansof deflectingthe electronbeamsotlat a single
spotcantraceout a particularpathcoveringallthevariationsin pictgredensity

lffi
 Fig.22-1.Ttc TVtub andiEbasiccontrols,
slpwnin simplifwdfon.

overtlte wholescreenarea.Thesecond is ameansoffocusingtheelectronbeam

into a tiny spotsothat the tracedpictureis sharp,notfiizzy.
Defuctionisachteved bydirectingthestreamof electronsthroughtwosetsof
parallelcoilssetat rightanglesto eachotlerlike theXandYdeflectionplatesina
simplecathoderay tube (Chapter12). Signalvoltagesappliedto the X-coils
deflectthebeamsideways; signalvoltages appliedtotheY-coilsdeflectthebeam
vertically.Combined X andY signalsthusdirectthebeamtowardanyspotonthe
screm,depending on tlte resultanteffectof tlte two signals.
Fuusing, meantime,is achievedby usingsupplementary cylindricalanodes
arrangedto work asan electroniclens,with the focusingeffectadjustable by
varying&evoltageappliedto one(ormore)oftheseanodes. Theseanodescome
beforethedeflectionplates;ie., in theparallelor gunsectionof thetuberather
thanin the divergentsection.
Blectroniccircuitscanrespondveryrapidly-which is howtelevisioncanbe
madeto workat all!To paintapictureontlrescreenaspotoflight(produced bya
focused electronbeam) hasto traversetbewholepictureara,ag-zagfashion,at
least30 timespersecondif thepictureis to appearreasonably freeof flicker.It
doesthis in a numberof parallellines,usuallyrunningfrom left to rigbt, with
rapidflybackbetweenlines,Fig. 22-2. The greaterthe numberof linesthe
clearerthe picturewill be, i.e., tlre better the definition.The standardcom-
monlyadoptedin the UnitedStatesis 525 lines(per picture).The actualfre'
quencyat whichlinesappear,calledthe line frequency,is 30 X 525: 15750
persecond. Thislinepatternis knownasa raster.Thebnes makinguptheraster
canactuallybeseenif youexaminethetelevisionscreenclo,se up,or turn uptle
brightnesscontrolwhennopictureis beingtransmitted.Onlythe parallellines
canbeseenin the raster.Duringflyback,the cathoderay tubeis cut off andno
linesappearon the screen.
 =-r--
__L-:,
->--+
--t--

Fig. 2ZZ Illustrating tlw formation of a raster. First tlp dd nunbred linesare
xanned from lefr to nSM (solitllines) withflybachfuhrceneachlinc (dadredlircs).
Downwardmoaement is controlledb thetimobase.After xanning half thepicture
lines,tlv timebavfies backtot tcto|. AA t teewn numberlinesaretlpn sanned, with
flfiach futweeneachline (right handdiagram} At thcendof thelastline thctimefuy
flics bachto tlp left to start thcvquenceall oter again. Thex tuo diqrams aQerim-
po*d repre*nt a complctcraster.

In practice the picture is scanned60 times per second,not 30. This is fast
enoughto eliminate any trace of flicker, but using an optical trick, the actual
picture frequezcyis still only 30 per second.Scanningtakes placein two stages
- first the oddlinesonly, tlen the evenlines.Eachscantherefore buildsup only
half the picture, the two halvesfollowing eachother to present the complete
picture.
Movement of the lines downwardsis accomplishedby the time fos circuit
starting with the first (odd)line andrestarting a line at the left firmpositionsdown
eachtime. This continuesuntil the scanninghasreached525 + 2 - 262rhlines.
Thespotthenfliesbacktothetop again,startinghalfwayalongtlrefirstevenline
andrepeatstlle processto scanthe 262r/z evenhneswhich makeup the second
half of the picture. This processis knownas interlacing. Actrnlly a few lines get
left out in this changeoverprocess,but this doesnot show up on tlte picture.
Picture transmissionand picture reception operate in reverse mode. The
television camerascansthe sceneto be transmitted in 525 lines at a picture
frequency of 30 per second,and turns the light spot responseinto electrical
signals.The numberof lines hasbeenquotedasgoverningpicture definition,but
this is not the wholestory. A scanof 525 lines givesgoodpicture definitionfrom
toptobottom, e.g.,the pictureisbuilt uptopto-bottomfrom 525 strips.Thereis
also the questionof how manyindividualpicture elementsare coveredby each
strip. The answeris about 600 as an absoluteminimumfor goodpicture defini-
tionside-to-side, orthe equivalentof600 phosphordotsmakingupeachline. The
totalnumberof individualdotsor pictureelementsineachwholepicturetraceis
thus 315,000. Sincethe picture frequencyis 30 times per second,this callsfor a
transmitted signalfrequency of.2.5 tvftlz.

18
 \

Theseintelligencesignalsarebroadcast like anyotler radiotransnission-

superimposed ot a carrier waoeto producea modulatedsignalwhichcanbe
pickedup by a receiveranddecodedon a similarprincipleto ordinaryradio
reception,exceptthat the decodernowhasto handleradiofrequencies of 2.5
MHzandnotafsignals,sotheTV receiverdecoderis considerably morecompli-
catedthana radioreceiverdetector.
Thereis alsoanotler importantdifference. Carrierwavefrequencies haveto
bemuchhigherthanmodulation frequencies for satisfactory results.Hencettre
frequencyof televisionpicturesignalsis in theVHFrange.It is invariablyanAM
broadcast with sidebands, operatingwithinachannel widthof 8 MIIz. EitherAM
or FM canbe usedfor the accompanying soundsignal(FM is standard).
The fairly widechannelwidth or frequencyspreadoccupiedby a television
transmission doesnotmakeit susceptible to receivingspurioussignalsupsetting
the picture(but not the sound,whichis operatingin a narrowbandlike any
ordinaryFM receiver).It alsolimitsthenumberof televisionstationsthatcanbe
accommodated in the VHF bandwithoutinterferingwith eachother.
Thisparticularconsideration alsomakesthedesignofacolortelevisionsystem
evenmore complicated than it needbe usingfirst-principleelectronics.For
example,it wouldmeane:rpanding the bandwidthto threetimesits black-and-
white figureto transmitthree separatepicturessimultaneously in the three
primarycolors.Sincethisis not anacceptable solution,colorinformationbasto
be containedwithin the 8 MHz channelallowedfor black-and-white transrnis-
sions,whichbecomes anextremelycomplicated subjectandvirtuallyimpossible
to describein simpleterms.Strangelyenough,however,it doessimplifythe
otler problem-the essential requirement that a colortelevisionshouldalsobe
ableto receiveblack-and-white transmissions in blackandwhite.Thebroadcast
stationsstill havethe oppositeproblemof ensuringthat colortransmissions can
bereceivedon black-and-white setsin black-and-white!
Theconventional colorTVtubeis madewithtlreeguns,oneforeachcolor-
red, green, andblue;with eachdotonthescreenformedbyseparate red,gr@o,
andblue phosphors arrangedin a triangle.The picture is thus scannedby a
triangleof beamsconvergingon eachtriangleof dotsat the samerate asin a
black-and-white picture.The resultingsharpness of the colorpicturedepends
primarilyontheaccuracy of convergence, andonsometubesmayvarynoticea-
bly from centerto edgeand/ortop to bottom.This maybe a limitationof that
particulardesignof tubeandassociated circuitry,or merelya matterof conver-
genceadjustment (whichis usuallyfactory-setandcanbequitecomplex). There
areimprovements in thisrespectin thecaseof somemoderntubes;e.9.,simpli-
fyingcovergence problemsby usingin-linegunsandcolorspots.

159
23
Microprocessors
l l .

of analoganddigitalcomputing tech-
Theyears1939- 45 sawthedevelopment
"iq"J., ."4, towardsthe end of that era, tle first appearance of electronic
-
*iiput"tr u.sedontubesandrelays.Theyears1948 50sawdigitalcomputers
significantly-tle development of the
*t"iti.n"A usingtubes,and-more
transistor.
-
thefirst
Tenvearstater(1960),printedcircuitboardsfirst appeard,andalso
circuits and hybrid integrated circuits' Transi'
..rU-*"f" monolithicini'e'grated
Medium-scale integrated circuits
tiofi.orp"ter circuitstdk overfromtubes.
integrated circuits (LSI) in 1970'
iMSO .ppu.tua in 1965,andlarge scale digital
tt oooout this periodof rapiddeveloprnent of ICs, many aspects of
oi the 6rst
.otpufrtg or"r" irrth", extended,cuttinating in the appearance
micro-miniaturirea computer,or microprocessor, in 1971. From tlnt date,there
hasbeenintensiveaevJtopment of digitalintegrated circuits in micro'miniature
period'
iot tr,tougttDTL to TTi to MosFET andcMos' etc'Throughoutthis
havecontinued to be improved, wittr, most
tf,"..p.Uifltius of microprocessors
sigrrifrcantof all, a fall in prices.
- -Essentially,
the microirocessoris a digitalcomputerin micro-rniniaturized
form,but not necessarily with thefull capabilities of a conventional digitalcom-
programmable Logic controller
-tpi|l o"" of its mainaiplications,io r.t ,:..
il;;. or so,upwards
r*u.ti*. industrialapplications. Tyithinthelastfiveyears
appeared, designedforindustrialuse, aswellas
of o0differentPLCsystemstrave
otherswith moreopencapabilitiel.Bactris associated with its ownperipheral
devicesandassociated software (i.e.,prograrnming devices)'

180
 Originally,PLCsweredesigned asone-bitprocessoln, usingdiscretecompo
nents.Today,theyareinrariablybasedonmicroprocessors, or, in somecases,
combinations of both a microprocessor anda one.bitprocessor.Someof the
morerecentlyintroducedtypesincorporatedul-languageprocessonbasedoa
bit-slicetechnology.
Oneof the mostimportantfeaturesof microprocessor is its size-not its
physicalsize,but ttrelengthof the datawordit operateson andthe numberof
wordsits memorycanstore.Mcroprocessor language is measured by tle nr.tm-
ber of bit per word,a Ditbeinga binary digit. C,ommon microprocessor word
lengtlrsare4, 8, L2,and16bits.An 8-bitdatawordis by far themostcomnon,
andis givena specidmme-a byte.
Because tlere areonlytwo pc*siblecombinations for onebit, it followstlat
thetotalnumberof combinations possiblein a binarywordin a givenlengthis 2
raisedto the Nth power,whereN is the numberof bits in a word.Thus,for an
&bit word,the total numberof combinations is 28-256.
Asonemeasure ofmicroprocessor sizeisthelengthofitsword,thisreflectson
the sizeof ttrememory.The memorymustbe ableto storea givennumberof
wordsof thislength.For example, a byteorientedmicroprocessor with a mem-
orytlat canstoreupto 10 wordshas80bitsofstoragecapacityinthememory.It
is generallyassumed that a 4-bit microprocessor is accompanied by a memorry
storing4-bitwords,anda 16-bitmicroprocessor with 16-bitwordsof memory.
It follows,therefore,that memorysizeis measured by thenumberof wordsit
maystore.Often,ttreIC whichis referredto asa mictoprocessor haslittle or ao
memory;the memoryfor tle unit is contained in otherICs.
Thernaximum memorycapacityof a PLCsystemdepends ontheaddressing
capability. But, in practice, the maximum orpandability is related to tlte maxi-
mum physicalnumber of inputsand outputs,and also of the complexity of control
algorithms. A nrle of thumb for calculating memory requirements is: 10-15
(or
instnrctions commands) per one output on tle average application for se'
quentialcontrol,with fewarithmetic,timing,or countingfunctions.Forapplica-
tionswitl amoresophisticated controlalgorithm,15- 20instructions peroutput
mayberequired.Youhaveto considermore memory space if several programs
areto bestoredsimultaneously, whichareselectable by amanual operation mode
switch,for example,for frequentlychanging production at one machine. The
surximummemorycapacityof PLCs onttre market ranges from 256 words (one
word corresponds to oneinstnrction)to 1600words(commonly expressed as
1610andmore.Memorysystemsaremodular and expandable from a minimum
"starterset" of ylKin increments of.L/+K,lK,and4K.
In simpleform,the microprocessor comprises tbreebasicparts:the central
processing unit (CPU), memory,andthe I/O devices.A microprocessor always
containsa CPU,andin someinstances, memoryas well as an I/O device. The
CPUhastbeabilityto send (address) informationto eitlerthe memoryof the I/O
device (see Fig. 24-1).
Justasthememorymusthaveanaddress beforedatamaybetransferredto or
from it, so muchthe VO devices.Normally,ttrereis morethan oneinput or
outputdeviceona system.Therefore,theCPUmustdecidewhichoneit wishes
to traasferdatawith, andtbis is doneby addressing.
 Toexecuteaparticularprog&m,theprogrammer maysetasideacertainarea
of thememory for program storage. Other areas of memory arebesetasidefor
datastorage,andthese assignments may change for a different program.The
Texas510PC,shown in schematic form in Fig. 23-1, illustrates the positionof
t}1emicroprocessor within the total package which includes memory storage,
locationarea,image register (IR) and pushdown stack (PDS).
All entriesto the sequencer are madewith a plug-inprognunmer.This can
readoutandmodifyalllocationswithinthememorystoragelocationarea.TVhm
anentry is made,it is enteredinto andstoredwithinthis storagearea.Timers
andcountersaswell asseriesandparallellogicare containedtherein.
The processor controlsthe Model510PCmemoryduringprogramming and
executionof tl1euser program. Logic instructions from the programmer are
enteredintothestoragearea (usermemory). At the start of each program scan,
tlteprocessorplaces tlte statusof theinstructionintheregisterandtran$ersthe
statusof the selectedoutputto the output(Y) lines.
I/O modulesare commonlyavailableas plug-incardsor plugon boxesin
increments of 2,4, 8, 16, and32linespermodule.However,8-stagemodules and
lGstage modulesseemto be the bestbuy.A broad variety of I/O cards with
differentsignal-voltage levelsare availablefrom manymanufacturers. Some
typesof I/O modulesare: 5 Vdc Transistor-Transistor Logic (TTL);24Ydc;
48 Vdc; l2}l24Ydc;24 Vac;andL20124Vac.In practicalapplication, prefer-
enceshouldbegivento onestandard signalvoltage,sofaulty I/O modulescanbe
replacedby a spareVO moduleof the sametype.
Swapping I/O cardsis afast,sure,troubleshooting technique. Wherepossible,
controlelementsandI/O modules of thesamesigfraltypeshouldbeused,which
meansanine:rpensive stockof sparecomponents. The outputcurrentloadper
line of variousoutputcardsrangesfrom 0.5A to 2A, but somePLCson the
marketmayhaveaproblem-namely,notalloutputsonacardcanbeenergized

Prograrnmablecontroller

Fig.2,91. Bluh diagran of Te*as510Programmdlclqic controller.

1@
simultaneously because the carddoesnot havethe curent-carryingabilityto
energizealloutputsat once.Themaximumnurrber ofinputs/outputspersystem
rangesfrom 32 for srnall,128for medium,andup to 4096for larges]'stems.
However,at tlis point,it mustbenoticedthat a largentmrberof inputs/outputs,
aswell ascorresponding largeprograms,mayheavilyreducetlte response, or
cycle,time of an application.The distributedsystemsconceptmaybe more
appropriate for a largeandcomplexapplication.
SeverallargerPLCshavesomecapabilities or optionswhichallowcontinuous
process controlwith algorithmsbuilt-infor standard PID(Proportional-Integal-
Differential)controllerswith analoginputsandoutputs.Thecombination oflogic
controlandanalogloopcontrolmeansthat thesePLCscanbeusedforbatchor
continuous processing applications;however,they are not ableto completely
replacet5rpicalprocess-loop controllers.Usually,loopcontrollersare built as
plug-inor plug-onmodulesfor extendedPLCsystems.OptiondavailableA'/D
(Analogue-to-Digital Converters)accept, respectively,supply signals of
4-20mAor 0-5/0-f0 Vdc.Thesignalresolutionis ratler low.Precisemeasure.
mentsare not possibleat Wpicallythree{igit BCD(BinaryCodedDecimal)
value.
Counterandtimer functionsareindispensable toolsof a PLCsystem.Nomi-
nally,up to 64 internalcountersor timersarebuilt into mediumto large'scale
PLCs.The time baseis generatedthrougha qnrtz oscillatorclockthat can
commonlydelivertlree differenttime standards:0.1 s, 1.0s, and 1.0min.
Three{igit cascading upanddowncountersand timers provideconvenient
toolsfor a widerangeof applications. For fast countingapplications,suchas
po.sitioning
or angle-indicatingtransducers, separate fastcountercardsarenec-
e$sary.A criticalspecification for usinginternalcountersis the countingfre
quencyunderthe worst-case timingconditions,because the actualcount-rate
depends very muchonhowthe programis structured;therefore,specialatten-
tion mustbe paidto timing-related problems.

163
24
Batteries,
PowerSupplies,
and Chargers
Virtuallyall portableelectricaVelectronic equipment acquirespowerfrom some
tneof battery. Batteriescanbedividedintotwomaingrougs: primarybatteries,
wherethe electrochemical actionis irreversible(oncethe battery hasbeen
discharged it cannotbe reenergized); andsecondary batteries,wherethe elec-
trochemical actionisreversible(theycanbe c.harged anddischargedrepeatedly).
Primarybatteriesarepopularlycalleddry batteries;andsecondary batteries
arecalledstoragebatteries.Thesedescriptions are not strictly buttley
correct,
areconvenient andwidelyacccpted. In fact,dl pritnary batt€rieshavesome form
of "wet" electrolyte (usuallyin theformd a paste or jelly);and manysecondary
"d4y''cells(implyrnS theuseof a non-liquidelectro-
batteriesmayhavesocalled
tyte). And just to showhow generalclassifications cannotalwaysbe strictly
correct,sometypesof primary (non-rechargeable) batterysystemsare,in prac-
tice, rechargeable.

DRY BATTERIES ERIMARY BATTERIES)

A batteryis madeup of oneor moreindividualcells.Eachcell developsa
specificnominalvoltage,depending on the batterysystem.To builda battery
with a highervoltagethan that given by a singlecell, two or morecellsare
connected in series.
Choiceof thebestsystemsis dependent oncostandutilizationof ttrebattery.
Carbon-zinc dry batteriesarebyfar themost popularbecause theyarerelatively
cheapand readily availablein a wide range of voltages and sizes.(The size

Iil
ggvens the capacityof tbe battery,or tle amormtof electricalenergyit can
store.)

SECONDARYBATTERIES
Thefamiliarlead-acid batterywaswidelyusedin the earlydaysof radioasa
low-voltagebattery.The onlytlpe of rechargeable batterywhictrhasa signifr-
cantapplicationin presentdayelectronicsis the modernnickel-cadmium bat-
tery. It is the onetypeof secondary batterysptem in which"gassingf'canbe
eliminatedoncharging, soitcanbeconstructedinfullysealed+ellform(althottgb
manytypesare,in fact, constructedwith resealingventsasa precaution).
Nickel*admiumbatteriesofiernumerous advantages-nodeterioration dur-
ing storagein either chargedof discharged state(exceptthat a chargedcell
suffersa lossof about20 percentof its capacityamonth);charge/rectnrge cycle
life of a leastseverd hundred andpossiblythousands of charges (depending on
actualuse); for
suitabliity highdischargerates (andhigh charge rateswith vented
cells);robustness; wideoperatingtemperaturerange(-40' to +60' C.);and
suitabilityfor operatingin dmostanyenvironrtent.
Disadvantages are highinitial cost(dthoughthis is generallyrecoverable in
longcyclinglife).andtle factthat the nnominal voltageper cellis only1.2volt*
However,the dischargecharacteristics are substantiallyflaL

USING BATTERIES
To increasethevoltageof abattery,increasethenumberof cellsconnectedin
seriesto rnakeup the battery.For a batteryof givenvoltage:

VOLTAGE
BATTERY
REQIJIRED
Numberof cellsrequired-
VOLTSPERCETL

is not a wholenumber,usethe nextwhole

If the numberof cellssocalculated
numberup.For ourple:

Batteryvoltagerequiredis 9 volts
C,cllsto be usedarenickel-cadmium
Voltsper cellis 1.2
o
-fr-
ofcellsrequired
Number 7.5cells

firerefore, makeup the batteryfrom 8 cetlsconnected in series.(The actual

batteryvoltageis then8X 1.2: 9.6volts.If necessary, theadditionalvoltage
canalwaysbedroppedin a circuit by nsinga droppingresistor.)
To increasethe capacityof a battery,connecttwo (or more)batteriesof the
requiredvoltage in parallel.Twobatteriesconnectedin parallelhalvetbecurrent
drainfromeachbattery,thusdoublingthecapacity.Basically, in fact,tle capac-
ity of the originalbatteryis nultiplied by the numberof similarbatteriescoo-
nect€din parallet

,6
OTHER DC POWER SOI'RCES
The application of a stepdowntrandormerassociated with a bridgerectifier
anda smoothing capacitorto providea lowvoltagedc supplyfromaaacmains
supplybasalreadybeendessibedin Fig. &5 Chapter8. Rathermoresophisti'
catedcircuitsmaybeusedwhereitisdesirabletoensureastabledcvoltage;a9,
for operatingaaFM transistorradiofrom the acmainsinsteadd a battery.
A circuitof this typeis shownin Fig. 2&1, the component raluesspecified
gving a stabilizeddc outputof 6 volts from 120V AC. The bridgerectifier
followingthetransformerprovidesfullwaverectification,smoothedbycapacitc
Cl in the conventional manner.
The input to outputvoltageis droppedacrcs hansistorQl. The emitter
voltageof transistorQ2is setbytheZenerdiodeat 2.7volts.Theoutputvoltage
is dividedbyR , R5andwhentle voltageacrossR5is about3.2rolts, Q2begins

F;g.2+L Stabili*do*tfut dccluryeropratiry frcm U0VACfuuel. funluants ac

R7-ffiohns
R2- Sil ohttts
R3- Tohm
R1- 39 ohmsfor 6 wlts dcutt
lNohmsfor 7.5wlts tlc utt
R5- ffiohms
Ct- 1000micmfard 3il olnnfor 9 wlts dc utt
C2- 70 micmlarad
C3- 0,0l micmfarad
T - Lil| 15 oolttransfonur
BR: bridgcratifiu
Ql- 5K3190
Q2- SKSI!44
Q3-SK I
ZD- hpriliode - SI{2V7

166
to conduct.Thisdivertssomeof tlte currentflowingthroughRl intotle baseof
Ql sothat Ql skrts to turn off. Thus,sincethe basecurrent,andtle voltage
dropacrosstle collector-emitter junctionof Ql, is controlledby Q2,theortput
voltageis stoppedfrom goinganyhigherthanthe designvoltage.
Conversely,if a heavyloadis appliedto the outputit tendsto causea dropin
outputvolkgeandso alsothevoltage onthebaseofQ2tendstofall.Theeffectof
thisisthatQ2startsto turn off,allowingmorecurrentto flowintothebaseofQ1
whichturnson to maintainthe outputvoltage.
ismaintained
Voltagestabilization untiltheoutputcurrentrisesto theorderof
400-500mA. At this point,the voltageacrossR3 becomes greaterthanthe
turnon voltageof Q3,which startsto conduct.This tapscurent fromthebaseof
Ql, causingQl to start to turn off, reducingthe outputvoltage,so tlnt the
currentdoesnot rise anyfurttrer.In otherwordsthe circuit is automatically
protectedaginst overload,evendownto shortcircuitconditions. In the latter
case,tle voltagewil fall to almostzero,with the curent still maintrined at
400-500milliamps. Thecapacitors C2andC3arenotstrictlynecessary,brutare
additionalsmoothingcomponents.
Thecircuitcanbeadapted to provideanumberof differentdcoutputvoltages,
selectablebyswitching.To dothis,resistorR4is replaced byachainof resistors

DCOutrut

Fig.2tL2 Switchingcircuit for alteing dc outputooltage.

R4A: 39 ohms
R4B: 150ohms
R4C- 750ohms

7d7
R4A,R4B,R4C,asin Fig. 24-2.Thevaluesgiven,togetler with the previous
circuitcomponent values,provideselectable
outputsof 6 volts,or 9 volts,with
voltagestabilizedin eachcaseup to a maximumcurrentdrain of 400-500
milliamps.

BATTERY CHARGERS
circuitjustdescribed,
Eitier a bridgerectifiercircuit,or thevoltage'stabilized
canalsobeusedfor batterycharging.ln thiscase,smootldng is notsoimportant,
asthe presence of a certainamountof ripplein the dcis heldto bebeneficialfor
charging.Normally,however,at leastonesmootlingcapacitorwouldbedesir-
ablein the chargercircuit.
Sinceit is notalwaysevident whetherachargerisworkingornot,anindicator
lampor ammeteris normallydesirablein a chargercircuit. A lampmerely
indicatesthatthechargerisonandtheoutputcircuitisworking.It canbetapped
directlyacros{rthe circuit at anypoint.The preferredform of lampis anLED
sincethis drawsminimalcurrent,althougha smallfilamentbulbwill doaswell.
An LED needsto be associated with a ballastresistorto dropthe necessary
voltageat thispoint;afilamentbulbdoesnot,butaresistoris needed to workasa
voltagedropperifa &volt bulbis usedin thiscircuit(seeFig.24-3).Notetlratan
indicatorlampon the mainssideof the trandorrrer, or on the secondary side

Fig,24-?.Alternatioearrangements for clurgitg indicabr lanpa A b& ofafupnyiab dtagc ottld b *sedis
otu of tb uttptt bads uithott a ilrofping nsitur.

1A
Yotts
ttrput

Fig.2+1, Stobiliud6d, dcclurgero|cmtingfmna 12ooltfuttery.&nfulrlnts an:

R7- N dws
R2- Mohtw
R3- Iohn
Rl- #)ohtrc
R5- dildms
Cl- 70 nicmfarads
C2- 0.0l micrclards
eI- SK3t90
e2: SK3&l
Q3- SKi],!14
ZD- kwrdido- SK2V7
CRl: LNffit(orc$tiulen[

betweenthetrandormerandthebridgerectifier,wouldnotnecessarily codrm
tbat the outputwasworkingwith anoutputloadconnected.
In thecaseof a meterindicator,tlis wouldsimplybeanammeter(or milliar
metetr,asappropriate)
connected in eeriesin onec anotler dthe outputlines.

1N
DC INPUT CHARGERS
Thereis alsoa callfor chargerswhichcanchargelowvoltagebatteriesdirect
fromanotierbattery,suchasa l2-volt carbattery.In thiscase,sincettreinputis
dc,a transformercannotbe usedto set the requiredvoltage,nor is a rectifier
neoessary.
Figure24-4showsa chargercircuitdesigrred to providea stabilized 6-voltdc
output(charging voltage)froma l2-volt inputsupply.Essentially,
it is thesame
asthat of Fig. 24-1withouttlretransformerandrectifier,buta diodeis included
to protectthetransistorsin thecircuitagainstreversevoltages.T[orkingofthe
circuit is the sameas that describedpreviously,with automaticshort*ircuit
protection.Like the previousmainscircuit,too, it canbeadaptedto providea
rangeof outputvoltages,usingexactlythesamevaluesfor thechainofresistors
asin Fig.24-2.

170
 25
High-VoltagePower Supplies
Thebasicwaytoobtainahigh-voltage supplyisto stepupanacmains supplyviaa
transformer.At thesametime,thetransformercanbetapped,or providedwith
separatewindings,to produceanyotherloweror intermediate voltageswhich
mayberequired.Voltagestepupor stepdown,usinga trandormer,is po*sible
ooly with an alternating-current input. The resultingoutputis alsoac, from
whichit followsthat further components are requiredin a powersupplyto
providestepped-up or down direct-currentvoltages,suchasrequiredfor the
anodeof a tube.Basically,thisinvolvesrectificationof tlretransforrredvoltage,
with theadditionof smootling,if necessary, to removeanyremainingripple,in
the dc output.
voltageregulationmayalsobenecessary, evenif it isonlyaimedat limitingthe
valueof transientvoltageswhichmaybeintroduced in thepower-supply circuit.
In thatcase,weareconcerned withthepeakinversevoltages(piv)whichmaybe
introducedin thepower-supply circuit,affectingtheloadingof t.hecomponents.
Voltageregulationitself canbe orpressedasa percentage:

regulationtml:ff

El is thenoloadvoltage(nocurrentflowingin theloadcircuit),andE2is thefull

loadvoltage(ratedcurrentflowingin loadcircui$.
Threebasicrectifiercircuitsareshownin Frg.2*1. Asingtediodeprovides
 Bridge

Half-Wave

Full Wave
Fig.%-1. Threefusic rectifnr circaits

half-waverectjfication. Two diodescan provide full-waverectification, with the

circuit completedthrough the transformer center tap. Alternatively, the bridge
tpe circuit can be usedfor full-wave rectification.
Either tubes (diodes)or metal rectifiers can be usedin such circuits. Metal
rectifiers require no heater supply, but have to be fitted with cooling fuis to
dissipatethe heat generatedby their relatively high forward resistance.Tubes
alsoget hot, andboth needplenty of spacewithin the cabinet,andgoodventila-
tion. Power suppliesof these types, therefore, tend to be heavy and bullry.
Siliconpower diodesare generallypreferred to tubesormetal rectifiers. They
can be producedin virtually miniature size,require no heater current, and have
relatively low heating (and thus much higher efficiency),becauseof their very
low forward resistance.TVhilethis ltter feature is highly desirable,it doesalso
emphasizethe potential weaknessof the silicon diode.High voltage surgescan
developwhich may destroy the diode.This is becauseof the relatively low piv
valuessuchdiodescanwithstand. Unfortunately, too, silicondiodesalsoteod to

172
 failin ashortedcondition,ratlertlan open,sothattailureofonediodeinaseries
couldreadilycausethe remainderto fail aswell.
Seriesconnectionof silicondiodesis generallyneces{nryto realizethe piv
rating required.This is determinedby the piv likely to be developed by the
rectifiercircuit.In the caseof a singlediodecircuit,the piv acrcssthe diodeis
approximately 1.4timestheacvoltageacrosstle transformercoil.Thecenter-
tap circuityieldsa piv of about2.8 timesthe acvoltageacrosseachhalfof the
transformercoil. The bridgecircuit againyieldsabout1.4 timestlre voltage
acrossthe coil.
Therequiredratingcanbebuilt upby connecting asmanydiodesin seriesas
necessary ratingby2,3, 4 times,etc.,allowingasuitable
to factortleir individual
marginof safety.This,however,is onlyvalidif thediodesareexactlymatched in
characteristics (particularlytheirreverseresistance). Thisisunlikelyin practice,
andso equdizingresistorsare normallyconnectedacrosseachdiode-Fig.
25-2.Alternatively,equalizingcapacitorsmaybe usedin somecircuits.Both
configurations, incidentally,dso act as transientsuppressnrs to protect the
diodesagainstsurgesof highcurrent.Sincecapacitors aremoreeffectivein this
respect,resistorsandcapacitorsmaybe usedin seriesacrosseachdiodeas
equalizing/damping devices.Furtherprotectionmayalsobeincorporatedin the
rectifiercircuitbyincludingafuseto open+ircuitachainof diodesin theeventof
overload,or failureof oneof tlte diodes.
Oneotherprecaution whichmaybenecessarywith silicondiodes is to balance
their rating againsttemperature.Althoughthey do not generatemuchheat
tlemselves,their performance is temperaturedependent, andthe ma:rimum
ratingapplieswith a temperaturelimit. If they are to be workedat a higher
ambienttemperature,deratingtheir performance is necessary. Temperatnres
fora maximumcurrent ratingmayrangefromas lowas25'C to ashighas 70"C,
depending on tlpe andmanufacture. Derating,tlryically,is of the orderof 10
percentper 10"Ctemperatureriseabovethe ratedtemperature.

FILTERS
Theoutputfroma rectjfiercircuitis pulsatingdc.To renderthisin theformof
smoothdc,filteringmustbeapplied.TVhile thismaynotbestricdynecessary for
tubeoperation, it isabsolutely
necessary to eliminate(oratleastreduce)thehum
contentoftlepowersupplyappliedtovarious stagesofatransmitterorreceiver
circuit.
Effectivesmoothing of the supplyis readilyachieved bymeansof a capacitor-
inputflter, whichmaybegithsl singleFs€ctien or two-section-Fig. 25-3.The

Diode SiliconDiodes
Fig.2tt-2 Didcs with equalizittgnsistors

tn
 - -{.-
4.,
Single.Section R is BleederResistor TweSection
Fig.zffi. Singlcand ttwwtion ntnthingfiltera

single-section filter is generallyadequate for radiotransmitters,but tlte two-

sectioncircuitispreferablefor radioreceivers.Theadditionofa bleederresistor
is generallyrecommended, to dischargethecapacitorswhen thepowersupplyis
notinuse.Thevalueof thebleederresistance shouldbechosensothat itdrawsl0
percentor lessof the ratedoutputctrent of the supply.(It canbe calculted
directlyasf 000E[ ohns, whereE is theoutputvoltage,andI is theloadcurrent
in milliamps.)
The ripplevoltageremainingis governedby the valuesof the capacitors and
inductance.Typicalraluesare 8pF for the capacitors (although Cl can be
reducedto 4 pF in the two-sectioncircuit),with an inductanceof 20 to 30
henries.Ripplevoltagegets srnalleras capacitance andinductanceare made
larger.Fewproblemsareimposedin matchingcomponent ralues,andsatisfac-
tory smoothingis readilyobtained"Capacitor-input 6lter circuit,however,ex-
hibit poorvoltageregulation propertieswhenusedwith wrying loads.
Ttre choke-inputfilter providesbetter voltageregulation,but lesseffective
smoothing. Again,it canbesinglesectionor twosection-Fig. 25-4.Thetwo-
sectioncircuitisgenerallysuperiorasregardssmoothing. Noteagaintheuseofa
bleederresistorto dischargethe capcito(s) wbenthe power$Dply is not in
use.
fire fust indictance can,with advantage,beof thesringingchoketype-that
is,havingswingingcharacteristics overarangeof about5 to 20henriesoverthe
full outputcurrentrange.Thehighestraluethenapplieswhen thereis nooutput
loadon the powersupplyother than the bleederresistor.Thesecondchoke
shouldthenbavea constantinductance of 10to 20 henrieswith Erying dcload
currents.
With this t)'pe of circuit, it is possibleto usecapacitorswith lower rated
voltagethanthosenecessary filter (whichhaveto havea
for a capacitor-input
ratinghigherthanthepeaktransforrrervoltage).However,a similarhigh-volt-

Fig.2e1^Clrotu-infut
filte*

174
ageratingisusuallyadvised,asintheeventd&ihre dthe bleederresiEtorthe
voltageswouldrise to thesepeakfigues.

OUTPTTTVOLTAGE
Basically,the dc ortput voltageis about0.9 timestbe acvoltageacrosstbe
tran$orner secondary in the caseda singlediodeor bridgecircuit;andabout
0.45 timestle acvoltageacrosstle trandormersecondary in the caseof the
bridgecircuit.Withcapacitor-inputfilters, thesecondaryrmsvoltagerequiredis
thts 1/0.9or 1.1timestherequireddcoutputvoltage,to allowfor voltagedrops
in the rectifierandfilter circuits,andin the transformeritsef. Io the caseof a
center-tapped circuit, this voltagemust be developed acrosseachsided the
secondary centertap.
With a chokeinputfilter circuit followingthe rectifia, the requiredtrans.
formersecondary voltagecanbecalculated directlyfrom:

E-1.1(t"*S*t*t)
wtere:

E - full loadrms secondaryvoltage

Eo- requireddc outputvoltage(The

opencircuitvoltagewill usuallybe
anythingfrom5 to 10 percent
higher.)

Er: voltagedropin tbe rectifier

Rl, R2 : resistancein fitter chokes

VOLTAGE STABILIZATION
A basicmethodof obtainingvoltagestabilization
is bytheuseof a voltage'reg-
ulatingtubein serieswith a limitingresistor,asshownin Fig. 2S5. The initial
(unregulated) voltageneedsto be higherthanthe startingvoltageof the tube,
whichis nsuallyabout30percenthigherthantheoperatingvoltage.Theralueof
thelimitingresistoris chosentoiust passthema:dmum tubecurrentwhenthere
is noloadcurrent.Withloadadded,thetubecanthenworkdownto its minimum
cnrrentcondition.Withinthisrangethevoltagedropofthetubeisconstant, thus
providinga pointfor tappingoffa stabilizedvoltage.Voltageregulationbetter
than10percentcanreadilybeachieved; andwiththetubesin series,stabilization
is frrther improveddownto aboutI percent.Theuseof nro tubesin seriesalso
enablestwo differentvaluesd regulatedvoltageto be tapped,onefrom each
tube.
 staffilization
Fig.25-5.Voltage with VRtub.

Figure25-6showshowZenerdiodescanalsobeusedto stabilizea high-volt-

agesupplyobtainedfroma transformer.Thelow-voltageTnrrcrdiodes(Zl afi
configurationacrossa low-voltage
22) are simplyconnectedin back-to-back
windingon the transformer.

BIAS VOLTAGES
Bias-supplyrequirements arebasicallyafixedvoltageof therequiredr"alue
to
setthe operatingpointof a tube.Theoutputshouldbewell-filtered,andcapaci-
tor-inputfilters are commonlypreferred.A bleederresisteris effectiveas a

e-r
ac
I
Inzut
I
o - 1

Fig. 255. Stabilintion b Zencrdiodcs.

176
 Fig.25-7.Stabilimtionb Uasooltage.

voltageregulatorsinceit providesa dcpathfromthe grid to thecathodeof the

tubebeingbiased.However,to bereallyeffective,tlis needsa low resistance
valuesothatthecurrentflowingthroughthebleederresistoris severaltimes
the
maximumgrid currentto be expected,whichis wastefirlof power.
In particularcases,therefore,it maybe expedientto adoptmoreefficient
methodsof bias-voltage Two suchstabilizingcircuitsareshorrnin
stabilization.
Fig.25-7. Oneusesa triodeasaregulator,andtle otier aVRtube.Thelatteris
onlyapplicablewherethe voltageandcurrentratingsof thetubespermittheir
application

VOLTAGE DIVIDERS
Theconventional t1ryeof voltagedivideris basedonthecircuitshownin Fig.
25-8.Basically,it comprises a seriesof resistors(or a resistorwith a seriesof
tappingpoints),fromwhichvoltageslowertbantheinputvoltagecanbedrawn

Fig. %A" Conuentional ooltagediaider.

ln
by connectingto an appropriatetap. The end resistoris only as a bleeder,
carryinga bleedercurrentwhichis normally10percentor lessof the total load
current.The raluesof resistorsrequiredtlen followfrom:

*t-fl
nz- E=2191
15t11

na:fr1ffF-E'9

Voltageregulationis very poorwith voltagedividersof t}is typebecause

the
voltagetakenfromanytapdepends onthecurrentdrawnfromthetap(andwitt
thusvary with varyingload).Thus,while they are suitablefor constant-load
additionalvoltageregulationwouldhaveto beappliedfor stabiliza-
applications,
tion with varyingloads.

YOLTAGE MULTIPLIERS
Rectifierscanalsobe usedasvoltage'multipliers, in integerfactors-a fea-
ture whichcanoftenbeusedto advantage. It is possible,for example,
to accept
anacinputdirectintoarectifiercircuit,witlrouthavingtoemployatran$ormer,
andobtainbothrectificationandvoltagedoubling.Sucha circuitis shownin Fig.
25-9.Eachcapacitoris chargedseparately to the samedcvoltagefromtlte two
diodesandthen dischargedinseriesintothesameloadcircuit(t}usdoublingthe
dc outputvoltageobtained).
Figure25-10showsanextensionof this principle,utilizingfour diodes.The
outputfromthiscircuitprovidesbothvoltagedoublingandvoltageqrudrupling.
Aswith voltagedividers,voltagemultiplierstendto offerpoorvoltageregula-
tion, althoughthis is lessmarkedwith silicondiodesas comparedwith diode
tubesandmetalrectifiers.

iv
I

Fig.2e9. Voltqc+nultiflier circuit

178
 Fig.2en Vottagc-;attillb?ciruit *sittgdio&l

VANHBI,E-VOLTAGE STTPPLIES
A simpletypeofvariablevoltage supplyfc usewith aconstant-voltagepower
supplyis shownin FA. 2F11. Thiscircuitelirninates
seriesresistorsasa sottroe
of voltagedropand,asaconsequence, maiqtrins4 substantiallyconsant sortrce
inpedance.Voltageregulationis alsoprovided,aswell asvoltagernariation vh
the variableresistor,althoughthe degreed stabilization
deteriorateswith in-
creasi4gvdtageor@uLIt is, however,anotler emmpled howsimplecircuits
canoftenbeusedto providesolutionstoparticularrequirenentsintransmitter
and/orreceivercircuit&

I
I
I
I
t
srntt
I
I
I
I
I
I

Fb. 2&1L Yariable

ooltqesuttlt

1?9
 o__
{
-{
ac
Input -{

I
#

Fig.%-12. Stabilizedheatersuppll.

STABILIZED TUBE HEATER SUPPLIES

The heatersupplyfor tubestendsto beregardedasnon-critical,andconve.
nientlysupplieddirect from a separatelow-voltagecoil on t}re powertrans-
former,withoutrectification.Asa minimumprecaution, it is generallydesirable
to useseparateheatersupplies(e.9.,separatetransformercoils)for oscillator
tubes,andvoltagestabilization maywell be considered asa methodof firther
improvingthe overallstabilityof the stage(s)involved.
A simplecircuitwhichoffersconsiderablepossibilitiesinthisrespectisshown
in Fig.25-12,employing twoZenerdiodesin back-to-back bridgecircuitconfigu-
ration.Thepotentiometer actsasa trimmerto setupthecircuit,its valuebeing
about20 percentof the total resistancevalueof the lowerarm of the bridge.
Voltagestabilizationof betterthanI percentis claimedfor this circuit,witl a
transformervoltagechangeof up to 13 percent.

+
6.3V
t
I
6.3

Fig.%-13. Transistorpoucrsuypll.

lU
 Fig. 25-14.Sinfuleregulationcircuit.

TRANSISTORPOWER SUPPLIES
Transistorcircuitsrequireonlylow voltagesandthusconsiderably simplify
powersupplyrequirements, particularlyasonlya singlevoltageis usuallyre-
quird. They may,however,be fd from an ac supply,in whichcase,similar
requirements applyasregardsrectificationandsmootlingfollowingtle trans.
a Zenerdiodeis norrnallyemployed
former.For voltagestabilization, (theZenet
diodeis virtuallytle counterpartof the VR tubein higbervoltagecircuits).
A typicalmoderntransistorpowersupplycircuitis shownin Fig.2S13,which
is alsonotablefor incorporatingelectronicsmoothing.There are numerous
variationson a similartleme but, in general"shuntregulationis takinggr€fer-
enceoverseriesregulation,astlris will permitt}e outputto beshort<ircuited
withoutdamage.
A very muchsimplersystemis shownin Fig. 25-14whichmerelyuseshalf-
waverectificationfollowedby smoothing, anda batteryof tlte samevoltageas
the dc outputfloatingacrossthe output.Thisbatteryprovidesextremelygood
andat the sametimecanalsoactasa ripplefilter. Capacitor
stabilization C2,in
fact,is notreallynecessary.Basically,thebatteryprovidesanadditional source
ofpowerto combatvoltagedropunderload.A similarsystemoffloatingabattery
acrosstlreoutputcanequallywellbeappliedtoafull-waverectifieroutput.Zener
diodestabilization canalsobeadded,if necessary,for anevm higherdegleeof
stabilization

I
Stabilized
Output
I
I
Fig.%-15. Sinple lowlossstabilizingcircuit.

181
 is lessreadilyprovidedactossa directbatteryfeedto ahansistor
Stabilization
circuitsinceconventional methodsof stabilization usingZenerdiodesandresis.
torsalmostinevitablymeana largeincreasein currentdrain,figther loadingthe
batteries.Variousingenious solutionshavebeenproposed to combatthis,suchas
the use of current-limitingcircuits(whichalsosafeguardtransistorsagainst
overload).Figure25-15showsa simplelow-lossstabilizing circuit,basedaround
theuseof atransistorasaconstantcurrentdevice,whichcanreadilybeextended
to two stagesif necessary.

1&
 Appendix:
Symbolsand Equations
fire followingequations areusedoftenin the fieldof electronics.
In additionto
equations discussed in the previoustent, this sectionalsocontainsmanyother
equations for futurereference.

SIMBOLS USED
Sfmbol Meaning
A Iength of thesideadjacent to 0 in theright triangle,in sameunitsas
the othersides
B Susceptance (measured in seimensor mhos);thereciprocalof reac-
tance
c Capacitance (measured in farads);Celsiustemperature
D Dissipation factor;reciprocalof storagefactorQ
d Thickness of thedielectricmaterialin acapacitor(measured in centi-
meters)
dB Decibel;the ratio betweentwo amountsof power
E Electromotive force(measured in volts)
F Temperature(measured in degreesFahrenheit)
t Frequency(measured in hertz)
G Conductance (measured in siemensor mhos)
H Lengthof the blpotenusein a right triangle,in sameunitsas the
othersides

183
 I Current,in amperes
J Energy,work, or quantityof heat(measured in ioules)
K Couplingcoefficient,dielectricconstant,G t€mperaturein kelvins
L Inductance (measured in henries)
M Mutualinductance (measured in henries)
N Generalsymbl for numbers
O LengthofthesideoppositetoOinariglttriangle,insameunitsasthe
other sides
P Power(measuredinwatts)
pJ. Powerfactor
a Qualityofaninductor,orquantityofelectricitystored(measuredin
coulombs)
R Resistance(measuredinohns)
S Areaof oneplated a capacitor(measured in squarecentimeters)
X Reactance (meastredin ohms);measuredoppositionof a circuitor
component to an alternatingsurrenl
X Capacitivereactance(measured in ohms)
X Inductivereactance(measured in ohms)
Y Adnittance(measured in siemensormhos), thereciprocalofimped-
ance;tle lack of oppositio to the flow d dt€rnatilg crrrent in a
reactivecircuit
Z Impedance (measured in ohms),the reciprocald admittance;the
oppositionto the fow d alt€rnatiqgctrrent in a reactivecircuit
d 9G0degrees
e Phaseaqgle(measured in degrees)in a right triangle,simplyan
angle
X Wavelength (measured in meters)
n 3.1416...
etc Cutofrfrequency

ADMITTANCE
1
(t)Y:16f7
1
(2)Y:2
L

(3)Y:GqEu

AVERAGEVALUE
rralue:0.637(peakwlue)
(1) Average
value:0.900(R.M.S.
(2) Average vralue)

1A
CAPACITANCE
(1) Capacitors
in parallel:
Crmrl:Cr*C2+C8 . . . etc.
(2) Capacitors
in series

CmrL:
rsrq
+.*.+..
(3) Twocapacitcsin serieE
c*.. - CtC'
-tu'& q+Ct
(4) Capacitance
da capaciton

C:o.o885IqP
(5) Quandtyof
electricitystore&
Q-CE

CONDUCTANCE
(1)G:it
I
(2)G-;
(3) GmrAr: Gr+ Gs+ Gr . . . etc.(Resbtfisinpardlel)
(4) IprAL:EG1m11

COSECANT
( 1 ) c - s0c = E
o
(2) csc 0 = sec(904)

( 3 ) c sr =c f r1

COSINE
A
(f) coe0:E
(2)m0-sin(90-O
1
(3)cos0:&

,ffi
COTANGENT
A
(1)cot0-6
(2)ot 0-tat (90- 0)
1
(3)cote-ffi

DECIBEL
P.
(1)dB- t0 log#
Ez

- 20 log*t
(2) 8dts areequal
andloa impedance
- D , 2 O"t if source

I.
(3) dB- 20log* Onlyif source areequal
andloadimpedance
rt

(0 dB- zoblyf9Source
- arermequl
andloadimpedances
Ez{Q'
A - 2glor]&source
O(5) - andloadimpedances
areunequal
lz'lZs

FIGT'NEOF MEruT
(1)Q-tan0
Y
(2 )Q: p

FILTERS,ACTTVE
lowpass,
Therearefourbasicfiltertypes;highpass, utdband*top.
bandpass,
flter typesarereferredto as"constant-K'
andarepractical
fc
Thefollowing
mootpurpooea

Low-Ba$andf,igb-pass
_ l _ R
c-fr t-a
rvlere:
C- capacitancein farads
L- inductancein Henries
R- nominalterminatingresistance- frd
co.- OttOfffreqrency- 2 rf" - 6.28f"

t6
 Amplitude
FA.A-Z Lo*|assfltercfnbn fnq*mey

Frequency--;

Banrtpars

,"t:EF
A @ z - @ t .l r r -- R
'
@z-(lt

1 - R(ar-ar)
C' , : t":T
R(c+ - cor)
rvhere:
C1- Seriescapacitance in farads
Ca: Sbuntcapacitance in farads
Lr : Seriesinductancein henries
La - Shuntinductancein henries
R: Nominalt€rninatiqgresistance- [ffi= fW
<o"- Midband -
frequency(dT - #r- 2xf"-6.28q
0)1 : Iowerortofrfrequency
X 6.28
0)2 - Uppercutofffrequency
X 6.28
Bandctop
A I . R(crlr-c,lt)
!,-mTG' 4-T

Fig.A& H$-Wflter circui|

187
 Amplitrdc

Wc
I
Frequency-*
filter+tut oilfn$.erw
FA.A1 Hlgh-/rss

-
- R
Cr-ffi@c QJt
Lt:-
@z - Qtr

where:

<o"- midband : (@
frequency - U!E;q- - U@t6.2S

ue the sameaEband-pas*
All otherespressions

FILTDRS ACTTVE
Activefilters incorpcateanactivedevice(transistor,operadonal anpfificr,
etc.)to replacetbedificult to fnd inductors.Actirc filtersaresmallermdeat&r
to modifyfor specificneeds.Theycanatsofovide high€rQ valuesrhantheir
passivecounterpartsThefollowingequations andtablesarreapflicable toffi
IC operationalanplifiers(indtdingFEtr tJ'pes).

Lm-PassFiltsr
FigureA-9i[ustratesa ommonformd activelow-pass filt€r. Th€valuedCl
is determined bydividingthedesiredcut<ff frequency(c) into 10.Ther€grbd
is the valued Cf in microfrrads.N€ryt,mulfiplythe YalF d Cr
this calculation
with thedesiredfcanddividethisfduct into 159.Thisresilt i8tbescaleftctor,
neededto calculatethe valuegd tbe remainingompoeotsfrm tbefdbwing
tabh

Fb. A.A fund-fu$f,lbr ciro*it

18
 I
- - TI- - t
Anplitudc

Wr
I
I
Wo W.
.l--fD
Freqnency
Fb. AA fund-fus fltcr+tat ot fnryeaey.

Componcnt For Gainof2 FcGainof 1O

Crtn/F) 0.150X vahnofCl 0.0:13X Yalue dCr
Rr0nKO) 1.612X scalefrctfi 1.021X scalefrctos
&(rnI(o) 9,223Xscalefacttr l0.2ll X scalefrctc
Rs0nKo) 2.068X scaleftctor 2.96tX scahhcttr

Erample:
fc : 500Hz;@n- 2
Desired
q:#: o'oz1ts
- .003/F
Cr: (0.02)0.150
scalefacror-#-#: r8.9
f,, : (1.612)15.9
: 25.63k0
Rc- (3.223)15.9- 51.24k{}
Rr: (2.068)15.9- 32.88kO

r89
 Amplitude

wt w" Wr -->
FrequencY
FA. 48. fund.tto/filtcrefat onfnqtercy.

f,igh-Pass Filters
Figrre A-10illustratesa commonformd activehigh-pass flter. fite ralueof
Q is determinedby dividingthe q$ofrfrequency
desired ({,) into 10.Theresult
of this calculationistheralueof Q inmicrofarads.Nsrt, multiplytheralueof C1
with thedesired fc anddivide thisproductinto This
159. result is the scalefactor.
The scalefactoris neededto calculatethernalues of theremainingcomponents
from tle followiqgtable:

Component For Gain of 2 For Gain of l0

Cz0n/F) 0.500X valueof C1 0.100X ralueof C1

Cs(inpF) f .000X valueof Ct 1.000X ralueof C1
Rr (in k0) 0.566X scalefactor 0.673X scalefactor
Rr (in kO) 3.536X scalefactor 14.849X scalefactor

190
 Fig.A-10.High-|a$filtcr.

Exarple:
Desired fc - 50llz; Gain:2
to
Q:fr -o'02
tE
Cc: (0.02)0.500:0.01p1t
- 0.02tE
Cc: (0.02)1.000
scalefrctor-H-f;- ts.e
&: (0.566)15.9: 8.99k0
f,r: (3.536)15.9:56.22ka

BandpassFilter
FigureA-11illustratesa cornmon formof activebandpass filter. Thevalueof
Cris determined bydividingthedesiredcenterfrequency (fo)into 10.Theresult
dthiscalculationisthevalueof Cl inmicrofarads.Next,multiplytderalueof C1
with thedesiredfo anddividethisproductinto 159.Theresultis tle scalefactor,
usedto calculatethe raluesof the renainiqgcompooents from tle followiag
tabte:

Cmpooent For Gain of 2 FcGalnof 10

Cr(tnpF) 1.000XwhedCg 2.000XvaluedQ
&(ro kO) 1.000X scalefactc 0.200X scalehctc
RrGnkO) 0.333X scalefrctm 1.000X scalefrcttr
Rr(in kO) 4.000X scalefactc 3.000X scalefrctor

p1
 Fig.A-11.tundlassflt /.

Example:
Desiredfo: 500IIz; Gain: 10
10
Ct:Bii':0.02#F
: 0.0apF
Cc: (2.000)0.02
factor:g - 119: rb.9
scale
tU, lu
Rr: (0.200)15.9:3.18kO
Rr: (1.000)15.9:15.9kO
: 47.7kA
f,r: (3.000)15.9
a higherQ valueis required.Theraluesof R1,R2,
For a narrowerbandpass,
andRscanbeadjustedby multiplyingthemby thefactorsgivenin thefollowing
table:

For Gain of 2 For Gain of 1O

DeeiredValue
ofQ Rl and R3 Rr Rt aodRg R,
1 2 0.400 2 0.105
6 3 0.258 3 0.06r
8 4 0.189 4 0.0/t4
10 5 0.153 5 0.034

Dxample:
Desirea Qof 8 fromthepreviousbandpass maintainingthe
calculationswhile
gainat 10.

1%
 Rr - 3.18kQ X 4 : L2.72l<{2
Rz: 15.9kQ X 0.044: 0.699ko
Rs:47.7 kO X 4: 190.8k0

BandstopFilter (Band-Rejector Notch Filtet)

FigureG12 illustratesa conmonformof bandstop filter. The valueof C1is
determinedby dividingthe desiredcenterfrequency([) into 10.Theresultof
is the valueof Q in microfarads.
this calculation Next,multiplythe valueof C1
with the desiredi and divide thisproduct into 159.Theresultis thescalefactor.
C2's capacitanceis twice that of Ct . For uniB gainGainof 1)' thefollowingtable
can
of multipliers beused to obtain the values of thetlree resistorsdepending on
the desiredQ. Simply multiply the scalefactor by the multipliers. The product
wiUbein kilohms.

Deeir€dVdue
ofQ Rr R, Rr

I 0.500 2.000 0.400

2 0.250 4.000 0.235
3 0.167 6.000 0.162
4 0.125 8.000 0.L23
5 0.100 10.000 0.099
6 0.083 12.000 0.083
7 0.071 14.000 0.07r
I 0.063 r6.000 0.062
9 0.056 18.000 0.055
10 0.050 20.000 0.050

Fig.A-12.tundstop6otch)filter.

193
Bample:
Desiredfo - 500IIa Q- 5
1n
Cr- 3tr: 0.02
tF
Cz:2(0.024F)- 0.04#F
-
factor
scale : : 15.e
# T;
Rr- (0.100)15.9
- 1.59kO
Rz(10.000)15.9:159ko
- 1.57kO
Rr - (0.099)15.9

FREQUENCY
(Df-=Lq
1
(2)f::,

IMPEDANCE
(l) Z:trl*
(2)Z-G4BP-
P
($ Z:4
cosu
(4)z-#Y
F
(5)z:i
p
(6)
z-fu
Et cos0
l:t)L:T

INDUCTANCE
(1) Inductorsin series:
Lrm11-Lr*Lr+Ls. . . etc.
(2) Inductorsin parallel:

Llorrr
1 , 1 , 1
...€tc
L-t-f,
1g
(3) Two inductorsin parallel:
_ L,L,
-Tfi;
Lrm.rr
(4) Coupledinductancesin serieswith fieldsaiding:
Lrorer,: Lr * L2+ 2M
(5) Coupledinductancesin serieswith fieldsopposing:
L1661.: Lr * h- 2M
(6) Coupledinductancesin parallelwith fieldsaiding:

Lrmrr,:
1 + 1
'
Ll+M L 2 +M
(7) Coupledinductancesin parallelwith fieldsopposing:
I
Lrmrr,:
1 + 1
'
Lr-M L"-M
(8) Mutualinductionof two rf coilswith fieldsinteracting:
M - L'-L'
4
TVhere
L1is the total inductanceof bothcoilswith fieldsaiding
of bothcoilswith fieldsoppming
L, is the total inductance
(9) Couplingcoefficientof two rf coilsinductivelycoupledso asto givetrans.
formeraction:
f , - -
M
'lLtL,

METER FORMTTI,/TS
1
(1) Ohms/volt:
f
Where
I: Full scalecurrentin amperes
(2) Meter resistance:
It
R nrn:ry
TFUIJ,SCAIS

(3) Currentslnmt:
R--^-
--5srr
- RMerEn
N _ I
 Where
reading
N isthenewfull-scale divided (both
bytheoriginalfull-scalereading
in sameunits)

OEM'S LAW FOR DC CIRCUITS

(1) I:.Rg

(z)I-
n
\l.R:
6) I:;
(4)R:?
(5)R:i
F3
(6)R-f
(7)E-IR
(8)E-?
(9)E:ffi
(10)P-IzR
(11)P-EI
(u)P-tr.2
OEIII'S IITW FOR AC CIRCTIITS
$b2
(2)r:

G)I-E#
(4)
Z:+
(5)z-#

1%
 E2cos0
(o, Z:--F-

(7)B:lZ
p
(8)E:d;0
t v 7
(9)E:{.*e
(10)P:lzZcs9
(1 1 )P :IE co s0

s2)p-ry
PEAT VALUE
(1) VraAr: 1.414(rursvalue)
(2) Vtgltr: 1.570(average
value)

PEAT TO PEAK VALI'E

(1) Vp-p- 2.828(rns ralue)
(2) Vp-p- 3.140(aver4gevalue)

PEASEANGLE
x
0-arctanfr

POW-ERFACTOR
(1)pJ.-cos0
(2) D-crlt0

NEACTANCE
(1) & -2nfl
1
(2)xc-fu,

r97
NESISTANCE
(1) Resistcsin series:
Rrprp-Rt+Rs+Rs . . . etc.
(2) Resistors
in parallel:
Rrvrrr.-
1 1 1
' ' "'-' otf,^
Rr Rr Rr
(3) 1\ro resistorsin parallel:

Rm^,-ffi
RESONIINCE
1
(l) fnrsorwcr:ffi,

QrL-
4fu
@>c-Th
ruGgT TRIANGI,E
(1)fta-*

(2)cc A-*

(3)tano-l
(4)sec0-*

(5)cot0-8
H
(6) csc0-
O
ROOTIIIEAN SQUARE
(SINE WAVE SHAPEONLY)
(1) rms- 0.707Geakvalue)
(2) rns: 1.111(avsagevahre)
SECANT
(1)sec
A-x
tg
 (90- d)
(2) sec0- cosecant
(3) sec0- I =
CGI U

SINE
o
(1)sinA:i
(2)sin0- cos(90- d)
( 3 ) s i-n Q - ' ' . >
1
cosecant A

SUSCEPTANCE
x.
(1)B,-pft
t
(2 )B- .:i
r \ c

(3)Bmmr:Br+Bs+Bs . . . etc,

TANGENT
o
(1)tan0_i
(2 )tm0 :o t(9 0 -d )
1
(3)tan?-;i.re

TEMPERATTIRE
(1 )C :0 .5 5 6 F -1 7 .8
(2)F: 1.8C + 32
(3 )K : C +2 7 3

TRANSISTORS,
BIPOIITR
(1)I"-Iu f
(2) I"= 1"
(3) B" - Eu- 0.7(silicontransistors)
(4) E. - Eu- 0.3(gernaniuntransistors)
F
(5)I":ff
I\G

19
(6) 4-R.F
A i+ - F
Wh€res

&is tle porvergain

of a comnmco[ectcemi$radm

TRANSISTORS,
FISII) EFFECT

"- --AIo-
AVcr

Wbere:
ralue
Gbis thetransconductance
AVcsi8a changein gateto source
rroltage
AIDiEa suhequent change in &ab curreot

INANSFONUERRATIO
N ' E t - t { rT- ,
-----
N E. t lz,
WAVEI,ENGTg