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GIS (Geographic Information Systems)

(CH 7) (An Overview of GIS) The tutorial gives very basic information on the various areas of application in GIS like Global Positioning System, Remote Sensing, Aerial Photgrammetry and Image Processing.

Geographical Information System


Overview of GIS Fundamentals of GIS Geographic Data Sets Analysis of Geographic Data

Global Positioning System Remote Sensing Image Processing Projection System Overview of GIS

Introduction Geographic Information System (GIS) is a computer based information system used to digitally represent and analyze the geographic features present on the Earth' surface and the events (non-spatial attributes linked to the geography under study) that taking place on it. The meaning to represent digitally is to convert analog (smooth line) into a digital form. "Every object present on the Earth can be geo-referenced", is the fundamental key of associating any database to GIS. Here, term 'database' is a collection of information about things and their relationship to each other and 'geo-referencing' refers to the location of a layer or coverage in space defined by the co-ordinate referencing system. Work on GIS began in late 1950s, but first GIS software came only in late 1970s from the lab of the ESRI. Canada was the pioneer in the development of GIS as a result of innovations dating back to early 1960s. Much of the credit for the early development of GIS goes to Roger Tomilson. Evolution of GIS has transformed and revolutionized the ways in which planners, engineers, managers etc. conduct the database management and analysis. Philosophy of GIS
The proliferation of GIS is explained by its unique ability to assimilate data from widely divergent sources, to analyse trends over time, and to spatially evaluate impacts caused by development.

For an experienced analyst, GIS is an extension one's own analytical thinking. The system has no in-built solutions for any spatial problems; it depends upon the analyst. The importance of different factors of GIS in decreasing order is as under: Spatial Analysis Database Software Hardware GIS involves complete understanding about patterns, space, and processes or methodology needed to approach a problem. It is a tool acting as a means to attain certain objective quickly and efficiently. Its applicability is realized when the user fully understands the overall spatial concept under which a particular GIS is established and analyses his specific application in the light of those established parameters. Before the GIS implementation is considered the objectives, both immediate and long term, have to be considered. Since the effectiveness and efficiency (i.e. benefit against cost) of the GIS will depend largely on the quality of initial field data captured, organizational design has to be decided upon to maintain this data continuously. This initial data capture is most important. Advantages of GIS The Geographic Information System has been an effective tool for implementation and monitoring of municipal infrastructure. The use of GIS has been in vogue primarily due to the advantage mentioned below: Planning of project Make better decisions Visual Analysis Improve Organizational Integration Components of GIS GIS constitutes of five key components: Hardware Software Data People Method Hardware
It consists of the computer system on which the GIS software will run. The choice of hardware system range from 300MHz Personal Computers to Super Computers having capability in Tera FLOPS. The computer forms the backbone of the GIS hardware, which gets its input through the Scanner or a digitizer board. Scanner converts a picture into a digital image for further processing. The output of scanner can be stored in many formats e.g. TIFF, BMP, JPG etc. A digitizer board is flat board used for vectorisation of a given map objects. Printers and plotters are the most common output devices for a GIS hardware setup. .

Software

GIS software provides the functions and tools needed to store, analyze, and display geographic information. GIS software in use is MapInfo, ARC/Info, AutoCAD Map, etc. The software available can be said to be application specific. When the low cost GIS work is to be carried out desktop MapInfo is the suitable option. It is easy to use and supports many GIS feature. If the user intends to carry out extensive analysis on GIS, ARC/Info is the preferred option. For the people using AutoCAD and willing to step into GIS, AutoCAD Map is a good option.

Data Geographic data and related tabular data can be collected in-house or purchased from a commercial data provider. The digital map forms the basic data input for GIS. Tabular data related to the map objects can also be attached to the digital data. A GIS will integrate spatial data with other data resources and can even use a DBMS, used by most organization to maintain their data, to manage spatial data. . People GIS users range from technical specialists who design and maintain the system to those who use it to help them perform their everyday work. The people who use GIS can be broadly classified into two classes. The CAD/GIS operator, whose work is to vectorise the map objects. The use of this vectorised data to perform query, analysis or any other work is the responsibility of a GIS engineer/user. . Method And above all a successful GIS operates according to a well-designed plan and business rules, which are the models and operating practices unique to each organization. There are various techniques used for map creation and further usage for any project. The map creation can either be automated raster to vector creator or it can be manually vectorised using the scanned images. The source of these digital maps can be either map prepared by any survey agency or satellite imagery. Defining GIS A GIS is an information system designed to work with data referenced by spatial / geographical coordinates. In other words, GIS is both a database system with specific capabilities for spatially referenced data as well as a set of operations for working with the data. It may also be considered as a higher order map. . GIS technology integrates common database operations such as query and statistical analysis with the unique visualization and geographic analysis benefits offered by maps. These abilities distinguish GIS from other information systems and make it valuable to a wide range of public and private enterprises for explaining events, predicting outcomes, and planning strategies (ESRI). . A Geographic Information System is a computer based system which is used to digitally reproduce and analyze the feature present on earth surface and the events that take place on it. In the light of the fact that almost 70% of the data has geographical reference as its denominator, it becomes imperative to underline the importance of a system which can represent the given data geographically. .

A typical GIS can be understood by the help of various definitions given below:

A geographic information system (GIS) is a computer-based tool for mapping and analyzing things that exist and events that happen on Earth Burrough in 1986 defined GIS as, "Set of tools for collecting, storing, retrieving at will, transforming and displaying spatial data from the real world for a particular set of purposes" Arnoff in 1989 defines GIS as, "a computer based system that provides four sets of capabilities to handle geo-referenced data :

data input data management (data storage and retrieval) manipulation and analysis Data output. "

Hence GIS is looked upon as a tool to assist in decision-making and management of attributes that needs to be analyzed spatially. Need of GIS Many professionals, such as foresters, urban planners, and geologists, have recognized the importance of spatial dimensions in organising & analysing information. Whether a discipline is concerned with the very practical aspects of business, or is concerned with purely academic research, geographic information system can introduce a perspective, which can provide valuable insights as 1. 70% of the information has geographic location as its denominator making spatial analysis an essential tool. 2. Ability to assimilate divergent sources of data both spatial and non-spatial (attribute data). 3. Visualization Impact 4. Analytical Capability 5. Sharing of Information GIS Applications Computerized mapping and spatial analysis have been developed simultaneously in several related fields. The present status would not have been achieved without close interaction between various fields such as utility networks, cadastral mapping, topographic mapping, thematic cartography, surveying and photogrammetery remote sensing, image processing, computer science, rural and urban planning, earth science, and geography. The GIS technology is rapidly becoming a standard tool for management of natural resources. The effective use of large spatial data volumes is dependent upon the existence of an efficient geographic handling and processing system to transform this data into

usable information.

The GIS technology is used to assist decision-makers by indicating various alternatives in development and conservation planning and by modeling the potential outcomes of a series of scenarios. It should be noted that any task begins and ends with the real world. Data are collected about the real world. Of necessity, the product is an abstraction; it is not possible (and not desired) to handle every last detail. After the data are analyzed, information is compiled for decision-makers. Based on this information, actions are taken and plans implemented in the real world. Fundamentals of GIS Mapping Concepts, Features & Properties A map represents geographic features or other spatial phenomena by graphically conveying information about locations and attributes. Locational information describes the position of particular geographic features on the Earth's surface, as well as the spatial relationship between features, such as the shortest path from a fire station to a library, the proximity of competing businesses, and so on. Attribute information describes characteristics of the geographic features represented, such as the feature type, its name or number and quantitative information such as its area or length. Map Features Locational information is usually represented by points for features such as wells and telephone pole locations, lines for features such as streams, pipelines and contour lines and areas for features such as lakes, counties and census tracts. Point feature A point feature represents as single location. It defines a map object too small to show as a line or area feature. A special symbol of label usually depicts a point location. Line feature A line feature is a set of connected, ordered coordinates representing the linear shape of a map object that may be too narrow to display as an area such as a road or feature with no width such as a contour line. Area feature An area feature is a closed figure whose boundary encloses a homogeneous area, such as a state country soil type or lake. Map Characteristics In addition to feature locations and their attributes, the other technical characteristics that define maps and their use include: Map Scale Map Accuracy Map Extent and Data Base Extent

Scale in Digital Maps With digital maps, the traditional concept of scale in terms of distance does not apply because digital maps do not remain fixed in size. They can be displayed or plotted at any possible magnification. Yet we still speak of the scale of a digital map. In digital mapping, the term scale is used to indicate the scale of the materials from which the map was made. For example, if a digital map is said to have a scale of 1:100,000, it was made from a 1:100,000-scale paper map. However, a digital map's scale still allows you to make some educated guesses about its contents because, generally, digital maps retain the same accuracy and characteristics as their source maps. So it is still true that a large-scale digital map will usually be more accurate and less general than a small-scale digital map. Because the display size of a computer-based map is not fixed, users are often tempted to blow up maps to very large sizes. For example, a 1:100,000-scale map can easily be plotted at a size of 1:24,000 or even 1:2,000-but it usually is not a good idea to do so. It encourages the user to make measurements that the underlying data does not support. You cannot measure positions to the nearest foot if your map is only accurate to the nearest mile. You will end up looking for information that does not exist. Map Resolution Map resolution refers to how accurately the location and shape of map features can be depicted for a given map scale. Scale affects resolution. In a larger-scale map, the resolution of features more closely matches real-world features because the extent of reduction from ground to map is less. As map scale decrease, the map resolution diminishes because features must be smoothed and simplified, or not shown at all. Map Accuracy Many factors besides resolution, influence how accurately features can be depicted, including the quality of source data, the map scale, your drafting skill and the width of lines drawn on the ground. A fine drafting pen will draw line's 1/100 of an inch wide. Such a line represents a corridor on the ground, which is almost 53 feet wide. In addition to this, human drafting errors will occur and can be compounded by the quality of your source maps and materials. A map accurate for one purpose is often inaccurate for others since accuracy is determined by the needs of the project as much as it is by the map itself. Some measurements of a map's accuracy are discussed below: Absolute accuracy of a map refers to the relationship between a geographic position on a map (a street corner, for instance) and its real-world position measured on the surface of the earth. Absolute accuracy is primarily important for complex data requirements such as those for surveying and engineering-based applications. Relative accuracy refers to the displacement between two points on a map (both distance and angle), compared to the displacement of those same points in the real world. Relative accuracy is often more important and easier to obtain than absolute accuracy because users rarely need to know absolute positions. More often, they need to find a

position relative to some known landmark, which is what relative accuracy provides. Users with simple data requirements generally need only relative accuracy. Attribute accuracy refers to the precision of the attribute database linked to the map's features. For example, if the map shows road classifications, are they correct? If it shows street addresses, how accurate are they? Attribute accuracy is most important to users with complex data requirements. A map's Currency refers to how up-to-date it is. Currency is usually expressed in terms of a revision date, but this information is not always easy to find. A map is Complete if it includes all the features a user would expect it to contain. For example, does a street map contain all the streets? Completeness and currency usually are related because a map becomes less complete as it gets older. The most important issue to remember about map accuracy is that the more accurate the map, the more it costs in time and money to develop. For example, digital maps with coordinate accuracy of about 100 feet can be purchased inexpensively. If 1-foot accuracy is required, a custom survey is often the only way to get it, which drives up dataacquisition costs by many orders of magnitude and can significantly delay project implementation - by months or even years. Therefore, too much accuracy can be as detrimental to the success of a GIS project as too little. Rather than focusing on the project's benefits, a sponsoring organization may focus on the costs that result from a level of accuracy not justified for the project. Project support inevitably erodes when its original objectives are forgotten in a flurry of cost analyses. A far better strategy is to start the project with whatever data is readily available and sufficient to support initial objectives. Once the GIS is up and running, producing useful results, project scope can be expanded. The quality of its data can be improved as required. Even though no maps are entirely accurate, they are still useful for decision-making and analysis. How ever, it is important to consider map accuracy to ensure that your data is not used inappropriately. Any number of factors can cause error. Note these sources can have at cumulative effect. E = f (f) + f (1) + f (e) + f (d) + f (a) + f (m) + f (rms) + f (mp) + u Where, f = flattening the round Earth onto a two - dimensional surface (transformation from spherical to planar geometry) I = accurately measuring location on Earth (correct project and datum information) c = cartographic interpretation (correct interpretation of features) d = drafting error (accuracy in tracing of features and width of drafting pen) a = analog to digital conversion (digitizing board calibration) m = media stability (warping and stretching, folding. Wrinkling of map) p = digitizing processor error (accuracy of cursor placement) rms = Root Mean Square (registration accuracy of ties) mp = machine precision (coordinate rounding by computer in storing and transforming) u = additional unexplained source error Map Extent

The aerial extent of map is the area on the Earth's surface represented on the map. It is the limit of the area covered, usually defined by rectangle just large enough to include all mapped features. The size of the study area depends on the map scale. The smaller the scale the larger the area covered. Database Extent A critical first step in building a geographic database is defining its extent. The aerial extent of a database is the limit of the area of interest for your GIS project. This usually includes the areas directly affected by your organization's responsibility (such as assigned administrative units) as well as surrounding areas that either influence or are influenced by relevant activities in the administrative area. Data Automation Map features are logically organized into a set of layers or themes of information. A base map can be organized into layers such as streams, soils, wells or boundaries. Map data, regardless of how a spatial database will be applied, is collected, automated and updated as series of adjacent map sheets or aerial photograph. Here each sheet is mounted on the digitizer and digitized, one sheet at a time. In order to be able to combine these smaller sheets into larger units or study areas, the co-ordinates of coverage must be transformed into a single common co-ordinate system. Once in a common co-ordinate system, attributes are associated with features. Then as needed map sheets for layer are edge matched and joined into a single coverage for your study area. Types of Information in a Digital Map Any digital map is capable of storing much more information than a paper map of the same area, but it's generally not clear at first glance just what sort of information the map includes. For example, more information is usually available in a digital map than what you see on-screen. And evaluating a given data set simply by looking at the screen can be difficult: What part of the image is contained in the data and what part is created by the GIS program's interpretation of the data? You must understand the types of data in your map so you can use it appropriately. Three general types of information can be included in digital maps: Geographic information, which provides the position and shapes of specific geographic features. Attribute information, which provides additional non-graphic information about each feature. Display information, which describes how the features will appear on the screen. Some digital maps do not contain all three types of information. For example, raster maps usually do not include attribute information, and many vector data sources do not include display information. Geographic Information The geographic information in a digital map provides the position and shape of each map feature. For example, a road map's geographic information is the location of each road on the map.

In a vector map, a feature's position is normally expressed as sets of X, Y pairs or X, Y, Z triples, using the coordinate system defined for the map (see the discussion of coordinate systems, below). Most vector geographic information systems support three fundamental geometric objects: Point: A single pair of coordinates. Line: Two or more points in a specific sequence. Polygon: An area enclosed by a line. Some systems also support more complex entities, such as regions, circles, ellipses, arcs, and curves. Attribute Information Attribute data describes specific map features but is not inherently graphic. For example, an attribute associated with a road might be its name or the date it was last paved. Attributes are often stored in database files kept separately from the graphic portion of the map. Attributes pertain only to vector maps; they are seldom associated with raster images. GIS software packages maintain internal links tying each graphical map entity to its attribute information. The nature of these links varies widely across systems. In some, the link is implicit, and the user has no control over it. Other systems have explicit links that the user can modify. Links in these systems take the form of database keys. Each map feature has a key value stored with it; the key identifies the specific database record that contains the feature's attribute information. Display Information The display information in a digital-map data set describes how the map is to be displayed or plotted. Common display information includes feature colours, line widths and line types (solid, dashed, dotted, single, or double); how the names of roads and other features are shown on the map; and whether or not lakes, parks, or other area features are colour coded. However, many users do not consider the quality of display information when they evaluate a data set. Yet map display strongly affects the information you and your audience can obtain from the map - no matter how simple or complex the project. A technically flawless, but unattractive or hard-to-read map will not achieve the goal of conveying information easily to the user. Cartographic Appeal Clearly, how a map looks - especially if it is being used in a presentation - determines its effectiveness. Appropriate color choices, linetypes, and so on add the professional look you want and make the map easier to interpret. Since display information often is not included in the source data set or is filtered out by conversion software, you may need to add it yourself or purchase the map from a vendor who does it for you. Map display information should convey the meaning of its underlying attribute data. GIS Features and Functions The functions of GIS hardware and software therefore can be divided into several basic groups:

* Data acquisition, verification and editing * Compilation * Storage * Manipulation * Updating and revising * Retrieval and output
Once the information is compiled, a GIS will attach a variety of qualities and characteristics to geographical locations. These qualities and characteristics can vary from ground elevation, atmospheric temperature and landslides, to zoning and land ownership. A GIS is a computer system which facilitates the phases of data entry, data management, data manipulation and analysis and data presentation. This requires an information system that has four main functional subsystems: The data input subsystem allows the user to capture, collect and transform both spatial and tabular (attribute) data into digital form The data storage and retrieval subsystem organises the data into a form that allows it to be retrieved by the user for analysis. This usually involves the use of a database management system The data and manipulation and analysis subsystem allows the user to define spatial and attribute queries to derive information The data output subsystem allows the user to generate graphic displays (maps and charts) and tabular reports.

Determining Feature Type from GIS/Image Data: High-Level Vectorization High-Level Rasterization

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Spatial Quantization Feature Resolution Merging Disjoint Heterogeneous Regions Neighborhoods Polygonalization and Merging of Vector Data Sets Space-time-error bandwidth product

Cartography
Cartography or mapmaking (in Greek chartis = map and graphein = write) is the study and practice of making maps or globes. Maps have traditionally been made using pen and paper, but the advent and spread of computers has revolutionized cartography. Most commercial quality maps are now made with map making software that falls into one of three main types; CAD, GIS, and specialized map illustration software. Maps function as visualization tools for spatial data. Spatial data is acquired from measurement and can be stored in a database, from which it can be extracted for a variety of purposes. Current trends in this field are moving away from analog methods of mapmaking and toward the creation of increasingly dynamic, interactive maps that can be manipulated digitally. The cartographic process rests on the premise that the world is measurable and that we can make reliable representations or models of that reality. Mapmaking involves advanced skills and attitudes, particularly the use of symbols to represent certain geographic phenomena, as well as the ability to visualize the world in an abstract and scaled down form. In cartography, technology has continually changed in order to meet the demands of new generations of mapmakers and map users. The first maps were manually constructed with brushes and parchment and therefore varied in quality and were limited in distribution. The advent of magnetic devices, such as the compass and much later magnetic storage devices allowed for the creation of far more accurate maps and the ability to store and manipulate them digitally. Technological changes - In cartography, technology has continually changed in order to meet the demands of new generations of mapmakers and map users. Map types - A topographic map is primarily concerned with the topography of a place, and is typically different from other maps by its use of contour lines showing elevation. A planimetric map is like a topographic one but without elevations: countour lines or spot heights. A topological map is a very general type of map, the kind you might sketch on a napkin. Map design Naming conventions Map symbolization The quality of a maps design affects its readers ability to extract information, and to learn from the map. Cartographic symbology has been developed in an effort to portray the world accurately and effectively convey information to the map reader. A legend explains the pictorial language of the map known as its symbology. The title indicates the region the map portrays; the map image portrays the region and so on. Although every map element serves some purpose, convention only dictates inclusion of some elements 11

while others are considered optional. A menu of map elements includes the neatline (border), compass rose or north arrow, overview map, scale bar, projection, and information about the map sources, accuracy and publication. When examining a landscape, scale can be intuited from trees, houses and cars. Not so with a map. Even such a simple thing as a north arrow is crucial. It may seem obvious that the top of a map should point north but this might not be the case. GIS as an Information System A geographic information system (GIS) is a system for creating, storing, analyzing and managing spatial data and associated attributes. In the strictest sense, it is a computer system capable of integrating, storing, editing, analyzing, sharing, and displaying geographically-referenced information. In a more generic sense, GIS is a tool that allows users to create interactive queries (user created searches), analyze the spatial information, and edit data. Geographic information science is the science underlying the applications and systems, taught as a degree programme by several universities. Geographic information system technology can be used for scientific investigations, resource management, asset management, Environmental Impact Assessment, Urban planning, cartography, and route planning. For example, a GIS might allow emergency planners to easily calculate emergency response times in the event of a natural disaster, or a GIS might be used to find wetlands that need protection from pollution. The amount of data that flows through our communication networks daily is truly astounding. GIS offers its users the ability to process quantities of data far beyond the capacities of manual systems. When a database is updated, the associated map can be dynamically updated as well. The printed map offers several limitations. The biggest of which is the difficulty for a map reader to interpret continuous variation correctly, because map representations tend to offer only abrupt or one-sided aspects of geographic variation. With the ambiguity of the printed map, it is difficult to show change over time and only a small fraction of the information available to the mapmaker can actually be communicated. The two-dimensional aspect of the printed map makes it static and inert, whereas GISs can capture the three-dimensional and time-dependant aspects of geography. Unlike the printed map, digital databases have no scale; therefore they impose no limitations on the amount of information contained. GIS can provide improved information and services to the public. Data Creation Relating information from different sources Data representation Data capture Raster to Vector Translation Projections coordinate systems and registration Spatial analysis with GIS Data modeling Topological modeling Networks Cartographic modeling Map overlay

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Automated Cartography Geostatistics Geocoding Reverse Geocoding Data output and cartography Graphic display techniques Spatial ETL GIS data feeds GIS data is usually worked with one layer at a time. In doing so, it becomes easier to work with complex spatial problems and one is able to revise and change data without having to change the entire information system. For example, the following information can all be represented as individual layers or all together on a map to provide information for city planners, school officials, health officials and citizens: There are two main data models for GIS: the vector and raster models. Vector Data is: * points * lines * polygons (areas) * geometric shapes * the showing of specific features such as houses and lakes Raster Data is: * the use of grids and cells (pixels) * the encoding of the features on the earths surface * digital images * a description of the real world * image files Essentially the main difference is that the vector model represents geographic reality, such as locations and boundaries, and the raster model is used to encode the features found on the earths surface that are not easily distinguished by lines or borders, such as soil types and temperatures.

Historical Development of GIS


GIS first appeared in the early 1960s when the Canada Geographic System was developed. Canada as well as other governments, and university researchers wanted to develop a way to represent geography using a computer database, display it on a computer terminal, and plot it on paper. Progress was slow during the 60s and 70s and it was not until the 80s that GIS really came into wide spread use. The limiting factors had been major costs in technology hardware, very soon outdated due to the rapid innovations in microprocessors. Only the largest companies and governments could really afford GIS because of the costs involved. The rise of the personal computer and the decrease in prices allowed many software companies to adapt to this platform, and the cost of GIS software fell to within the reach of many more users. Technological Innovation and GIS

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Technological innovation proceeds in 4 stages: Initiation - An innovation first becomes available Contagion - Widespread experimentation tests the innovation Coordination - The most promising applications of the innovation gradually gain acceptance and are developed collaboratively. Coordination of experimentation shares high costs of development and implementation Integration - A innovation is accepted and integrated into routine research tasks Many innovations in the geographical application of IT began in the late 1950s, 60s and early 70s Researchers began to envision the development of GIS Mid-1970s to early 1980s was a period of contagion Availability of first commercial GIS software - late 1970s, combined with... Development of the first microcomputers - early 1980s Researchers test new ideas and applications for the first time Late 1980s/early 1990s... Coordination phase even as other experimentation continued at a fast pace Strengths and weaknesses of many ITs apparent Researchers work together to cultivate the most promising applications on a large scale Late 1990s - Integration IT infiltrating every aspect of geographic pursuit Arguably, complete integration of IT in geography has yet to be achieved Complete integration across the discipline may be many years away

Early Computer Era


Several factors caused a change in cartographic analysis: computer technology - improvements in hardware, esp. graphics devt. of theories of spatial processes in economic and social geography, anthropology, regional science increasing social awareness, education levels and mobility, awareness of environmental problems Example: the integrated transportation plans of 1950s and 60s in Detroit, Chicago required integration of transportation information - routes, destinations, origins, time produced maps of traffic flow and volume University of Washington, Dept. of Geography research on advanced statistical methods rudimentary computer programming computer cartography most active 1958-61: Key Individuals Nystuen - fundamental spatial concepts - distance, orientation, connectivity Tobler - computer algorithms for map projections, computer cartography Bunge - theoretical geography - geometric basis for geography - points, lines and areas Berry Geographical Matrix of places by characteristics (attributes) regional studies by overlaying maps of different themes systematic studies by detailed evaluation of a single layer 14

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