Impedance and phase balancing of mains-frequency induction furnaces

J.F. Tremayne
Indexing term: Industrial applications of power Abstract: The impedance presented to the supply by coreless and channel induction furnaces used for melting and holding metals is not constant. Many such furnaces are designed for single-phase working and their power supplies often include components to enable a balanced load to be taken from a 3-phase system. Owing to the varying furnace impedance, such balancing components are designed to be variable and are often operated by the furnaceman. Variation in furnace impedance is largely due to the condition of the furnace-lining refractory for a given metal charge, and it is useful to the foundry user to monitor this condition by assessing changes in impedance. The basic action of the induction furnace and approximate formulas for the calculation of furnace impedance, together with methods of phase balancing, are described in an attempt to assist furnace users in monitoring the condition of their plant. Examples of calculation and the use of a furnacecondition diagram are given. However, the formulas used are intended to serve as a guide and by no means do they fully describe the complex electromagnetic conditions which exist, normally requiring solutions to magnetic-flux problems in three dimensions.

Introduction

Most coreless and channel induction furnaces are designed for single-phase working and often represent a large proportion of the connected load of a consumer's installation. If such loads are taken from the 3-phase supply system, and adequate phasebalancing arrangements are not made, electrical equipment forming the consumer's installation, together with that of the supply system would have to be designed to withstand greater loads than would be the case if the load was balanced. Other effects of imbalance, particularly the effect on motor performance, are listed in References 1 and 2. It would be most unlikely, owing to varying utilisation, that three single-phase furnaces, if connected to the three phases of the supply system, would constitute a balanced load. It is therefore necessary to provide each furnace power supply with adequate balancing facilities. The load impedance of an induction furnace varies, so that it is necessary to provide variable balancing components. Generally, a small variation in load impedance produces a comparatively large imbalance in the supply-line currents. Various balancing systems are available and are described in Reference 3. One such system, used for balancing at unity power factor, is very widely used. Any manual control of phase balancing afforded to the furnace operator should be simple and straightforward, while at the same time providing the foundry electrical maintenance department with the information required to check the condition of the powersupply components and the furnace itself.
2 2.1 Principle of induction furnace General

presented to the supply is shown. This reactance is due to flux which does not mutually link the windings. Some of this flux may be regarded as being confined to the coil winding cross-section, the remainder being in the gap between the coils. RCL and XMAG are shown shunting the supply voltage and represent the effective resistance corresponding to the transformer-core loss, and the effective reactance determining the core magnetising current, respectively. NP and Ns are the number of turns on the primary and secondary windings, respectively.
ND Nc

supply voltage

load

Fig. 1

Transformer equivalent circuit

R X

C *

W *

supply voltage

Fig. 2 Induction furnace equivalent circuit

Both channel and coreless induction furnaces are electrically analogous to the transformer, and approximate solutions of the electrical characteristics can be obtained, using formulas derived for induction-heating applications [4]. Fig. 1 shows a typical transformer equivalent circuit, in which the total resistance R of the transformer presented to the supply represents the primary winding resistance plus the secondary winding resistance referred to the primary. Similarly, the total leakage reactance X of the transformer
Paper 2400B(P4), first received 12th August and in revised form 17th December 1982 The author is with the Electrometallurgy Section of the Electricity Council Research Centre, Capenhurst, Chester CHI 6ES, England IEEPROC, Vol. 130, Pt. B, No. 3, MA Y 1983

Fig. 2 shows a simplified equivalent circuit representing an induction furnace. The load, which is the charge in a coreless furnace or the loop of metal in a channel furnace, may be represented by a single secondary winding referred to the primary, the turns ratio being the number of turns on the furnace coil. R now represents the furnace coil resistanceR c , plus the charge resistance Rw, and X represents the furnace coil reactance Xc, the charge reactance Xw, and the gap reactance XG. RCL and XMAG have little effect when compared with R and X and have been omitted from Fig. 2. The division of R and X into these components is the procedure adopted in Reference 4 in order to derive formulas characterising the impedance of the system. Reference 5 points out some limitations on the use of these formulas and the interpretation of the simple series electrical equivalent circuits.
161

2.2

Furnace resistance

Ho = permeability, Hm

Rc and Rw have values greater than the DC resistance given by

K

fir = material relative permeability co = 2nf(f= frequency, Hz)

DC

el

a where p is the material resistivity, / the length of current path, and a the area presented to the current flow. Modification of the DC formula is required, because of conductor skin effect. This effect causes current to flow near the surface of the conductor (in the furnace coil, coreless-furnace charge, and channel-furnace loop). Maximum current flows on the skin of the conductor and falls off exponentially towards the centre of the conductor, but, for approximate solutions, it is adequate to assume that the current flows uniformly through an area defined by the current penetration depth 5 given:
5 =

(1)

Formulas for the approximate solution of Rc and Rw are given in Section 3 and Fig. 3.
2.3 Furnace impedance

By definition [4], the alternating current flowing through the furnace coil sets up three components of flux. These are the flux linking the charge, that in the gap between the coil and charge, and that passing through the coil-winding crosssection. Fig. 4 and 5 indicate these fluxes diagramatically. The components of flux result in impedances presented to the supply, such that Rc+JXc represents the resistance and reactance of the furnace coil, Rw + j'Xw represents the

(2)

HP"

furnace charge

furnace lining

where 5 = depth of current penetration, m p = material resistivity,

fj^coil

/furncce

furnace [-charge

furnace /lining

flux giving rise to

furnace coil N r turns

coreless furnace

laminated core

furnace coil N c turns

channel

6C

channel furnace
Fig. 3
lK/(N+l)

Cross-section of furnace coil taken by conductors- then W

Fig. 4

Coreless induction

furnace

Space factor K = fraction of lc

a Division of magnetic flux b Plan view

162

IEEPROC, Vol. 130, Pt. B, No. 3, MA Y 1983

resistance and reactance of the work or charge, and jXG represents the reactance of the gap between the coil and charge. XG is usually a major consideration with regard to induction melting furnaces, as the space between the furnace coil and charge is determined by the thickness of refractory material used to contain the molten metal. In Reference 4, the formulas for Rw and Xw contain functions p and q, which are dimensionless flux factors defined in terms of the charge diameter and current penetration depth. Formulas for determining the approximate impedance of induction furnaces are given in Section 3. 2.4 Measurement of furnace parameters Measurement of furnace voltage, V, current, Ip, and power, P, under given furnace conditions, allow the calculation of the furnace impedance Z :

flux giving rise to XG

channel

Z = = R+jX
IF

R =

\IFY

Hence,
2\l/2 X = (\Z\2-R2)

By definition R = Rc + Rw and X = Xc + Xw + XG
so

Z = (Rc+Rw)+j(Xc

+ X w + X G)
channel

For a given furnace working at a fixed frequency, the change in Rc and Xc would be negligible. Effective dimensional changes of the channel- or coreless-furnace lining would show as a change in Rw and Xw and, to a greater extent, in the value of XG. Allowance would have to be made for changes in p w owing to different alloys and temperatures. Also, for magnetic materials, jdr varies with temperature up to the Curie point (760C). The approximate formulas given in Section 3 take no account of non-steady states of the charge; for example, during melting in a coreless furnace, when the bath will contain various proportions of molten, to solid, metallics. Under these conditions, Rw, for example, will vary rapidly and in a random manner, depending upon the shape, size, disposition and movement of the charge. The inherent power factor of conventional channel and coreless induction furnaces lies between 0.5 and 0.7 and between 0.15 and 0.25, respectively. PF =
3 3.1

(gap) Fig. 5 Channel induction furnace a Division of magnetic flux b Section through furnace

VU

R_ or \Z\

Induction-furnace formulas General

In the following, the symbols used are R = resistance, H p = material resistivity, fim / = length, m a, A area, m 2 d = diameter m 5 = current penetration, m = number of furnace-coil turns Nc W = width, m K = space factor /i 0 = permeability of free space, 4n x 10" 7 Hm" 1 p.r = relative permeability (p.r taken as unity for nonmagnetic materials) co = angular velocity, rad s" 1 / = frequency, Hz IEE PROC, Vol. 130, Pt. B, No. 3, MA Y 1983

p , q = dimensionless flux factors = reactance, T2 X inductance, H L S = reluctance, AT Wb" 1 is =

Suffixes C, W, G refer to the coil, charge and gap, respectively. Referring to Figs. 35, approximate formulas are derived in Sections 3.2 to 3.6 and are summarised in Table 1.
3.2 Coil resistance, Rc

The AC resistance equals pc~n(dc 8C)NC/W8C Q,. Assuming that dc>8c for a copper coil, and putting W = 1CK/(NC + l),then
R

Klcc8 c 8

(3)
163

Alternatively, if the width W of the coil material is known,

3.5 (4)

Work or charge reactance, Xw

pcndcNc W8r

SI

For a channel furnace, Xw may be taken as equal in magnitude to Rw. For a coreless furnace, Reference 4 gives an expression whereby
Aw = l

for both coreless and channel furnaces. (8)

3.3 Work or charge resistance, Rw

For a channel furnace, the AC resistance may be calculated, using a formula similar to that given for Rc, in which the coil has a single turn and W lw. Depending on the charge material being considered, 8W may be large compared with the difference between the channel inside and outside radii, so dw > 8 w is not assumed. Rw pwir(dw+8w)Nc
w

where q is a dimensionless flux factor depending on the charge diameter dw and current penetration depth 5 ^ ; i.e.
A.ur A m

(9)

SI

(5)

From Reference 4 for a solid cylinder, when dw/8w > 8, q 2/(dw/8 w), and subject to the proviso that lc < lw < 1.25 lc, mentioned in Section 3.3, it can be shown that
W

For a coreless furnace, an expression for Rw Reference 4, whereby 2irfn0Nc ;

in

is given in
_ ~

(10)
WW

SI

(6)
3.6 Gap reactance XG

where p is a dimensionless flux factor depending on charge diameter dw and current penetration depth 5 ^ . Tests carried out on a coreless furnace indicate that, providing / c < / w < 1.25 lc, lc may be replaced by lw in this expression. From Reference 4 for a solid cylinder when dw/8 w > 8, p = 2/{l .23 + (dw/8 w)}. By putting p = 2/(1.23 + (dw/8 w)}, Aw=ndw/4, and multiplying the expression by (8W/8W)2,

Reference 4 gives
AQ

2-nfiioN}

(11)

Alternatively, using L N2 IS, where Z, is the inductance in Henrys; and S the reluctance is l/(JLoiJLra ATWb"1, then LG = V-oAGN%/lc (assuming /i r = 1 for the gap). So, XG = or 2l (dwdc) SI for a channel furnace (13) (dc d'w) SI for a coreless furnace (12)

'w

dw+

1.23 6 w

SI

(7)

21,

3.4 Coil reactance Xc Xc may be taken as equal in magnitude t o ^ c , for both coreless and channel furnaces.

Table 1: Summary of formulas Channel (Q.) Coil resistance RG: pcirdcNc W6C for both channel and coreless Work or charge resistance Rw: Coreless
PcndcNc(Nc

K(C8C

Pvr"dwNc

'w^ w
Coil reactance XG: Work or charge reactance Xw: Gap reactance XG:
2/C

\dw "" ^ -^3 ^ iv *

\RW\

x(d2w-dc)

2/c

M '

Furnace impedance (referred to primary):

z =
or (Rc + Rw) +j(Xc + Xw + XG)
Penetration depth:

a = I^-V
164

IEE PROC, Vol. 130, Pt. B, No. 3, MA Y 1983

4 4.1

Balancing methods General

4.3

Phase balancing for supply po wer factor of 0.866 (see Figs. 7A and B)

Three furnace-balancing arrangements [3] are described in this Section. The following symbols are used in the explanatory figures, V, I representing vectors: R,Y,B = phase voltages and currents in this sequence VRY, VYB, VBR = line voltages IR,IY,IB = line currents = furnace current IF = power-factor improvement capacitor Ic current = furnace current after power-factor Io improvement = balancing capacitor current ICB = balancing inductor current ILB (pF cos 4>F is furnace power factor 4>o cos (f>o is furnace power factor after improvement The vector diagrams show voltages inside, and currents outside, the circle.
4.2 Phase balancing for supply po wer factor of 0.5 (see Figs. 6A and BJ

Note that point O is a centre tap of the balancing inductor, and lies on the vector diagram, such that
BO

+ VnR = VBR

IF lags the applied voltage VRY by <pF Ic (leading VRY by 90) is adjusted in magnitude to improve the PF from cos 4>F to cos 0 O , such that cos 0 O = 0.866 The resultant Io thus lags VRY by <po (= 30) ILB (lagging VBR bY 9 0 ) is adjusted to equal / o / 2 in magnitude ICB (leading VYO by 90) is adjusted to equal / o /v^3~ in magnitude
IR ~ Io ~ILB ~ICBI^-JY
=

ICB ~IO>IB

ILB ~ICBI^

Hence |/ B | (lags VR by 3 0 ) = | / y | (lags VY by 30) = |/ B | (lags VB by 30), and cos 30 = 0.866.

IF lags the applied voltage VRY by <pF Ic (leading VRY by 90) is adjusted in magnitude to improve the PF from cos 0 F to cos <po, such that cos 0 O = 0.866 The resultant, Io, thus lags VRY by 0 O ( = 30) ILB (lagging VBR by 90) is adjusted'to equalI o in magnitude

In =

In-I LB'

/v = -Ir

In = I LB
Fig. 7 A Circuit for supply balance with power factor of 0.866

Hence \IR\ (lags VR by 60)= \Iy\ (lags VY by 60) = \fB\ (lags-KB.by.60) and cos 60 = 0.5.
Bo'LB
V

BR

'C
y

RY

furnoce 'load

Fig. 6A

Grcuit for supply balance with power factor of 0.5

Fig.7B

Vector diagram for circuit of Fig. 7A

4.4

Phase balancing for supply po wer factor of unity

(Figs. 8A and B)
IF lags the applied voltage VBR by <pF Ic (leading VBR by 90) is adjusted in magnitude to improve the PF from cos <pF to unity The resultant, Io, is thus in phase with VBR 165

Fig. 6B

Vector diagram for circuit of Fig: 6A

IEEPROC, Vol. 130, Pt. B, No. 3, MA Y 1983

LB (lagging VYB bY 9 0 ) i s adjusted to equal Io/y/3 magnitude ICB (leading VRY by 90) is adjusted to equal Io/\/3 magnitude

in in

Ro
ICB

VRY

IY

Hence IR is in phase with VR IY is in phase with VY IB is in phase with VB. i.e. \IR\ = |/y| = \IB\ with unity power factor. In practice it is preferable to adjust IQ for unity PF before adjustment of ILB and ICB, to obtain balanced conditions.
4.5 Control and instrumentation

BR
ILB VYB

I J furnace iTload

Bo

IB

Io

Fig. 8 A Circuit for supply balance with power factor of unity

Fig. 9 indicates schematically a control-panel system suitable for use when the balancing method described in Section 4.4 is adopted. The instruments shown are of the edge-reading type and are signalled via current and potential transformers and suitable transducers. The control panel is subdivided into instrumentation to determine furnace condition (Section 2.4 and Reference 6), and instrumentation and control to maintain phase balance of currents. The latter is further subdivided into a kVAr meter with a stepped control switch to adjust the furnace power factor to unity (operator adjusts until kVAr meter reads zero), and a bank of ammeters with stepped control switches to adjust the balancing inductor and capacitor against the furnace current after PF improvement to unity (centre instrument reads 7 o /\/3~ via a transducer; operator adjusts until the two outer instruments equal the centre instrument reading). One advantage of this system is that numerical readings are not required of the operator, but, at the same time, the instrumentation affords all the information necessary for maintenance staff to monitor the condition of the furnace and power-supply components.

Fig. 8B

Vector diagram for circuit of Fig. 8A

instruments to determine furnace condition

furnace load
' ' I ilililil1'1'kW ' - ' 11

vIFcos

monitor and adjust PF

kVAr

adjust PF

instruments to maintain , phase monitor balance and adjust' balance

A -.

A -

A -

ICB ^o-

r
adjust I C B adjust ! L B IEEPROC, Vol. 130, Pt. B, No. 3, MA Y1983

Fig. 9 166

Instrumentation and control for balancing furnace load at unity power factor

5 5.1

Furnace condition diagram General

Therefore, R2 +X2 X (kVAr)

When calculating the rating of power-supply components required for a given furnace, it is convenient to plot a graph of furnace resistance against reactance, showing the range of impedances which will not cause overloading of the components and the furnace coil. Four boundary curves usually suffice to define all the allowable combinations of resistance and reactance, and the calculated furnace impedance, together with any variations expected, can also be plotted. Later, impedance values found by measurement under defined furnace working conditions can be added to the graph, which will then indicate the furnace condition during the working life of the lining. Correct interpretation of the diagram requires experience, and a useful paper on this subject is given in Reference 6.
1.6

Curve A defines the maximum rating of the power supply. For a power factor improvement to unity,

R2+X2
R

V2
(kW)

where Io is the maximum active current. Curve B defines the minimum power requirement at maximum voltage R2 +X"' R

V
(kW)

where Io is the minimum active current. Curve C defines the maximum rating of the furnace coil. At maximum power, kVAr = {(coil kVA)2 - (kW)2 }1/2 R2 + X2 X V2 (kVAr) V
{(/F)2-(/O)2}/2

1.4working range of urnace impedance

where {(/^) 2 (Iof f2 is the maximum reactive current. Curve D defines the minimum rating of the unswitched PF improvement capacitor. R2 +X2 _ V2 _ V X ~ (kVAr) " Tc where Ic is the minimum PF capacitor current.
6 6.1 Examples of use of formulas Calculation of impedance of a 120kW, 50 Hz channel

0.2

0.4

0.6 0.8 resistance R.X1

1.0

1.2

Fig. 10

Furnace condition diagram showing boundaries

5.2

Condition diagram boundary conditions

Fig. 10 shows the four curves defining power supply and furnace working limits. These curves have equations of the form x 2 + y2 or x2+y2 = k (14)

furnace used for melting a copper-nickel alloy The data for this furnace are: Coil Air cooled, consisting of 52 turns of 7.7 mm wide copper wound to an outside diameter of 298 mm and of overall length 531 mm. pc for copper at 60C is taken to be 0.0195 x 10~ 6 ftm. Channel Rectangular section 90 mm wide adjacent to bath and 60 mm wide at base of loop. Loop of circular form having an inside diameter of 490 mm and 70 mm section, measured radially. pw for copper-nickel alloy at 1350C is taken to be 0.3 x IO"6 ftm. Hence dc - 0.298 m W = 0.0077 m
7VC = 52 lc = 0.531m

which are circles of radius k/2 and centres (k/2, 0) and (0, k/2), respectively. In the following, the balancing method employed is that detailed in Section 4.4 (supply power factor of unity). (R, X, Z, Vand /represent magnitudes): Active power (kW) = (IF)2R = (V/Z)2R = V Therefore, R2 + X2 R V2 (kW) = X

dw

= 0.49 m

lw

0.09 + 0.06

= 0.075 m

From Section 3.7, 5 C = 0.0099 m 8W = 0.0390 m Rw = 0.4609 Q XG= 0.2389 fi K = 0.7685

R +X'

Rc = 0.0125 n Xc = 0.0125 fi

Xw = 0.4609 n

From the foregoing, the calculated impedance is given by Z = (0.0125+0.4609)+y(0.0125+0.4609+ 0.2389)J2 = 0.4734+/0.7123 ft = 0.8553/56.39 ft
167

Reactive power (kVAr) = (IF)2X = V

2

R2 +X2

IEEPROC, Vol. 130, Pt. B, No. 3, MA Y 1983

At 400 V, furnace current Ip =

400

furnace impedance = 0.1406 /79.50 ft 0.8553 /56.39

6.3

= 0.0256 +j0.1382ft
Estimation of balancing requirements (supply power factor of unity) fora 120kW, 50 Hz channel furnace used for melting copper and a copper-nickel alloy The data for this furnace are: Coil

= 467.7 / - 56.39 A power = \IF\2R = (467.7)2 x 0.4734 = 103.5 kW

From measurements taken on this furnace at 400 V, the current and power were found to be 466 A and 118kW, respectively. Hence rnagnitude of furnace impedance = 0.8584 ft power factor = 0.633 furnace impedance = 0.8584 /50.72 ft = 0.5434 +/0.6645 ft

6.2

Calculation of impedance of a 300kW, 50 Hz coreless furnace used for melting aluminium The data for this furnace are: Coil

Air cooled, consisting of 57 turns of 7.7mm-wide copper wound to an outside diameter of 298 mm and overall length of 531 mm. pc for copper at 60C is taken to be 0.0195 x 10"6 ftm. Channel Rectangular section of 102 mm wide by 38 mm radially. The loop top half is straight sided, with a circular form at the top. The loop bottom half has a rounded 'V shape. Mean perimeter is given as approximately 1870 mm, and the cross-sectional area between the coil outside diameter and the loop inside perimeter is given as 0.1776 m 2 . pw for copper at 1200C is taken to be 0.2 x 10~6 ftm. pw for copper-nickel at 1300C is taken to be 0.4 x 10~6 ftm. = 480 V = 120kVAat unity PF Minimum useful power requirement = 70 kW Furnace coil rating (at 480 V) = 288kVA (600 A) Minimum unswitched PF improvement = 120kVA at 480 V Hence dc = 0.298 m Nc = 57 lc = 0.531m lw = 0.102 m Maximum working voltage Maximum power-supply rating

Water cooled, consisting of 41 turns of 12 mm wide D-section copper wound to an inside diameter of 600 mm and overall length of 635 mm. pc for copper at 60C is taken to be 0.0195 x 10"6 ftm. Bath Inside diameter 450 mm and useful depth 1023 mm. Tests were carried out with a molten-bath depth of 780 mm. pw for aluminium at 730C is taken to be 0.216 x 10"6 ftm. Hence dc = 0.6 m lc = 0.635 m Nc = 41 W = 0.012m lw = 0.78 m = 1.23

W = 0.077 m

effective ndw ' 1.87 m effective AG = -(d2w-d2c) = 0.1776 m2

dw = 0.45 m From Section 3.7, 5 C = 0.0099 m Rc = 0.0127 ft

5 ^ = 0.0331 m Rw = 0.0182ft XG = 0.1293 ft

From Section 3.7, 5 C = 0.0099m 8W for copper = 0.0318m

Xc = 0.0127 ft

Xw = 0.0199 ft

8W = for cupronickel = 0.045 m The channel section is 0.038 m in the radial direction, so 5 ^ for cupronickel is taken as 0.038 m. Rc = 0.0136 Rw for copper ft Xc = 0.0136 = 0.3946 ft ft XG = 0.4290 ft

From the foregoing, the calculated impedance is given by Z = (0.0127+0.0182)+/(0.0127 + 0.0199+ 0.1293)12 = 0.0309 +/0.1619 ft = 0.1648/79.18ft At 200 V, furnace current, I F = 200

Rw for cupronickel = 0.6670 ft Xw for copper = 0.3946 ft

Xw for cupronickel = 0.6670 ft Hence

power = \IF\ R

A = (1213) x 0.0309 = 45.55 kW

2

= 1213 / 79.18C

furnace impedance = (0.0136 + 0.3946)+/(0.0136 + 0.3946+ 0.4290) ft = 0.4082+/0.8372 ft and = 0.9314/64 ft for copper

From measurements taken on this furnace at 200 V, the current and power were found to be 1422 A and 51.82kW, respectively. Hence magnitude of furnace impedance = 0.1406 ft power factor = 0.1822
168

(0.0136 + 0.6670) +/(0.0136 + 0.6670 + 0.4290)ft = 0.6806+/1.110 ft = 1.302 /58.49 ft for cupronickel
IEEPROC, Vol. 130, Pt. B, No. 3, MA Y 1983

From Section 5.2, the four boundary curves are given: R +X R

2 2

480 120x 103

To maintain balance over the range 145.8 < | / o l ^ 250 A, the balancing capacitor and inductor rating required is from 40.4kVAr to (40.4 + 28.9) kVAr.
balancing kVAr (9.63 kVAr steps) 40.4

i.e. maximum |/ o i = 250 A R2 + X2 _ 4802 R ~ 70x 103 i.e. minimum | / o | = 145.8 A R2+X2 X R2 +X2 X 480 2 (6002-2502)1/2 4802 120x IO3

i.e. maximum | / c | = 545 A. _

i.e. minimum | / c | = 250 A. These curves are plotted in Fig. 11, together with points representing the calculated furnace impedances. To determine the PF improvement and balancing components, refer to Section 4.4 and Figs. 8A and B. To maintain unity power factor over the range of 250 < |/ C |<545A, the capacitor rating required is from 120kVAr to (120 + 141.6)kVArat480V.
15r
1.4

iPF improvement kVAr (23.6 kVAr steps) 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 07 resistance , A 0.8 0.9 1.0

Fig. 12 PF capacitor and balancing ratings

1.3

0.9 0.8 0.7 0.2

0.3

0.5 0.6 0.7 resistance R,il

0.8

0.9

1.0

Fig. 11 Impedance boundary conditions and calculated furnace impedances

R o-

The number of switched components will determine the accuracy of balance, and the subdivision is usually a compromise between component manufacturer's standard ratings and initial cost. Fig. 12 shows a graph of the boundary curves previously determined, together with curves representing PF improvement capacitor and balancing component switching for a division of six separate capacitors of 141.6/6 kVAr for PF improvement, and three separate capacitors of 28.9/ 3 kVAr for balancing. By tracing the locus of Io, determined by the available steps in |/ c |, the corresponding loci of IR, IY and IB may be observed and the maximum 'out of balance' condition calculated. In this case, assuming Io is maintained at unity power factor, the three balancing steps provided make IR and IB equal in magnitude and approximately 10% to 15% higher than the magnitude of/y. Note, however, that for the six steps of PF improvement available, Io can lag or lead VBR by the equivalent of half a kVAr step (24.6 A at 480 V), so that one capacitor of 11.8 kVAr would be a useful addition. Fig. 13 is a diagram of the circuit described above.

I,
6 capacitors 23.6kVAr 9.63kVAr 120 kVAr \
Oi

40.4 kVAr

6 0
r

BR

Yo-

9.63kVA 9.63 kVAr 69.3 kVAr

~o

| rjj
;

11111111
Cr Cr Cr Cr o' Cr cr c '
IF

11.8kVAr'

furnace load

-o 0

"YB

Bo

~^

Fig. 13 Schematic for supply balance at unity PF IEE PROC, Vol. 130, Pt. B, No. 3, MA Y 1983 169

Table 2 : Calculated furnace impedances resulting from changes in channel dimensions

Point on Fig. 14 (see text)

Channel dimension change

mm

Furnace impedance Copper R X Copper-nickel R X

no change (calc., impedance)

0.4082+/0.8372 0.4278+/0.9679 0.3768 +/0.7041 0.4396 + /0.9797 0.3305 + /0.7595 0.5363 +/0.9653 0.5623 +y 1.102

0.6806+/1.110 0.7069 +/1.247 0.6280+/0.9553 0.7332+/1.273 0.5493 + /0.9783 0.8972+/1.326 0.9320 + /1.472

%+

50

/ dw + 50 I and loutside dia. + 50 fw + 25

lw-

25

{ dW + 50
I and lw- - 2 5 1.5r
1 .U-

a6

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1.0

(v) build up on channel width (vi) build up on channel inside diameter and width. The data listed in Table 2 and plotted in Fig. 14 represent an 'ideal' situation and assume that the initial calculated impedances are correct. A furnace impedance represented by point 2 for copper would require additional balancing kVAr, and an impedance represented by point 6 for cupronickel would require less fixed PF improvement kVAr. As already explained, the formulas are approximate and, in practice, lining wear and build up are nonuniform. However, there is value in the foregoing information, in that the procedures outlined will usefully indicate the trend of effective channel dimension and position changes so long as regular checks are made by measurement of the electrical characteristics, preferably always under the same conditions of charge. The interpretation of impedance changes during furnace operation relies upon experience; however, changes such as a sudden decrease in reactance with little change in resistance would indicate rapid erosion of the channel towards the furnace coil, and should trigger an investigation into the state of the refractory lining.
7 Acknowledgment

Fig. 14 Condition diagram. Some estimated impedance changes + copper a cupronickel 6.4 Furnace condition diagram for channel furnace detailed in Section 6.3

The author wishes to thank the UK Electricity Council for permission to publish this paper.
8
References

It is of interest to plot estimated furnace impedances on the condition diagram to represent changes in the effective channel dimension. The effect of some of these changes is shown in Fig. 14. Using the formulas given in Section 3, six simulated effects have been calculated and appear in Table 2. The point numbers on the graph correspond to the furnace impedance for each of the following effects: (i) build up on channel inside diameter (ii) erosion of channel inside diameter (iii) erosion of channel outside diameter and build up on inside diameter (iv) erosion of channel width

1 British Electricity Boards: 'Report on EHV or HV supplies to induction furnaces'. ACE Report 48, 1977 2 Electricity Council: 'EHV or HV supplies to induction furnaces'. Engineering Recommendation PI 6, 1975 3 KREYSA, E.: 'Symmetrische Lastverteilung in Drehstromnetzen bei Anschlufi einphasiger Induktions-Erwarmungsanlagen', ETZ-A, 1964, 85, pp. 496-501 4 BAKER, R.M.: 'Design and calculation of induction heating coils', AIEE Trans., 1957, 574, pp. 31-40 5 DAVIES, J., and SIMPSON, P.: 'Induction heating handbook' (McGraw-Hill, 1979) Chap. 2, Section 9, pp. 43-49 6 SUNDBERG, Y.: 'The condition diagram for channel furnaces and its practical use', ASEA J., 1980, 53, (4-5), pp. 59-68

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