Proposal Paper 9

THE EFFECTS OF SOIL MOISTURE ON PAVEMENT SYSTEMS
A Thesis Presented to
The Faculty of the Fritz J. and Dolores H. Russ College of Engineering and Technology Ohio University
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for the Degree Master of Science
by
Elizabeth Jzne Keiley
August, 1999
Acknowledgements
At this time I would like to thank all the individuals who help contribute to this piece of work. The opportunity to partake in such an invigorating program was made possible by Dr. Shad Sargand. HISguidance and knowledge through the years has helped me reach my academic goals. Special thanks and recognition goes to lssam Klzoury and Daniel Wasniak who helped 'pave' the way in my journey. Their strength (both physical and mental) helped me to focus and complete all my goals and aspirations here at Ohio University. Demorzd James, Benjamin Goldsberq~, Brad Young and the partner universities where very helpful in malungs this thesis possible. Also, my graduate committee members, Dr. Masada and Dr. Lawrence contributed much time and direction. Also, I must show my appreciation to my family. It has been through their devoted love and nurturing that has made me what I am today. My mother, Judith Grealis, brother,
Rrei~dn?? Grenlis, and the C o m i n s b jirinil? h a v e given me t h e stamina and couraFe to

succeed in life. And finally, (saving the best for last) I must express my gratefulness to my husband, Bryan, whose leadership and companionship has made me realize how truly luck) and blessed I am. HISstrength and support has propelled me in life and shown me that anything is possible.
Table of Contents Page Acknowledgements .................................................................................................. i Table of Contents ....................................................................................................11 List of Figures .......................................................................................................... v List of Tables ........................................................................................................... ix List of Equations...................................................................................................... xi Chapter One: Introduction 1.1 Background ................................................................................................... 1
1.2 1.3 Objectives ...................................................................................................... 3 Outline ...........................................................................................................3
..
Chapter Two: Review of Relevant Literature

2.1 2.2 2.3
2.4
Literature Review .......................................................................................... 5 Time Domain Reflectometry ...................................................................... 6 Therrnogravimetric Method .......................................................................... 8 Neutron Moderation & Gamma Attenuation .................................................8
2.5
TDR Probe ..................................................................................................... 9

9 2.5.1 Method of TDR .................................................................................
2.5.2
Influences of the Dielectric Constant ................................................12
2.5.3 Two Calculation Approaches Using TDR Response ........................ 14
Chapter Three: Project Description 3.1 Project Description ........................................................................................17
3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5
The TDR System ........................................................................................... 2 1 Instrumentation Layout ...............................................................................2 5 Calibration of a TDR Probe ........................................................................... 28 Vertical Displacement of Measurement ........................................................ 30
Chapter Four: Data Collection Method 4.1 Mobile Data Collection ................................................................................. 34
4.2 4.3 Computer and Software ................................................................................. 37 LVDT Data Collection .................................................................................. 40 4.3.1 4.3.2 Testing Trucks ................................................................................... 40 Data Acquisition System ................................................................... 41
4.3.3 Wheel Offsets .................................................................................... 42 4.3.4 Recording Data .................................................................................. 43
Chapter Five: Data Analysis Types of Bases ............................................................................................... 44 5.1

5.1.1 Dense Graded Aggregate Base .......................................................... 44
5.1.2 Lean Concrete Base ...........................................................................45 5.1.3 Asphalt Treated Base .........................................................................45 46 5.1.4 Permeable Asphalt Treated Base ....................................................... 5.1.5 Edge Drains and Filter Fabrics ..........................................................46
5.2
TDR Analysis ...............................................................................................7 4

5.2.1 Dense Graded Aggregate Base (undrained) ...................................... 47 5.2.2 Dense Graded Aggregate Base (drained) .......................................... 52
5.2.3 Lean Concrete Base ........................................................................... 53 5.2.4 5.2.5 Asphalt Treated Base ........................................................................ 57 Permeable Asphalt Treated Base ....................................................... 57
5.2.6 ATB I PATB I DGAB ...................................................................... 6 2 5.2.7 ATB I PATB ...................................................................................... 65 5.3 LVDT Analysis ....................................................................................... 6 8
Chapter Six: Conclusions and Recommendations 6.1 Conclusion .....................................................................................................

6.2
85
Recommendations ......................................................................................... 86
Bibliography .......................................................................................................... 88 Appendices A. B.

C. D. Volumetric Moisture Graphs: ............................................................ 90 Moisture Content Data Tables ........................................................... 106 Water Table Data .............................................................................. 122 LVDT Data Tables ........................................................................... 131
List of Figures Figure

2.1 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13 4.1
4.2
Page
La Trace ......................................................................................................... 11 Route 23 Test Site ......................................................................................... 18 Overview of Test Site .................................................................................... 20 TDR Probe ..................................................................................................... 22 CR 10 Datalogger ........................................................................................... 22 Multiplexer with TDR Probes ....................................................................... 23 Layout of System........................................................................................... 24 Layout of TDR .............................................................................................. 25 Profile of TDR Section in US Route 23 ........................................................ 27 TDR Probe Shorted ....................................:.................................................. 29 TDR Probe in Air ..........................................................................................30 30 TDR Probe in Water ..................................................................................... Linear Variable Displacement Transducers .................................................. 31 LVDT Map and Profile Views ...................................................................... 33 Tekronix Cable Tester and CR 10.................................................................. Mobile System............................................................................................... 34 36
4.3
4.4
Complete Field Apparatus ............................................................................. 37 TDR Probe #1 ................................................................................................

39
4.5
4.6
TDR Probe #2 ................................................................................................ 39 TDR Probe #3 ................................................................................................ 40
Gravimetric Moisture Content 390201.......................................................... 48 Gravimetric Moisture Content 390202.......................................................... 49 Gravimetric Moisture Content 390203.......................................................... 50 Gravimetric Moisture Content 390204.......................................................... 51
.
Gravimetric Moisture Content 390263..........................................................54 Gravimetric Moisture Content 390205..........................................................55 Gravimetric Moisture Content 390208..........................................................56 Gravimetric Moisture Content 390 104.......................................................... 58 Gravimetric Moisture Content 39021 1.......................................................... 59 Gravimetric Moisture Content 390212......................................................... 60 Gravimetric Moisture Content 390108.......................................................... 61 Gravimetric Moisture Content 390901.......................................................... 63 Gravimetric Moisture Content 390904.......................................................... 64 Gravimetric Moisture Content 390110..........................................................66 Gravimetric Moisture Content 3901 12.......................................................... 67 LVDT Deflections (single) 390201 ............................................................... 70 LVDT Deflections (tandem) 390201 ............................................................ 71 LVDT Deflections (single) 390204 ............................................................... 72 LVDT Deflections (tandem) 390204 ............................................................ 1 3
-7
LVDT Deflections (single) 390205 ............................................................... 74 LVDT Deflections (tandem) 390205 ............................................................ 75
LVDT Deflections (single) 390208 ............................................................... 76 LVDT Deflections (tandem) 390208 ............................................................ 77 LVDT Deflections (single) 390212 ............................................................... 78 LVDT Deflections (tandem) 390212 ........................................................... 7 9 Moisture Content during LVDT Testing 390201 .......................................... 80 Moisture Content during LVDT Testing 390204 .......................................... 81 Moisture Content during LVDT Testing 390205 .......................................... 82 Moisture Content during LVDT Testing 390208 .......................................... 83 Moisture Content during LVDT Testing 390212 .......................................... 84 Volumetric Moisture Content 39020 1........................................................... 91 Volumetric Moisture Content 390202........................................................... 92 Volumetric Moisture Content 390203........................................................... 93 Volumetric Moisture Content 390204........................................................... 94 Volumetric Moisture Content 390263........................................................... 95 Volumetric Moisture Content 390205........................................................... 96 Volumetric Moisture Content 390208 ........................................................... 97 Volumetric Moisture Content 390104........................................................... 98 Volumetric Moisture Content 39021 1........................................................... 99 Volumetric Moisture Content 390212......................................................... 100 Volumetric Moisture Content 390108 ...........................................................101 Volumetric Moisture Content 390901........................................................... 102 Volumetric Moisture Content 390904...........................................................103
Vlll
...
Volumetric Moisture Content 3901 10...........................................................104 Volumetric Moisture Content 3901 12......................................................... 105
Water Table Data 390201.............................................................................. 124 Water Table Data 390204............................................................................. 125 Water Table Data 390208............................................................................ 126 Water Table Data 390212........................................................................... 127
Water Table Data 390104............................................................................. 128 129 Water Table Data 390108.............................................................................. Water Table Data 390901.............................................................................. 130
List of Tables Tables

2.1 2.2 3.1 3.2 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 B.1 B.2 B.3
B.4
Page
Existing Empirical Models ............................................................................15 Existing Mixing Models ................................................................................ 16 19 Make Up of Sections ..................................................................................... LVDT Technical Specifications ....................................................................32 DGAB Sieve Analysis ................................................................................... 45 ATB Sieve Analysis ......................................................................................46 DGAB Moisture Data (undrained) ................................................................ 52 DGAB Moisture Data (drained) .................................................................... 53 53 LCB Moisture Data ....................................................................................... ATB Moisture Data .......................................................................................57 PATB / DGAB Moisture Data .................................................................... 62
ATB / PATB / DGAB Moisture Data ........................................................... 62 ATB / PATB Moisture Data ........................................................................ 65 Moisture Data 390201 ................... . . ........................................................... 107 Moisture Data 390202 ...................................................................................108 Moisture Data 390203 ................................................................................... 109 Moisture Data 390204 ................................................................................... 110 Moisture Data 390263 ...................................................................................111 Moisture Data 390205 ................................................................................. 112
B.5
B .6
B.7
Moisture Data 390208 ...................................................................................113
Moisture Data 390104 ...................................................................................
114
Moisture Data 3902 11................................................................................... 115 Moisture Data 390212 ................................................................................. 116 Moisture Data 390 108................................................................................. 117 Moisture Data 390901 .................................................................................. 118
Moisture Data 390904 ................................................................................... 119 Moisture Data 3901 10................................................................................... 120 Moisture Data 3901 12................................................................................... 121 Water Table Readings ................................................................................... 123 LVDT Data Tables 390201 ........................................................................... 132 LVDT Data Tables 390204 ........................................................................ 133 LVDT Data Tables 390205 ............................................................................ 134 D.4 D.5 LVDT Data Tables 390208 .......................................................................... 135 LVDT Data Tables 3902 12 .......................................................................... 136
List of Equations Equation

2.1 2.1 2.2
Page
Apparent Dielectric Constant. K. ........................... . . ................................. 12 Topp's Universal Equation. volumetric moisture content. Q ........................12 Gravimetric Water Content. o ...................................................................... 12
CHAPTER ONE
Introduction
1.1
Background
In recent years there has been a constant need for rehabilitation and construction
of the infrastructure, particularly highways, in the United States. The increased volume of traffic, load, and environmental conditions are factors that have created enormous amounts of wear and tear on the highway systems. More research is needed to determine the influences of these factors upon pavement performance. The research conducted in the 1950's has become outdated with the development of new technologies in pavement.
A significant factor affecting pavement systems is moisture infiltration. Moisture
infiltration has long been considered as one of the major causes of premature distress in pavement structures. The influence of temperature and moisture conditions on pavement performance can be seen in areas of the United States that experience large seasonal fluctuations in temperature and moisture conditions such as Ohio. Through research, it has been demonstrated that the performance of pavement is affected by charactenstics of the subgrade. The stiffness of the subgrade is greatly influenced by moisture. The amount of moisture within the subgrade is known to vary with precipitation, depth of water table, and freeze and thaw cycles.
The purpose of the pavement is to provide a surface so that a vehicle can use it as a route of transportation. Pavement that is both smooth and durable is a product of proper material selections and construction. The subgrade deserves a major focus when examining the design of pavement systems. Important properties of the subgrade include moisture conditions, ease of compaction, dry density, stiffness and strength. Given that soil properties can vary seasonably, the moisture content within the soil demands careful scrutiny. The Ohio Department of Transportation (ODOT) built the test pavement as part of the Strategic mghway Research Program (SHRP). The purpose of this test road was to explore development in pavement design. The test road is a portion of the U.S. Route 23, north of Delaware, Ohio. This test road has four sections. All four sections follow the SHRP's Specific Pavement Studies (SPS), which were developed to examine variables affecting pavement performance. The test site allows for testing of the subgrade soil, pavement temperatures, soil moisture content, frost depth, water table elevation, pavement deflection, strain, soil deflection, and stress. In addition an on-site weather station monitors daily temperature variation, rainfall, solar radiation relative humidity, wind speed, and wind direction. The US Route 23 test road will aid in the understanding of pavement life and performance and in developing more efficient design procedures and component compositions
1.2
Ohiectives
The test section of US Route 23 was completed in August of 1996. Ohio
University and its partner universities have been gathering data from the test site since the project began. The objectives for this thesis are as follows: to describe the Time Domain Reflectometry method and its applications to the highway project, to present the effective data collection and analysis methods for TDR, to present the field data collection at the U.S. Rt. 23 project site by TDR, to show the influence of the base type (drainability) on the moisture conditions throughout the pavement system, and to show the relationship between the moisture content and the vertical deflection in the pavement system.
1.3
Outline
The thesis is arranged in the following format in its presentation of information and data.
Chapter Tavo presents a review of literature relevant to the current study. First. a
series of historical developments, that have lead to the current TDR technology, are traced in a chronological order. Then, as an introduction to the TDR method, its underlining principles, system descriptions, and basic data analysis procedures are given.
Chapter Three provides detailed description of the overall project (U.S. Rt. 23),
various pavement sections constructed, specifications/properties of the pavement materials involved, sensor types selected for the fields instrumentation, and actual methods used to instrument and monitor the pavement performance due to live load and seasonal/environmental factors.
Chapter Four presents the information on the data collection and test methods
applied effectively to successfully collect the TDR and LVDT data in the U.S. Rt. 23 project.
Chapter Five presents all the field data collected in the current study along with
some observations and discussions resulting from the data analysis.
Chapter Six discusses conclusions and recommendations on the data obtained in

U.S. Rt. 23.
CHAPTER TWO
Review of Relevant Literature
2.1
Literature Review
Frequently, moisture is a concern when designing pavement structures. In the
past, research in this area has been scarce, but new technologies have made research and data collection easier, faster, and more reliable. Recent research has shown that moisture variations in subgrade soil significantly affect pavement performance and life. Precipitation and subsurface sources are, respectively, the two primary sources of moisture that infiltrate into the pavement system. A study by the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) demonstrated that 33 to 50 percent of the precipitation over asphalt concrete sections, and 50 to 67 percent of precipitation over Portland cement sections could infiltrate through the pavement to the base 191. Two methods have been shown to control moisture infiltration into the pavement
jtrt:<ti;i-es. These methods involve usi;ig subsurfxii drainage or- scaling t i i ~ plivemcnt [Sf].
'The FHWA studies show that edge drains have a positive influence on pavement structures concerning the moisture infiltration. In the FHWA studies, the amount of precipitation was measured and the depth of the water in the edge drain was gauged. Analysis of the data showed that up to 80 percent of the precipitation was recovered in the edge drains.
Several problems arise when moisture enters the pavement structure. When the base of the pavement structure becomes saturated the pore water pressure in the soil can overcome the strength or the load spreading support of the base. This can cause the load to be applied to the subgrade in minimized segments. This loading may surpass the bearing capacity of the subgrade and cause localized failure of the structure. One alarming figure, according to Marienfield and Baker, is if a pavement base is saturated as little as 10 percent of the time, the useful life of the pavement can be reduced by 50 percent [9]. Further FHWA studies have demonstrated that pore pressure can cause scouring and jetting pressures. This, in turn, results in water jetting from cracks or joints transporting base and subgrade to the surface creating voids. This can eventually cause pavement failure. Some factors can greatly influence drainage. Research in this area is extremely difficult because a minor change in one variable can cause a dramatic change in drainage properties. Some of these variables include amount of infiltration, drainage time, stone type, gradation base, thickness of base, and slope of the base layer.
2.2
Time Domain . .- - -
Reflectometrv
Time Domain Reflectometry (TDR) is an electrical measurement technique. Its concept is not new and has been used for many years to determine the location of various objects. An example of TDR, dating back to the 1930's, is radar. Radar consists of a radio transmitter, which emits a short pulse of microwave energy, a directional antenna, and a radio receiver. The transmitter radiates the pulse and the receiver and then listens
for an echo to return from a distant object [12]. The idea behind radar is that by measuring the time between the transmitted pulse and the echo return the distance to the reflected object can be calculated [12]. Time Domain Reflectometry (TDR) was first introduced in pavement engineering in 1989. The TDR method depends on the change in the dielectric constant of the soil. The dielectric constant is a function of the amount of water present in a soil sample. TDR probes were chosen because they are the best instruments available to monitor volumetric water content. One reason TDR probes are suitable for field research is that the cable, along which the electromagnetic wave travels, would be placed underground and less destructive to the pavement system. In addition, traffic flow would not be affected during testing and data collection. Since the 1930's, time domain reflectometry was also used for examining the electrical properties of cables and transmission lines, and measuring the electrical properties of organic liquids [ l l ] . According to G.C. Topp, Time Domain Reflectometry has gone through five distinct phases. The first phase begins with the establishment of the basic relationship between the dielectric constant and the volumetric water content as measured by the TDR method. Next, the relationship between signal attenuation and bulk soil electrical conductivity was determined by using the TDR method and the application of the dielectric mixing formulas. Then, the TDR method was confirmed to be dependable and more effort was put into the development of the instrumentation for the systems. In the fourth phase, algorithms were used to determine volumetric moisture content and the bulk soil electrical conductivity. Then in phase five, the field research
was conducted. The data was compared to previous procedures, and the TDR method was deemed accurate.
2.3
Thermogravimetric Method
In the past, when monitoring the volumetric moisture content in the field, soil
samples were taken and the thermogravimetric method was used to determine the amount of water present. The use of this method involves the measurement of a soil sample before and after oven drying. Drying a soil sample in an oven requires a temperature of
105C for a specified time interval [ 3 ] . The volumetric moisture content can be
calculated using these results. A problem with the thermogravimetric method is that it is time consuming and the soil sample is destroyed after use. Although this processes is still feasible for calibration purposes, field research requires a fast and accurate method that can determine the volumetric moisture content of soils [3].
2.4
Neutron Moderation & Gamma Attenuation

Two other techniques were used to calculate volumetric moisture content before
the TDR technique was perfected. They are the neutron moderation and gamma attenuation technique. These techniques did not destroy a soil samples and could be preformed quickly when compared to the thermogravimetric method. However, both methods involved radiation. Protective shields were, therefore, used on account of the radiation. Additionally, the neutron probes had to be calibrated for each soil type and the gamma probes was found to be imprecise [ 3 ] .
2.5
TDR Probe
The TDR probe has a certain region of influence that is effected by the design of
the probe. Research has shown that the soil measured by a TDR probe has an area of influence similar to a cylinder [14]. Knight presented a theoretical investigation of the area of influence for a TDR probe. He recommends that the area of influence is cylindrical and the probe needs to be designed so that the ratio of the rod diameter to the wire spacing is no less than 0.1. This ensures that energy is not concentrated too closely around the rods. The probes are calibrated in air and water prior to installation to correct for individual probe characteristics. This technique will be discussed in greater detail further in this study.
2.5.1 Method of TDR

In media, such as soil, the conductors of the probe guide the TDR pulse. When the traveling pulse encounters changes in the electrical impedance, which can be defined as the total opposition a circuit offers to the flow of alternating current at a given frequency, part of the signal is reflected back towards the source. The time of arrival and magnitude of the returned pulse are used to determine properties of the soil. The TDR technique operates at frequencies above 10 GHz. At these frequencies, water relaxes and soil composition and textures are irrelevant [3]. It is for this reason that
TDR is the preferred measurement system used when calculating soil moisture.
The dielectric constant of a material, which is the ratio of capacitance of that material to the capacitance of air, is a function of moisture content [13]. The change of
this constant creates a wave reflection, which makes it possible to monitor moisture contents of materials. At 1 GHz and 20C, the dielectric constant for most soils ranges between 3.0 and 5.0. The dielectric constant for air is 1.0 and for water is 80.0. The large dielectric constant value of water in a soil-water-air mixture is how the dielectric constant of a soil mixture can be quantified. As moisture increases in a mixture, the dielectric constant increases due to the large dielectric constant value of water 163. The horizontal distance between the initial and final inflection points, of the TDR trace, measured by the oscilloscope, is the travel time of the pulse (see Figure 2.1).
ExtrapolationUnes for ing infiedon points)
f'igurr 2.1: L, Trace
The travel time of the pulse represents the apparent length (La)of the TDR probe. When the actual probe length (L) and signal speed (V,) are known. the calculation of the 'apparent dielectric constant' can be made for the media the TDR probe was placed in. For soil studies, the resistance is small and does not alter the measured pulse velocity.
The computed dielectric constant is referred to as the 'apparent dielectric constant', K,
[ti], The apparent dielectric constant, K,, is defined as follows:
(Equation 2.1)
Once the apparent dielectric constant is calculated for a specific soil mixture, a correlation equation, termed Topp's Universal Equation, is used to predict the volumetric moisture content (Q). Topp's Universal Equation is defined as follows:
Q = (-.053 + .0293 Ka - ,00055 K :
+ .0000043 Ka 3, * 100
(Equation 2.2)
Volumetric water content (Q) is given as a percentage. For pavement engineering, the is gravimetric water content (o) more suitable for design, since most samples are measured by weight. The gravimetric water content is: (Equation 2.3)
This equation utilizes the density of water ( , p)

C-
and the dry density of the soil (pd). The
rrravimetric water content is also given as a percentage.
:2,5.2 Influences of the Dielectric Constant
According to John Klemunes [5], some factors that influence the apparent dielectric constant, (K,) are:
The method used for establishing the apparent length (La) Soil mineral dielectric constant variability, and Water dielectric constant variability. To date, five methods of determining the apparent length of the TDR trace exist. They include the Method of Tangents, Method of Peaks, Alternate Method of Tangents, Method of Diverging Lines, and The Campbell Scientific Method. Each of the five methods uses a different point to measure the initial and final inflection point of the trace signal. The Campbell Scientific Method was developed by Campbell Scientific and is used with their data logger systems. The Alternate Method of Tangents and the Method of Diverging Lines are difficult and hard to repeat with extended research when compared to the Method of Tangents, Methods of Peaks, and Campbell Scientific Method. Currently, however, there is little research to suggest which procedure is the most efficient. The variability of the soil mineral dielectric constant influences the apparent dielectric constant. Soils of coarse or fine grains have different mineral compositions. Soils that are fine grained tend to be composed of more calcium and magnesium, where as coarse grained soils tend to be composed of more silica and quartz. This difference in mineral composition can cause variations in the dielectric constants. However, there is little research being conducted to further the study and determine the influence of mineral composition upon the dielectric constant. G.C. Topp noted that inorganic soils or heavy clay soils should require site-specific calibration [ll].
Variability of the water constant also influences the apparent dielectric constant. This factor involves the free water and bound water in soils. This concept involves the idea that absorbed water has a lower dielectric constant then free pore water. When examining saturated soils, the soil volumetric moisture content can be used to determine the dielectric constants. When the volumetric moisture content falls below five percent, the soil type and mineralogy affect the dielectric constant. When this occurs, certain parameters must be observed, such as the composite dielectric constant, the dielectric number of the soil matrix, and the porosity.
2 5 3 Two Calculation Approaches Using TDR Response ..

G.C. Topp developed an approach where a third order polynomial was utilized to determine the relationship between the dielectric constant (K,) and the volumetric moisture content (Q) of soils. The equation, as stated previously, is as follows:
Q = (-.053 + .0293 K, - .O0055 K :
+ .0000043 Ka ') * 100
(Equation 2.2)
A major advantage in using this equation is no gravimetric or volumetric soil properties
are required. Topp also discovered that the effects of temperature are negligible on the dielectric constant, which is measured by a TDR probe. However, this equation has not been tested for all soil types, especially fine-grained soils. Topp's equatlon has an error
es [(mateof .013 for the volumetric moisture content [ 3 ] . A second approach uses dielectric empirical and mixing models. The models are
used to relate the composite dielectric number of a multiphase mixture to the dielectric number and the volume fractions of its constituents (Tinga, 1973). To this end, many
empirical and mixing model equations have been developed. In this approach, tests must be run on specific soil samples. The soil samples are mixtures of water, air, and soil. Tables 2.1 and 2.2 show the existing empirical and mixing models that are available [ 5 ] .
= -233, B = 285, C = -4.3, D = 0.030 (7 organic)

A = -1096, 6 = 581, C = -22.7, D = 0.320 (clay loam)
= 0.1138SQRT(K,) 3 . 3 8 ~0.1529 (mineral soil) ~
. "a"fitted to data from Jacobsen
= 0.66 (10mineral soils) = K t - Qbw(ebwa- ahya) (1 - f)e," - fe,"l(e;- e,"),
Four-Phase Model
=0.49, 0.50, 0.52, 0.54, 0.60, 0.61, C.81
2. "a"fitted to data from
a = 0.70 (10 mineral soils)
Jacobsen & Schjonning
CHAPTER THREE
Project Description
3.1
Project Location
The project test site is located 25 miles north of Columbus, Ohio along the U.S.
Route 23. Specifically, the site is located between the northbound and southbound lanes of the U.S. Route 23 north of Delaware, Ohio. See Figure 3.1 for a detailed site location map. The Ohio Department of Transportation (ODOT) selected the site because of its uniform topography, soil and climate. The test road is part of the Strategic Pavement Studies (SPS) developed by the Strategic Highway Research Program (SHRP). The test road is 3 miles long, and contains 40 test sections, 34 of which are instrumented. The 40 sections are approximately 500 feet long and have either a 12 or 14 foot wide traffic lane. The traffic lanes have a 10-foot berm on the driving lane side and a 5-foot berm on the
passing lane side.
Each of the 40 sections has variations on the pavement thickness, base type, thickness, and drainage system. See Table 3.1 for the composition of the sections.
US Route 23 Test Site - Delaware, Ohio
EJK
Sources US Geological Survey, Rand McNally, ORITE, Ohlo Unlvers~ty Cartograph~c Center
519 9
Figure 3.1: Route 23 Test Site
Table 3.1: Make Up o Sections f
Asphalt Concrete (AC) Sections
SPS-1
Section 390104 390108 3901 10 3901 12 390162 AC Thickness (in)
I 1
7 4
4
Base Type and 'Thickness 12" ATB 4" PATBi 8"DCiAB 4" ATBI 4" PATB 12" ATBI 4" PATB 12" ATB/ 4" PATB 16"DGAB
Drainage NO Y bS Y bS YES YES
PATB (Permeable Asphalt Treated Base) DGAB (Dense Graded Aggregate Base) ATB (Asphalt Treated Base) LCB (Lean Concrete Base)
The southbound lanes where constructed of asphalt pavement while the northbound lanes where constructed of concrete. The SHRP's guidelines for the test site included four
di fl'erent experiments, which are as f o l l o ~ ~ s :
SPS-1: The Strategic Study of Structural Factors for Flexible Pavement
SPS-2: The Strategic Study of Structural Factors for Rigid Pavement SPS-8: The Study of Environmental Effects in the Absence of Heavy Traffic SPS-9: Asphalt Field Verifications Studies SPS-1 and SPS-9 are the asphalt concrete sections and SPS-2 is Portland cement concrete sections. Of the total 40 sections, 18 are instrumented to monitor seasonal data and structural response, 15 are to monitor the structural response, and 7 contained no instrumentation. The Delaware test road was constructed with little disruption to traffic because the existing median was used to construct the new south and north bound lanes. The existing lanes are maintained and are now used as service lanes when sections of the test road need maintenance. The Figure 3.2 illustrates this.
Figure 3.2: Oventiew of Test Site
3.2
The TDR System

The instruments for the Delaware test road were chosen for accuracy, sensitivity,
longevity, and cost (15). Information from previous test roads was also used to decide what instruments should be used. There are three important pieces of equipment required to experimentally study soil moisture. First, a Time Domain Reflectometry (TDR) probe is required. The probe consists of a coaxial cable with a three pronged probe attached to it. The FHWA uses a probe manufactured by Campbell Scientific Incorporated. Figure 3.3 is a graphical representation of the components that constitute a TDR probe. Secondly, a Tektronix 1502C cable tester with a CRlO datalogger is required. The CRlO's function is to run the computer program needed to collect the soil moisture data. The CRlO communicates with the Tektronix cable tester and the cable tester then emits the pulse to the probes. A general view of the CRlO can be seen in Figure 3.4.
r-
-4
TOP VIEW
,BNC L m M M
($1l n l l
SIDE VIEW
BOTTOM VIEW
L-
Figure 3.3: TDR Probe
Figure 3.4: CRlO Datalogger
Thirdly, a laptop computer is necessary to collect the in situ data. The laptop computer should be equipped with the 'Graphterm' program. This program
communicates between the CRlO datalogger and the cable tester. An interface cable
(RS232) is used to communicate between the laptop computer and the CRlO datalogger
The interface cable allows the Graph Term program to be downloaded to the CRlO
A multiplexer board is also needed. It allows collection from more than one TDR
probe at one time. The multiplexer is capable of allowing up to sixteen TDR probes to be collecting data at one time. This is displayed in Figure 3.5
Overall, the arrangement is as follows 'I'he 'TDR probes are connected to the multiplexer, and the cable tester is connected to the multiplexer board and the CRl0. The interface cable is attached to the CRlO and the laptop (see Figure 3.6)
Figure 3.6: Layout o the TDR Svstem f

The Tektronix 1502C cable tester is used to emit an electromagnetic wave via the coaxial cable through the TDR probe. The coaxial cable is 100-feet in length. The wave travels through the center of the coaxial cable, at approximately light speed, and then into the center prong of the TDR probe. The two outside prongs act as a shield for the wave travelins in the center. When the wave reaches the end of the probe, a portion of the signal is reflected back through the coaxial cable to the Tektronix system The wave is displayed graphically by the Tektronix system. The first inflection point of the graph e represents the ~ a v entering the probe and the second inflection point represents the signal at the end of the probe. The system discussed in this thesis uses the Campbell Scientific method to determine La.
3.3
Instrumentation Layout
Of the 40 sections in the Delaware test road, 18 of them are equipped with the
capability to monitor environmental/seasonal data. Refer back to Table 3.1 to see the layout of the sections. All the TDR probes are located at the end of the sections. This is to ensure that the coaxial cables reach the data logging stations, which are placed within pull boxes. When a section has a DGAB base, the TDR probes are installed after the base is laid. For all other bases, the TDR probes are implemented before the base is placed. The environmental sections of the pavement structure are placed along the wheel path, 2.5 feet from the edgeline. See Figure 3.7 for a typical layout.
TDR LA L:T MAP' P7E IP1'0 IN
Figure 3.7: Layout of TDR
A drill rig is required to begin a section for TDR placement. A 6.5-foot deep hole
with a 12-inch diameter is needed. A piece of plywood is placed around the section to help keep the soil from caving in. The drilling is started at the subgrade and a 6-inch hole
26
is removed. The soil is then collect, from both the auger and plywood, and placed in a numbered bucket. This is to ensure the soil is replaced in the hole properly. The drilling continues for the next 6-inches and is stopped. The same procedure follows with gathering the soil into numbered buckets. This will continue until the drill reaches 6.5feet down. A trench is then dug to the edge of the road for the cables. The trench must be deep enough to ensure cables are protected and can not be cut or damaged by other machinery. When finished, probe one should either be at mid-depth of DGAB, or 6-inches below the subgrade, if DGAB is not being used. This determines what depth probe ten will be at. Probe ten, probe nine, and probe eight are spaced one foot apart from each other. The following eight probes are placed 6-inches apart from each other. See the profile in Figure 3.8, which depicts a typical DGAB section.
Figure 3.8: Profile of Typical TDR Probe Section in US Route 23

The probes are placed in the hole with the three stainless steel rods parallel to the road surface. The cable is run along the side of the drilled hole and then run to the tre11,-b. 50'1 col1prtcf4iir the last bucl.r+is plimrcd on top of probe ten. t 1.5-inch lift i ; Z required after tamping down. This is to ensure the soil is being replaced with consistency. Once one foot of soil is compacted on top of probe ten, the next probe may be placed down in the same manner. The remaining TDR probes are installed t h ~ s same wa:~. It is important to remember to space the probes correctly. Also, every probe is connected to the Tektronix cable tester and tested after it is in place to insure no damage
was done to the probe in tamping. A soil sample is also taken from the buckets as each probe is instrumented. Later, in the lab, the dielectric constant will be calculated from each of the samples taken in the field. The values will then be compared with the readings taken in the field following instrumentation. This procedure is to ensure the TDR probes are worlung correctly.
3.4
Calibration of a TDR Probe

Once the Campbell Scientific TDR probe is purchased and before it can be
instrumented in the field, it must be calibrated. To perform the calibrations, the Tektronix 1502B must be installed with a thermal printer. The printer is needed to make hard copies of the screen readouts. All readouts must be printed and cataloged for each TDR probe. Seasonal Monitoring Data Sheets, which are required by SHRP, are copied and filed for each TDR probe. A TDR probe is then connected to the Tektronix 1502B. The signal velocity of propagation is set at 0.99 by adjustment of the Vp knob on the Tektronix 1502B (it is set at .99 because that is the velocity of propagation through air) 1131.
The calibration process is accomplished in three steps. The TDR probe \ ~ i l first l
be shorted with a metal plate, then in air, and then in distilled water. In the first calibration, the Tektronix 1502B's vertical scale must be set at approximately 172 mpldiv. Then the left/right position knobs must be adjusted to read 40.000m. The Tektronix 1502B will display the reading at the top of the screen. Once this is set, a horizontal waveform will appear on the screen. Placing the metal plate between the TDR
29
prongs, will cause the TDR probe to short circuit. Then, the trace must fit within the screen by adjusting the upldown and left/right position knobs. The peak of the trace needs to be on the left dotted line on the screen. This gives the cable and probe a distance that enables the probe to monitor the surroundings. To conclude the first test, print the screen and fill in the necessary information on the data sheet. See Figure 3.9 for an example trace of a shorted probe.
.......... ..... 172 .. .............. 1 Noise Filter.. .... Power ...........

Cursor Distance/Div Vertical Scale..
VP
38.490 m -25 m/div ns/div 0.99 avs ac
. . . . . .. . !.... ! = ................... !/' . . . i;. . ' . '., 38.490 . m. . . . . i. . . . . ... . . .. . . .

---;----A
;----.----------------------------------. . . . . . : . . . ............................. , . . . . _ . .. .: , . ......................... , . . . . . .. .. .... . . .
.
I
:--------- I----2 .--- I - - i L ----
I om0 c?. ............. i.. . . . f ... . . i . . ... i , . ; i ; : :....:....: Input Trace : : .................. : : : : : : Stored Trace *:.... ....................... . . . Difference Trace -...--.... . . . , . . . .
.--.- . .----; . . 1----:

. . . a
-,---:
Figure 3.9: TDR Probe Shorted

For the remainder of the two tests, the 1eftJright position knobs should not be moved to ensure that the distance is constant where the probe measures. The second calibration places the TDR probe in air. To decrease chances of signal interference, the probe should be held 12-inches away from any object. All that is required for this test is the adjustment of the upldown position knobs so that all of the trace is on the screen, then
~ ; n n thz screela. From this printed trace, the dielectr;~ t constant of air can he calculated.
If the calculated value falls between 0.75 and 2.0 the probe passes for this accuracy
check. See Figure 3.10 for an example trace of a probe in air.
.......... 3 8 . 4 9 0 m ..... .25 m/div .. 172 rn@/div .............. 01. 9avs 9 Noise Filter.. .... F'ower ........... ac
C.ursor C~istance/Div Vertical Scale..
Vp
.-------------------------------------------------. . . , .
. m .
&ure
3.10: TDR Probe in air
The third calibration places the TDR probe in distilled water. The vertical scale is changed for this test to approximately 74.8 mpldiv. The TDR probe must be held by its cable and completely submerged. Once again adjust the upldown position knobs until the trace fits within the screen. Then the screen can be printed. The dielectric constant of water can be calculated from this printed trace. If the calculated constant is between 76 and 84, then the probe is considered accurate and field ready. See Figure 3.1 1 for an example of a trace in water.
--
..........38.490 n ...74 ,8 mldiv .25 Ytrtical ... /div .............. Noise Filter.. .... 1 Pover ........... ac
Cwsor Distance/Div..
VQ m9
0.99 avs
Figure 3.11: TDR Probe in water

3.5
Vertical Displacement Measurement Lucas Schaevitz DC operated Linear Variable Displacement Transformers (I.,VDT)were used to measure the vertical displacement of pavement layers and the \,urious base materials. Two different GPD-121 series LVDT's are installed in the U.S. Route 23. The GPD-121-250 DC type 3040 LVDT is shorter and is used in AC sections
31
where intermediate liR deflections are desired. The second LVDT used is the GPD-121500 DC type 3050. It is a longer LVDT and utilized in all the PCC sections and most AC
sec:tions. Figure 3.12 provides a pictorial illustration of both LVDTs. The welded, stainless steel construction permits the GPD series LVDT to be used in environmental conditions containing moisture, soil, and other contaminants.
Figure 3.12: Linear Variable Displacement Transducers.

The LVDT is an electromagnetic device that produces an electrical output
of proportional to the displacement of a separate movable core. It consis~s a primary coil
arid two secondary coils symmetrically spaced on a cylindrical form. A free-moving, rod-shaped magnetic core inside the coil assembly provides a path for the magnetic flux linking the coils. When the primary coil is energized by an external AC source, voltages are induced in the two secondary coils. These are connected in opposing series so the two voltages are of opposite polarity. Therefore, the net output of the transducer is the
32
difference between these voltages, which is zero when the core is at the center, or null, position. When the core is moved from the null position, the induced voltage in the coil toward which the core is moved increases, while the induced voltage in the opposite coil decreases. This action produces a differential voltage output that varies linearly with changes in core position. The phase of this output voltage changes abruptly by 180 degrees as the core is moved from one side of null to the other. The LVDT's used at the test site are configured so that one end of the movable core, sometimes referred to as the plunger, rests on a reference point and the other end is surrounded by the electromagnetic coils. A spring is utilized to bring the plunger back into the initial position after reading deflections. Table 3.2 gives necessary technical information of the LVDTs.
Table - 3.2:
---
L VDT Technical Specifications GPD-121-250 Excitation Voltage +15 V Range k0.25 in (6.35 mm)
40 voltslinch -18C to +70C (0F to 160F)
--
Sensitivity Operating Temperature Range
GPD-121-500 215 V k0.5 in (6.35 mm) 20 voltslinch -18C to +70C (0F to 160F)
LVDTs are used in a system called the Single Layer Deflectometer (SLD). There ;are two different SLD setups, termed the deep reference and shallow reference. The deep references LVDT measure deflection of the entire pavement system (pavement, base, and subgrade). The shallow references LVDT measure the deflection of just the pavement or the pavement and base, depending on where the shallow reference plate is located. In the l'ollowing Figure 3.13 a layout is shown of the LVDT's implemented in the US Route 23 project .
LVDT LAYOUT IN US ROUTE 23

MAP VIEW
0.762rn (2.5')
f I
Outside Wheel Path
1.067rn (3.5')
Center - Line
-TrafJic--+
- - - -& - - - - w
1.067ni (3.5')
I
1 2
PROFILE VIEW
Inside Wheel Path
0 762m
Figure 3.13: L VDT nzap ntzd p~.r)file views
CHAPTER POUR
Data Collection Method

4.1
Mobile Data Collection

The TDR data is collected on the test site using two watertight boxes. The first
box is dimensioned 30-inches by 17-inches by I l-inches. It holds the CRlO datalogger, the Tekronix 1502B Cable Tester and the battery pack. A figure of this setup is displayed irt Figure 4 1 The Tektronix Cable Tester is anchored to a bracket inside the watertight box This is to enable the cable tester to be lifted vertically to view the oscilloscope The Tektronix cable tester is powered through the CRlO by a PS 1502B power interface.
Figure 4.1: Tekronix Cable Tester and CRlO
35
The second watertight box is dimensioned 12-inches by 10-inches. It holds the CRREL multiplexing board and the TDR multiplexing boards. There are two TDR multiplexing boards because each multiplexing board only holds eight TDR probes. The sixteen sections, in Delaware, are equipped with ten TDR probes. The two watertight boxes are connected through three cables. One cable connects the CRlO interface to the TDRs and power. Another cable connects the Tektronix cable tester with the TDR multiplexing boards. The third cable connects the Tektronix cable tester signal generator to the TDR multiplexing board. This can all be seen in Figure 4.2.
Coax Jack
I
- TDR probe number
- Connector it! Resistit (37.pin I
- TDR Cornmunicstorl
Powrr (9.pin)
I
' TDR
Power (9-pin)
- 1502R Comrnunicutorl
Power f9.pin)
Battery
Pack
I
AC Adaptor Plug
L...
Figlcre 4.2: Mobile System
37
The TDR probes, located in the manhole, are pulled out and placed next to the smaller watertight box. Then all ten probes should be connected to the TDR multiplexer boards. The three cables from the cable tester must also be connected to the multiplexer board. The complete apparatus is shown in Figure 4.3.
4.2
Co~llputer and Software

I n the field, a laptop computer. is used to collect the mobile data 7'11~laptop is an
IRM compatible (Pentium 133). When the data is collected, it is stored in the hard drive. After the collection is complete the data is stored on an Ohio University file server.
The software used to collect the TDR probe data is called 'Graphterm'. At the DOS prompt enter 'CRlO', which will change the directory to the CRlO directory. Next, entering 'CRlOx' starts the program. Once in the program, the time is set and the section of the site must be selected. The program is user friendly and allows for a simple connection with the TDR probes. The CRlO program must be first downloaded to the CRlO to begin collection of the mobile data. This takes around twelve minutes for the program to run through all ten probes. Then the data is collected and saved to each site's directory. Once the data is collected, it can be viewed in a program called 'Mobfield'. This is a convenient method to ensure the data was collected correctly each time. The program Mobfield graphically displays all ten TDR probe traces. The program also displays the calculated dielectric constant and volumetric moisture content. The following three Figures are examples of hardcopy printouts from Mobfield. The figures contain TDR probe one, two, and three from section 3901 10.
m E-S I
File -:
3=9fjSJ-la
44:3 n .........j..........i .........:... . . . .

....... . ..........:. ......... i. . . . . . . ;
TDR O a b Set: Sensor Hnber:
...... ..;..........i.. ........ i.. ........
Offset:
Sample Ha:
1st Inflec. Point- B.62
.........................................
........................................
.......
. . .
.i.. ...... ..;.. ........i..........

1
Total 1 set(s1 data
A ;
8.8 1.8 2 .B 3.8 4.0 5.8 Escl)lerm; f 4; Ctr+PgWCtr+PglD-Priw/Hat Set; FS-ReJ Oata; F2-PmnScn: F&A,F9==8
Figure 4.4: TDR Probe #I
mm s TDR Data Set:
.......... ......... .......... j
; :
44.5
.,
F ,
i
.........
....................
:....
.................
..........I.. .... ..,;. ......... i.. ........

,,--; - - ; -L
-----
----.
Off set :
............................
.......... .:..........
i.. ........ i . .........

5.hl
4.6
;
F2-PmScn; F8=A,F9=B
Figure 4.5: TDR Probe #2
tEf?waaCTS
:
File
39SR98Sf*=
.......... ................................. ..........
TUR Data Set: sensor Hnber:
............................... ..........
i..........
Oct 14. 1ggf-J 16 : 59 C s btun W n . s: 0.62 lt h
..........(........ .;.. ....................................
......... ......... .......... ..........
Chin: Wfst :
Sarrple No:
1st Inflec. Point- 8.90 2nd Inf lec. Point- 2.m Appar. Length. PI = 1.lB
D i e l e k . Const.Uolurretr MC. %
29.9
44.3 ..........
......... ...........
..........i..........
Total 1 set(s) data

8 .8
2 -8
3.8
4.8
5.8
Figure 4.6: TDR Probe #3
4.3
LVDT Data Collection

The primary goal of this study was to determine the performance of the various
pav;:ment types using dynamic structural response data obtained from live axle testing and compare it with the TDR probe data to determine a correlation. Live axle testing is a non-destructive test performed using a series of three testing trucks, dynamic data acquisition systems, and several highly sensitive instruments. Summaries of the trucks and ( h t n ncql~i~;ition sycterns used as \$,ell as the
tclct
procrdl:re\ arc ~-~:.cct'ntcd foll~:lis :\c
4.3.1 Testing Trucks

Three testing trucks were used to collect dynamic data on the sections of the US Routr: 23. Two of the trucks were supplied by the Ohio Department of Transportation
41
(ODOT), and the third was leased from the National Research Council Canada. The data obtained for this analysis only used the two ODOT trucks. The two ODOT trucks used are primarily for snow removal and deicing. One of the trucks is a single axle dump truck with dual tires, while the second is a tandem axle with dual tires. The difference in axle numbers is used to gain different loading patterns and capacities from the wheel loading. To achieve different axle loading within each truck type, the truck is loaded with different amounts of aggregate. Portable scales were then used to measure each wheel loading. Tire pressures and footprints as well as axle spacing were determined and recorded.
4.3.2 Data Acquisition System

Megadac 5000 Series data acquisition systems were used to collect the nondestructive dynamic pavement response tests. The systems were manufactured and distributed by Optim Electronics from Gennantown, Maryland. The Megadac 01 16 AC Expansion Chassis was utilized along with the Megadac 5108 AC systems in order to obtain enough channels to read all dynamic instrumentation. The Megadac 5108 AC is a 16 bit data acquisition system that has a sampling rate up to 250,000 samples 1 second. It has a 16 mega-byte first-in / first-out data buffer. It is controlled using an IBM compatible PC with Optim's Test Control Software (TCS). The PC communicates through an interactive IEEE-488 communications bus. The Megadac communicates with the Expansion Chassis through a separate communication bus.
42
The testing consisted of running test trucks over instrumented test sections with the right wheel near to the defined wheel path. Data was collected and transferred to the
PC, and wheel-load offsets were recorded. Before testing began, all gages were located
and marked. The center of the right wheel path was also marked longitudinally 100 feet before the instrumented sections to help guide the drivers of the test trucks. The right wheel path is defined as being 30 inches from outside the edge of the pavement. After the test sections are prepared and the data acquisition systems are set up, gauges are balanced and inoperable gauges are noted. When all test sections are ready to record data, the trucks are passed over each test section at a constant speed. Each Dynamic Structural Response Test consists of multiple runs at various speeds of a particular wheel load, axle configuration, and tire classification. One of these variables is changed to go from one test to another. A complete test usually consists of running the truck at 3 to 4 different speeds with a minimum of three test runs at each speed. ODOT 12mployeesfollowing federal guidelines concerning predetermined speeds for the test. Some common speeds that are run are a creep (less than 5 mph), 10,30,40, and 50 mph. The data examined in this study uses the 40-mph runs.
4.3.3 Wheel Offsets It is necessary to know where the load~ng located, relative to the sensor, so was
:hat comylinsons can be made between dli'fcrent tests wthin a sect~on between and
1:flfferent sections. Some variations in wheel load location are desirable, to accurately I-vsemblethe characteristics of normal traffic loading. These variations were measured as
43
offsets from the outside of the right wheel loading to the center of instrumentation in the right wheel path. Location of the wheel loading was determined by placing a thin layer of moist sand in front of the first gage location and behind the last gage in each test section. When the test trucks drive over a test section, the truck would leave an imprint of the last set of wheels into the sand. The offsets were then recorded at the beginning and end of each test section. The data analyzed for this paper omitted the offsets by choosing specific runs where the offsets where approximately equal.
4.3.4
Recording Data
When collecting data with a trigger function, the Megadac is first armed. The
Megadac begins to scan and store data when armed. The memory is continuously overwritten, in a first-in / first-out format, until the user triggers the system. Once the Megadac has been triggered, it starts saving the ensuing data in addition to keeping a specified amount of pre-trigger data. To stop saving the data, another trigger is utilized. The Megadac saves a specified amount of post-trigger data after the recording has been stopped. After the desired data has been recorded and saved on the Megadac, it must be transferred to the host computer. The data is transferred to the PC because the Megadac works off limited amounts of random access memory (RAM) and would loose all memory if power were lost. The run number, data set number, speed, wheel offsets, and tmck type are written into tables after each run. The data tables for the LVDT analysis can be found in Appendix D.
CHAPTER FIVE
Data Analysis
5.1
Types of Bases
The U.S. Rt. 23 project was designed to experiment between a variety of base
materials and to compare the effects on the pavement performance between the different b,ase types. The five base types used in the project are dense graded aggregate base (IIGAB), lean concrete base (LCB), asphalt treated base (ATB), permeable asphalt treated base (PATB), and permeable cement treated base (PCTB). The four bases found in the environmental sections (sections containing TDR probes) are discussed below. The compositions of the sections discussed in this paper can be found in Chapter 3 in Table 3.1.
5.1.1 Dense Graded Aggregate Base (DGAB)

The Ohio Department of Transportation defines the dense graded aggregate base as Item 304. DGAB is composed of crushed gravel, crushed air-cooled slag, crushed ca~bonate stone, granulated slag, and a combination of crushed and granulated slags. The gradation specification is summarized in Table 5.1.
Table 5.1: DGAB Sieve Analysis

Sieve 38.1 mm 25.4 mm 19.05mm NO. 4 NO. 30 No. 200
Total Percent Passing (%) 100 70- 100 50-90 30-50 7-30 0-10
Due to this bases aggregate distribution, the DGAB is very dense and can easily be compacted. The ODOT sets the standards on the compaction, gradation, elevation and aggregate quality of the base.
I
5.1.2 Lean Concrete Base (LCB)

This base meets the standards of ODOT Item 305 and is a Portland cement concrete. There were changes made to the ODOT Item 305 to meet some of the provisions. The lean concrete base uses number 57 stone for the coarse aggregate and the requirements of Item 305 are used for the fine aggregate.
5.1.3 Asphalt Treated Base (ATB)

The asphalt treated bases meets the requirements of ODOT Item 301. Table 5.2 presents the gradation specifications for the aggregate used in the ATB.
Table 5.2: ATB Sieve Analysis

Sieve
50.8 mm 38.1 mm 19.05 mm . 9.525 mm NO.4 NO. 8 NO. 16 NO.30 NO. 50 N0.200
,
Total Percent Passine 100 85-100 56-80 37-60 22-45 14-35 8-25 6-18 4-13 2-6
The first lift is placed at a depth of 150 mm. The remaining lifts are placed at a depth of 100 mm. The ATB is formulated to have a 3-5 percent air voids, a minimum void of mineral aggregate of 11.5 percent and a 3-8 percent bitumen content.
5.1.4 Permeable Asphalt Treated Base (PATB)

This base is an open-graded aggregate base bound with an asphalt binder. There is a 2-2.5 percent asphalt binder content in the PATB. The number 57 stone is used as the aggregate in the PATB. The base is designed as a free draining base because of the large volume of voids. One drawback of the PATB is that the large volume of voids makes it structurally weak. Placing harsh limitations upon the use of this base and mixing the PATB with other base materials rectifies this. But one of the positi~re attributes of the PATB is that it has excellent drainage capability
5.1.5
Edge Drains and Filter Fabrics

The sections with permeable bases have geotextiles and edge drains placed in
them. This is to filter out sediment. The sediment is very fine and mixed with a coarse
47
aggregate, which can reduce the friction angle and cause a decrease in the stability of the base. The edge drains are designed to remove the water from the pavement to ensure the base remains structurally sound.
5.2
TDR Analysis
Data was collected for the sixteen environmental sections from August of 1996 to
present. This was a joint effort with Ohio University, Case Western Reserve University, Ohio State University, and University of Toledo. The following sections will discuss the environmental sections and observations will be made about the base type and drainage. The analysis will look at the gravimetric moisture content graphs. When examining the graphs discontinuities are do to missing TDR probe data. The volumetric moisture content graphs can be found in Appendix A. For the complete make up of the sections refer to Table 3.1 in Chapter 3.
5.2.1
Dense Graded Aggregate Base ( undrained 1

There are four environmental sections that have the DGAB and no drainage.
They are sections 390201,390202. 390203, and 390204. The gravimetric moisture content versus time graphs for these sections are shown in Figures 5.lthrough 5.4. Only the top three TDR probes were graphed in each section. This was done for all the sections to specifically look at moisture changes in the base and directly below in the subgrade. Only TDR probe one was located in the DGAB, while the remaining nine TDR probes where located in the subgrade (refer back to Chapter 3, Figure 3.6, for the
RT 23 390201 TDR Probe Data
I+TDR
Probe 1
1
I -+ Probe 2 TDR
, -A-
TDR Probe 3 1
Time (months)
Figure 5.1 : Gravimetric Moisture Content Section 390201
1 tTDR Probe 1 !
1
1 tTDR Probe 2
~1 --A-
TDR Probe 3 i
Lpppp
-
Jun-97
Sep-97 Time (months)
Jan-98
Figure 5.2: Gravimetric Moisture Content Section 390202
/+ TDR Probe 1 ' 1 + Probe 2 TDR

I -A-
TDR Probe 3
Time (months)
52
profile of typical section). The overall averages were computed for each of the top three probes over the two and a half-year study period. The data is displayed in Table 5.3.
Table 5.3: DGAB Moisture Data (undrained)
I
DGAB No Drain
Gravimetric Moisture Content (%) Average over 2.5 Years Section TDR 1 TDR 2 TDR3 201 14.95 20.57 20.60 17.64 20.1 1 202 18.21 13.88 203 20.66 21.55 12.50 204 17.68 21.04
It is visible that TDR one, in all four sections, has the lowest gravimetric moisture content. The averages where computed using Microsoft Excel for the first 13 months (August 1996 - August 1997) and then the last 15 months (September 1997 - December 1998). This was to observe if there was an increase in the moisture content over the entire study period. It can be noted that there is an increase in the gravimetric moisture content in the second half of the data collection (September 1997 - December 1998). The data charts can be seen in Appendix B. The gravimetric data was then compared with the piezometer data (water table data) and can be found in Appendix C. The increase in the gravimetric moisture content in the last 15 months was not due to an increase in the water table, because the piezometer readings remained relatively constant over the entire two and a half-year study period.
5.2.2 Dense Graded Aggregate Base ( drained )

In the U.S. Rt. 23 project, there is one environmental section with the DGAB and drainage. It is section 390263. Although the drainage is applied to this section and the
TDR probe one is located in the DGAB, there is no significant reduction in gravimetric
53
moisture content when compared to the DGAB with no drainage. The moisture data can be found in Table 5.4.
Table 5.4: DGAB Moisture Data (drained)
DGAB (no drain)
Gravimetric Moisture Content (%) Average over 2.5 Years Section TDR 1 TDR 2 TDR 3 263 12.30 18.36 19.27
The gravimetric graph for this section is found in Figure 5.5. This section also showed an increase in the average gravimetric moisture content during the last 15 months (September 1997 - December 1998) when compared to the first 14 months (August 1996
- August 1997). The complete data table for this section can be found in Appendix B.
5.2.3 Lean Concrete Base ( undrained )

There are two environmental sections with the LCB and no drainage basins. The sections are 390205 and 390208. The gravimetric moisture content graphs can be found in Figures 5.6, 5.7. The overall averages for each section are summarized in Table 5.5.
Table 5.5: LCB Moisture Data
C-
I NO Drain t
-
LCH --
0 Section 1 TDR - I TDR 2 ( TDK 3 -- 1

-
Gravimetric Moisture Content (96)

I
20.5 .
208
2oi? -. 12.79
-
2011
--
15.71
2046 14.59
All TDR's in this section are located in the subgrade. The average gravimetric moisture content \\.as taken for the flrst 14 months and remaining 15 months. Again. an increase wTas observed in the last 15 months. The piezometer data showed that the elevation of the
% % %
-+-TDR Probe 1
-4-A-
TDR Probe 2 TDR Probe 3

-
Time (months)
57
water table over the study period has remained relatively constant. The piezometer data can be found in Appendix C. The complete data sheets can be found in Appendix B.
5.2.4
Asphalt Treated Base ( undrained )

There is only one environmental section with the ATB and no drainage basin. It
is section 390104. The gravimetric moisture content graph can be found in Figure 5.8. This section has the highest values for average gravimetric moisture content. It must be noted that all the TDR probes are located in the subgrade. The average gravimetric moisture contents, for the first three TDR probes, can be found in Table 5.6.
Table 5.6: A TB Moisture Data

Gravimetric Moisture Content (9%) Average over 2.5 Years Section TDR 1 TDR 2 TDR 3 104 2 1.55 21.76 22.44
ATB (no drain)
Again, the averages where divided into the first 14 months and the last 15 months. An increase was noticed in the last half. This section was compared to the piezometer data and TDR probe three did come into contact with ground water approximately five times (refer to the piezometer data in Appendix C). This can account for the high averages of gravimetric moisture content in this section.
5.2.5 Permeable Asphalt Treated Base / Dense Graded Aggregate Base ( drained
There are three environmental sections with the combination PATB 1 DGAB base wit? drainage. The sections are 39021 1, 390212, and 390108. The gravimetric moisture content graphs can be found in Figures 5.9 through 5.1 1. The averages of the top three
TI)R probes over the study period can be found in Table 5.7.
/ --tTDR Probe I ;
1-AI
1 -m-
TDR Probe 2 I TDR Probe 3
Time (months)
Figure 5.8: Gravimetric Moisture Content Section 390 104
Table 5.7: PA TB/DGAB Moisture Data

Gravimetric Moisture Content (%)
TDR probe one, in all three sections, is located in the DGAB. It is noticeable that these sections have a low gravimetric moisture content when compared to the other sixteen environmental sections. Also, when the averages were computed for the first half of the sections and compared to the second half, there was a significant increase in the TDR probe's gravimetric moisture content. The piezometer data can be found in Appendix C.
5.2.6 Asphalt Treated Base / Permeable Asphalt Treated Base / Dense Graded
The sections with the combinations of ATB, PATB, and DGAB are 390901 and 390904 (otherwise known as the SPS-9 sections). The graphs for these sections can be found in Figures 5.12, 5.13. The Table 5.8 follows with the computed averages for the top three TDR probes.
I---
Table 5.8: A TB/PATB/DGAB Moisture Data

Gravimetric Moisture Content (5%) Average over 2.5 E ears TDR3 Section TDR 2 TDR 1 18.12 18.63 901 4.68 903 1 13.08 1 18.44 1 17.52
I Drain
ATBPATBIDGAB
TDF: probe one, for both sections, is located in the DGAB. Section 901 has the lowest
grav.~metric moisture content of all observed sections. In Appendix C, the piezometer data shows that the water table levels for these sections. Again the averages were
65
computed for the first half and second half. There is a significant increase in the second half of the data collection.
5.2.7
Asphalt Treated Base 1 Permeable Asphalt Treated Base ( drained )

The combination of ATB and PATB can be found in sections 3901 10 and 3901 12.
The gravimetric moisture content graphs can be found in Figure 5.14, 5.15. The averages for the top three TDR probes were calculated and can be found in Table 5.9.
Table 5.9: A TB/PATB Moisture Data

Gravimetric Moisture Content (%)
ATBIPATB Drain
112
21.32 21.10
20.77 17.71
19.69 19.19
All TDR probes are located in the subgrade. The data does show that over time the overall average gravimetric moisture content does increase over the last fifteen months. This combination base did have relatively high moisture contents when compared to the other sections. The data examined with the TDR probes did reveal that drainage in pavements base did serve its purpose. The drainage did remove infiltrated water from the base, which lowered the gravimetric moisture content. This was evident in sections 39021 1,
7902t53 arid ?b?C3C11. %?hen examining a11 four hast: ;:.pcs,
asphalt treated b;ise (ATE)
seems to be much higher in gravimetric moisture content as seen in section 390104. This can also be seen in sections 3901 10, and 3901 12, which consist of ATB and PATB. Overall, the most drained sections seemed to be those with dense graded aggregated base (DG.4.B) and edge drains. Also, the combination of ATB / PATB / DGAB revealed relatj tZely low moisture contents as seen in section 39090 1.
, -+- TDR Probe 1 '

--t-TDR Probe 2 ,
I
+TDR
Probe 3
Time (months)
Figure 5.14: Gravimetric Moisture Content Section 390 1 10
5.3
LVDT Analvsis
Since August of 1996, when the TDR probes were collecting data, Ohio
University was also collecting the LVDT data. This was completed about every season. The specific LVDT runs in August 1996, July 1997 and October 1998 were looked at for sections 390201, 390204,390205, 390208 and 390212. The LVDT deflection data for these sections was analyzed, graphed and then compared with the TDR gravimetric moisture content data. Refer back to Figure 3.13 to see layout of LVDT's. The LVDT data examined in these sections were located along the edge of the pavement. These are LVDT 7 through LVDT 16 in the data tables (see Appendix D). Refer back to Chapter 3 for the layout of the LVDT's in Figure 3.13. This was to ensure that the data analysis was more uniform and that the deflections where analyzed in the same place for each section. Test portions were chosen from each run with all offsets being relatively the same. This allowed the offsets to be disregarded. The two vehicles used for these test runs were ODOT single axle and double axle trucks. The five sections observed over the study period all showed a definite trend that over time, the LVDT deflections increased. This is shown graphically in Figures 5.16 through 5.25. One possible reason for the increase in deflection is pavement and base dete~ioration over time. Another observation was that for the same sections, the grav~metric moisture content increased over the same time period. This is displayed in Figures 5.26 through 5.30.
LVDT Data (Single Axle) 390201 (RT 23)
r-t
LVDT 7 7
+ 13 1 LVDT
-LVDT
14
1
-
0
Mar-97 Jun-97 Sep-97
- ---'-T"-
May-96
Aug-96
Dec-96
Jan-98
Apr-98
Jul-98
Nov-98
Feb-99
Date (months)
Figure 5.16: LVDT Deflections Section 39020 1
mi0)
cy
% U N ~ 3 1
.E
Q
V)
9 0
l'l
V)
"
o q
LVDT Data (Single Axle) 390205 JRT23)
I
-
--
08
p p
--
+ 8 LVDT
--t LVDT 9 LVDT 10
E -
2 0 6
--
+LVDT
12
LVDT 14
LVDT 15
May-96
Aug-96
Dec-96
Jan-98
Apr-98
Jul-98
Nov-98
Feb-99
Date (months)
Figure 5.20: LVDT Deflections Section 390205
iI
k
May-96
Aug-96
Dec 3 6
Mar-97
Jun-97
Sep-97
Jan-98
Apr-98
Jut-98
Nov-98
Feb-99
Date (months)
LVDT Data (Tandem Axle) 390208 (RT 23)
-+
/+LVDT7 I +LVDT 8 +LVDT 9 i tLVDT 10 r iY--LVDT I I LVDT 12 +LVDT 13 LVDT 14 -LVDT 15
,
Dee%
May-96
Aug-96
Mar-97
Jun-97
Sep-97
Jan-98
Apr-98
Jul-98
Nov-98
Feb-99
Date (months)
+LVDT 7 +LVDT 8 +LVDT 9

-+ + --JtLVDT 10 LVDT 11 --t-LVDT 12 LVDT 13 LVDT 14 LVDT 15 LVDT 16
I -+-
May-96
Aug-96
Dec-96
Jan-98
Apr-98
Jul-98
Nov-98
Feb-99
Date (months)
Figure 5.24: LVDT Deflections Section 3902 12
LVDT Data (Tandem Axle) 390212 (RT 23)
-+LVDT
7 i
+ 8 LVDT
- -LVDT 9 4 +LVDT 1 0
+LVDT
+LVDT
11
+LVDT 13 I
12
7 1 -
,
Jan-98 Apr-98 Jut-98 Nov-98 Feb-99
May-96
Aug-96
Dec-OG
Mar-97
Jun-97
Sep-97
Date (months)
Figure 5 2 5 : LVDT Deflections Section 3902 12
84
The combined graphs help illustrate the definite increase of the moisture content and deflection over time. As this project continues forward it will be demonstrated even further how possible moisture content can effect pavement deflection.
CHAPTER SIX Conclusions and Recommendations
6.1
Conclusion
The overall data collection was a success. The TDR probes have remained
accurate and reliable since they were installed. With the joint effort from the supporting universities, data has been collected continuously since August 1996. The LVDTs have also proven to be very accurate and reliable. When used together, the data collected from both the LVDTs and TDR probes have been useful in proving that increased moisture content can increase pavement deflection. The objectives set forth earlier have all been accomplished. Time Domain Reflectometry (TDR) has been examined and explained for soil moisture data collection.
Data collection using TDR's and LVDT's have been described and illustrated in relation
to the U.S. Rt. 23 project. The data was graphed to show its usefulness for examinations of base type and drainage. The analysis of the data has shown that drainage plays an important role removing moisture from the pavement base. Graphically, it has been shown that deflection has increased over the past two and a half year study period. The moisture content has risen over the same study period. This
demonstrates that increased moisture content in the soil can lead to increased pavement deflection. The increased moisture content coupled with the increase in pavement deflection can be attributed to pavement deterioration over time. Also, the differing base types do display variation in the moisture content of pavements. The bases that have performed well in filtering out moisture are PATB coupled with DGAB and ATB with PATB and DGAB. These sections recorded the lowest gravimetric moisture contents when compared to all sixteen sections. Both base types are equipped with drainage pipes. DGAB and PATB are known for being very permeable and when paired together preformed well. The semi-sealed base types of LCB and ATB recorded the highest gravimetric moisture content. Both types of bases where not equipped with drainage pipes. Since LCB is made partly of concrete and ATB is made partly of asphalt it is known for returning possible higher moisture content values.
6.2
Recommendations Some recommendations are to ensure data collection of the LVDT for the sixteen
environmental sections every season. This allows for the data to be analyzed more precisely and continuously. Also, a longer-term trend can be identified. The TDR soil moisture data must be taken at the inflection points, Figure 2.1 cic.monsirates the location of the points. This must be done for the dielectric constant and ~~olumetric moisture content to be calculated correctly. Also, having the TDR Probe data graphed every month will make it readily available for examination.
may be a possible explanation for high moisture readings in the subgrade. The capillary action could also be a possible reason for the high pavement deflection in the subgrade.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
(1)
Topp, G.C., and J.L. Davis. "Measurement of Soil Water Content Using Timedomain Reflectometry (TDR): A Field Evaluation". Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 49:19-24 (1985). Topp, G.C., J.L. Davis and A.P. Annan. "Electromagnetic Determination of Soil Water Content Using TDR 11. Evaluation of Installation and Configuration of Parallel Transmission Lines". Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 46:678-684 (1982).
(2)
(3
Roth, Kurt, Rainer Schulin , Hannes Fluhler and Werner Attinger. "Calibration of Time Domain Reflectometry for Water Content Measurement Using a Composite Dielectric Approach". Water Resources Research 26:22672273 (1990). Ledieu, J., P.DE Ridder, P.DE Clerck and S. Dautrebande. "A Method of Measuring Soil Moisture by Time Domain Reflectomerty". Journal of Hydrology 88:319-328 (1986).
(4:)
(5)
Klemunes, John. "Determining Soil Volumetric Moisture Content Using Time Domain Reflectometry". Office of Engineering R&D Federal Highway Administration, McLean, VA. (1998).
St1lcId:;d, dnles. ' A Irne - BoniciillRefie~io;iictry e a ~ ~ l ~ ~Tehtroil:~ M i-nts". ,
Inc., Oregon (1970).
(7)
Case Western Reserve University, University of Toledo, Ohio State University and Ohio University. "Instrumentation of Ohio S m P Test Pavement Part 11 - Seasonal Instrumentation". Ohlo Department of Transportation and Federal Highway Administration (1998). Ohio University CGER. "Development of an Instrumentation Plan for-the Ohio
() 8
SPS Test Pavement (DEL-23-17.48)". Ohio Department of Transportation and Federal mghway Administration (1994). Marienfield, Mark and Thomas Baker. "Paving Fabric Interlayer System as a Pavement Moisture Barrier". Transportation Research Board No.98 1112 (1997). Ferre, P.A., D.L. Rudolph and R.G. Kachanosh. "Water Content Response of a Profiling Time Domain Reflectometry Probe". Soil Sci. Soc. Am J. 621865-873 (1998). Topp, G.C., S.J. Zegelin and I. White. "Monitoring Soil Water Content Using TDR: An Overview of Progress". Time Domain Reflectometry in Environmental, Infrastructure, and Mining Applications, Northwestern University (1994). Andrews, James. "Time Domain Reflectometry". Time Domain Reflectometry in Environmental, Infrastructure, and Mining Applications, Northwestern University (1994). Macioce, Damon. "Performance of Instrumented Flexible Pavements". Masters Thesis, Ohio University, Athens, Ohio (1997). Knight, John H., Ian White and Steven J. Zegelin. "Sampling Volume of TDR Probes Used for Water Content Monitoring". Time Domain Reflectometry in Environmental, Infrastructure, and Mining Applications, Northwestern University (1994). Goldsberry, B. "Thermal Effect Curling of Concrete Pavements on U.S. 23 Test Road (DCL 23-17.28)". Thesis, Ohio University, Athens, Ohlo (1998).
(9)
(10)
(1 1)
(12)
(13) (13)
(15 )
APPENDIX A
Volumetric Moisture Graphs
APPENDIX B
Moisture Content Data Tables
Section 201
Average Stand. Dev.

37.8
1
9.3
34.4 44.5 36.4 40.4
I
1
27.5 8.7
1 1
37.8 5.5
Average 1 Stand.Dev.1
14.9 4.8 14.4 16.0
1 1
~B. 1 b ~~i~~~~~D~~~ l ~ Section 390201
Ave (1st half) Ave (2nd half)
20.6 5.1 18.7 24.2
1 1
1 1
20.6 3.0
Ave half) Ave (2nd half)
1 1
26.4 29.5
1 1 1
1 1
~
19.8
22.0
1 1
1 1
t t
2? !
-z -2
tr!
-2
- 4
-sg d = 5 z, -- N
2 2
Section 203
Average Stand. Dev.

39.5 5.5 37.1 42.1 41.2 3.8 39.4 43.1
1 1
2:;.5 73
25.9 27.4
1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1
Average Stand. Dev.
1 1
Table B.3: Moisture Data Section 390203
Ave (1st hat0 Ave (2nd hat0
13.9 3.8
1 1
1 1
13.6 14.3
20.7 2.9
1 1
1 1
19.4 22.0
21.6 2.0
Ave (1st half) Ave(2nd half)
1 1
1 1
20.6 22.6
Section 204
Average Stand. Dev.

34.3 3.0
1 1 1
40.8 3.4 40.5 41.0
24.0 4.4
1 1
Average Stand. Dev. (
1
A ~ (1~'half) 1 e ~ve(2ndhal01
12.4 2.3 12.7 122
1 1
1 1
17.7 1.5
1 1
17.4 17.9
21.0 1.8
Ave (1st ha10 1 Ave(2nt1half) 1

33.8 34.7
24.6 23.6
1 1
1 1
1 1
20.9 21.2
Section 263
m--ml
1 1
34.0 35.7 36.9 36.2
Stand. Dev.
Average 1 Stand. Dev. )
12.3 0.7
1 1
Ave ( l s t h a l ~1 Ave (2nd half) 1
12.3 12.3
18.4 1.1
1 I
17.9
18.8
19.3 1.1
Ave ( 1 5 t half) 1 ~ v (2nd halo1 e
23.3 23.3
1 1
1 1
1 1
19.4 19.1
Section 104
Average Stand.Dev.
39.9 7.1 41.1 4.5
1 1 1 1
37.1 42.9 39.6 42.7
39.5 5.6
1 1
1 1 1 1
Average Stand. Dev.
1 1
Ave (1st halo Ave (2nd half)
21.6 3.0
1 1 1 1
19.7 23.4
21.8 3.9
1 1 1 1
20.2 23.4
22.4 2.5
Ave(Isthaln Ave (2nd half)
1 1
36.1 42.9
1 1
21.6 23.3
09 "1
22
-7 09
22
-'J? ' ? J
2 13
-C 2 5 z, N
"
-
:"c
$ $ *4 -
APPENDIX C
Water Table Data
awa
ZUI full U01 9116 OLIL L119 Z11S PIIP 61lf SUZ 8610UI SUI1 Ll1Ol YU6 OU8 OllL Lily 611s I
151
UP
YUl
Zllt
XI1Z
; W l i l l 9MLIISI
(laaal eas aaoqe 'JJ) 'aala a[qe,L .We&
(laaal eas aaoqe 'lj)'aal3 alqeL JatEM
CI
c c
-t
10
"C
d *
rn -,
(Iaaal eas aaoqe .$J).aa13 alqej JaleM
APPENDIX D
L VDT Data Tables
Section 201 LVDT DATA SINGLE AXLE
LVDTIO
0.517
TANDEM AXLE
LVDT10 LVDTI 1 LVDT12
0.749 0.722 0.122
Table D. 1: LVDT Data Tables Section 390201
TANDEM AXLE
Table D.2: LVDT Data Tables Section 390204
LVDT 10 LVDT 12 LVDT 13 LVDT 15

0.148 0.193
1.117 0.135 0.089 0.353 0.385
LVDT 14 LVDT 15 LVDT 16
TANDEM AXLE
0.105
LVDT 10 LVDT 11
0.260 0.307
1.014
LVDT 13 LVDT 15
LVDT 15
0.308
LVDTll LVDT 12 LVDT 13 LVDT 14
TANDEM AXLE
ILVDTl51 LVDT 16
LVDTlO LVDT11 LVDT 12 LVDT 13 LVDT14
Section 212 LVDT DATA
SINGLE AXLE
LVDTlO LVDTl 1 LVDT 13 LVDTl5 LVDT 16
0.090 0.133 0.087
1 ::;:;1
TANDEM AXLE
LVDT9 LVDT 10 LVDT 11 LVDT 12 LVDT 13 LVDT 14 LVDT 15
0.145 0.252 0.254 0.068 0.077 0.127 0.252
NAME
Wheel 2 Peak (mm)

0.064
LVDT7
LVDT 10 LVDT11 0.205
0.274
LVDT 13
LVDTl5 LVDT 16 $ ) I : :
0.168
LVDT 13
0.116 0.291
LVDT 15
Table D.5: LVDT Data Tables Section 3902 12

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THE EFFECTS OF SOIL MOISTURE ON PAVEMENT SYSTEMS

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for the Degree Master of Science

Rrei~dn?? Grenlis, and the C o m i n s b jirinil? h a v e given me t h e stamina and couraFe to

Chapter Two: Review of Relevant Literature

TDR Probe ..................................................................................................... 9

Influences of the Dielectric Constant ................................................12

2.5.3 Two Calculation Approaches Using TDR Response ........................ 14

Chapter Three: Project Description 3.1 Project Description ........................................................................................17

3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5

4.3.3 Wheel Offsets .................................................................................... 42 4.3.4 Recording Data .................................................................................. 43

Chapter Five: Data Analysis Types of Bases ............................................................................................... 44 5.1

TDR Analysis ...............................................................................................7 4

Chapter Six: Conclusions and Recommendations 6.1 Conclusion .....................................................................................................

Bibliography .......................................................................................................... 88 Appendices A. B.

List of Figures Figure

Complete Field Apparatus ............................................................................. 37 TDR Probe #1 ................................................................................................

TDR Probe #2 ................................................................................................ 39 TDR Probe #3 ................................................................................................ 40

List of Tables Tables

Moisture Data 390208 ...................................................................................113

Moisture Data 390104 ...................................................................................

List of Equations Equation

Chapter Six discusses conclusions and recommendations on the data obtained in

Neutron Moderation & Gamma Attenuation

2.5.1 Method of TDR

ExtrapolationUnes for ing infiedon points)

f'igurr 2.1: L, Trace

The computed dielectric constant is referred to as the 'apparent dielectric constant', K,

[ti], The apparent dielectric constant, K,, is defined as follows:

Q = (-.053 + .0293 Ka - ,00055 K :

This equation utilizes the density of water ( , p)

and the dry density of the soil (pd). The

rrravimetric water content is also given as a percentage.

:2,5.2 Influences of the Dielectric Constant

2 5 3 Two Calculation Approaches Using TDR Response ..

+ .0000043 Ka ') * 100

A major advantage in using this equation is no gravimetric or volumetric soil properties

= -233, B = 285, C = -4.3, D = 0.030 (7 organic)

= 0.1138SQRT(K,) 3 . 3 8 ~0.1529 (mineral soil) ~

. "a"fitted to data from Jacobsen

= 0.66 (10mineral soils) = K t - Qbw(ebwa- ahya) (1 - f)e," - fe,"l(e;- e,"),

=0.49, 0.50, 0.52, 0.54, 0.60, 0.61, C.81

2. "a"fitted to data from

a = 0.70 (10 mineral soils)

Jacobsen & Schjonning

US Route 23 Test Site - Delaware, Ohio

Figure 3.1: Route 23 Test Site

Table 3.1: Make Up o Sections f

Asphalt Concrete (AC) Sections

Drainage NO Y bS Y bS YES YES

SPS-1: The Strategic Study of Structural Factors for Flexible Pavement

Figure 3.2: Oventiew of Test Site

The TDR System

Figure 3.3: TDR Probe

Figure 3.4: CRlO Datalogger

Figure 3.6: Layout o the TDR Svstem f

TDR LA L:T MAP' P7E IP1'0 IN

Figure 3.7: Layout of TDR

Figure 3.8: Profile of Typical TDR Probe Section in US Route 23

Calibration of a TDR Probe

.......... ..... 172 .. .............. 1 Noise Filter.. .... Power ...........

38.490 m -25 m/div ns/div 0.99 avs ac

. . . . . .. . !.... ! = ................... !/' . . . i;. . ' . '., 38.490 . m. . . . . i. . . . . ... . . .. . . .

;----.----------------------------------. . . . . . : . . . ............................. , . . . . _ . .. .: , . ......................... , . . . . . .. .. .... . . .