CELL

Discovery of cell made possible because of the invention of microscope. microscope invented by 1.David Jansen in 1590 2.Galileo in 1610. CELL DISCOVERY Cell termed - Robert Hooke in 1665 (kytos-cell, cella-hollow space) Nucleus discovered - Robert Brown in 1831 Fact that living organisms have cellular organisation established by - Schleiden in 1838, and Schwann in 1839. Schwann's more appropriate definition of a cell, Cell is structure which consists of a nucleus surrounded by a semi fluid substance enclosed by a membrane."

cell theory
THE WORK OF SCHLEIDEN AND SCHWANN. Schleiden in 1838, concluded that plant cells were made of cells. Schwann and Schleiden in 1839, published a report on the cellular basis of animals saying that, 1.All organisms are composed of one or more cells. 2.The cell is the structural and functional unit of life. S & S were German, one being a botanist and the other a zoologist. >> S&S thought that the cells were structures that could arise from non-cellular materials (de novo). The final point to the cell theory - Rudolf Virchow in 1855. (German pathologist) 3.Cells can arise only by cell division of previously existing cells.

A cell is defined as the structural and functional unit of of living organisms, made up of protoplasm containing a

nucleus surrounded by cytoplasm and bounded by a cell membrane.

microscopes
LIGHT MICROSCOPES : light as source of illumination. X-RAY MICROSCOPES: Short wave length x-ray. ELECTRON MICROSCOPES : Electron beam.

1. MAGNIFICATION is the means of increasing the apparent size of the object. Magnification of a microscope = eye piece power X magnifying power of the objective. 2. RESOLUTION or more correctly the minimum resolved distance is the capacity to separate the adjacent form or object. 3. CONTRAST is important in distinguishing one part of the cell from another. In light microscopes the contrast is obtained by fixing and staining the material.

4. L.M. x500 than human eye. (low resolution) 5. E.M. x10,000 than human eye. (high resolution) Hence EM is used to study most sub cellular structures.

techniques to isolate components of cells

6. CELL FRACTIONATION is the isolation of cellular components to determine their chemical composition. This is done by breaking open a large number of different types of cells in an ice cold environment. STEPS 1.Cells are placed in a homogenizer or mortor and broken. 2.The freed contents are made to spin at high speeds in a process called

centrifugation. 3.At low speeds, large particles like nuclei settle down in the sediment. The smaller particles are still in the supernatant (fluid) which can be poured into a fresh tube. 4.This fluid is subjected to higher speeds of centrifugation to separate the smaller parts and the process continued when the smallest organelles have separated. These separated cell fractions can be biochemically analysed.

eukaryotes and prokaryotes

EUKARYOTES 7. have a true nucleus 8. contain chromosomes (nucleoproteins) 9. have a variety of membrane bound protein e.g. mitochondria, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, plastids, e.t.c.. This gives the cells structural and functional organisation. 10.Can be uni/multi cellular.

PROKARYOTES 11.Do not have a membrane bound nucleus. Their nucleus is usually coiled and concentrated in the region of a cell called the nucleoid. 12.Genetic material never associated with histone protein, hence no true chromosomes. 13.Also do not contain any membrane bound organelles. 14.Have mesosomes which are simple infoldings of the CSM responsible for respiration, photosynthesis or nitrogen fixation. 15.Unicellular organisms like bacteria or cyanobacteria.

parts of a eukaryotic cell

PLASMA MEMBRANE 16.Functions to separate the cytoplasm from the external environment. 17.Allows cell to take up and retain certain substances and exclude the others. (partially/semi permeable) 18.Consist of a bilayer of phospholipids interspersed with proteins. 19.Phospholipid layers are arranged in two parallel layer. 20.Their non-polar regions face each other whereas, their polar ends are associated with carbs and proteins. 21.Also contain several types of lipids like cholesterol. (In certain animal cells, cholesterol may constitute up to 50% of the lipid molecules in the CSM. It is, however, absent from the plasma membrane of most plant and bacterial cells.)

FLUID MOSAIC MODEL (FMM) FMM proposed by Singer and Nicholson in 1972. Lipid bilayer = core of the membrane. Lipid molecules are present in a fluid state and capable of moving and rotating laterally within the membrane. The proteins appear like a mosaic of discontinuous particles that penetrate deeply into and even completely through the lipid sheet. All the components of the plasma membrane are mobile. They can come together to engage in various types of transient or semi permanent interactions. Types of protein in the bilayer: 1. Integral (intrinsic) proteins: Directly incorporated in the bilayer. Provide a channel for polar, water-soluble substances like ions to move back and forth between the intra and extra cellular compartment.

2. Peripheral (extrinsic) proteins : Located entirely outside the bilayer on either the extracellular compartment or the cytoplasmic surface. Exhibit a loose association with the membrane surface. These proteins can have lipoprotein or glycoprotein side chains and are the ones that form the mosaic pattern in the blilayer.

(Side chains as such are the ones that give a cell its unique type, e.g., blood typing or are responsible for tissue acceptance or rejection.) FUNCTIONS OF CSM Protection of cell cytoplasm. Regulate the uptake and the secretion of substances inside and out of the cell respectively and being selectively so. (Selectively/Differentially permeable) Transport substances to maintain pH, ionic concentration for enzyme activity, excrete toxic substances, e.t.c..

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Diffusion is the spontaneous exchange of substances from a region of higher concentration to that of a lower concentration down the concentration gradient. Osmosis is the balance between the osmotic pressure between the intracellular fluid and the interstitial fluid, i.e., it is the exchange of water molecules from a region where their potential is high to a region where it is low ACROSS A PARTIALLY PERMEABLE MEMBRANE. Active transport is the transport of substances from a region of lower concentration to a region of higher concentration, against the concentration gradient with the use of ATP as an energy source. Endocytosis is a process by which a CSM attempts to uptake a substance by infolding it in a part of the membrane to form vacuoles. o Phagocytosis: solid particles, example, WBC pick up foreign bodies from the blood stream to destroy them. o Pinocytosis: Cell drinking. Liquid substance taken up by the cell in bulk.

 The process of membrane fusion and the movement of materials out of the cell is called Exocytosis.

cell wall