A mini project report on

LIGHT FOLLOWING ROBOT

Submitted by: ABHINOY KUMAR SINGH(19090001) PUSHPESH KRANTI(19090038) SUMIT KUMAR(19090053) VIKAS KUMAR MISHRA(19090059) Semester 6th Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Engineering School Of Engineering Cochin University Of Science & Technology Kochi, Kerala

Under the guidance of Dr. Usha Nair Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Engineering School Of Engineering Cochin University Of Science & Technology Kochi, India

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to thank our faculty guide Dr. Usha Nair, who helped me in each and every difficult juncture of the project. I would also like to thank my classmates who would help each other and maintained a positive work environment during the entire duration of the project. Last but not the least, Iwould like to thank my graceful parents, because of whom I am here.

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Declaration
This is to declare that the project Light Following Robot which is a part of B.Tech Mini Project thesis, has been conducted by me in the Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering, School Of Engineering, CUSAT, Kochi, India, during the period of semester 6th of my B.Tech, (2008-2012).,This is a bonafide record of work done by me, under the guidance of Dr. Usha Nair, Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Engineering, School Of Engineering CUSAT, Kochi, India. Abhinoy kumar singh(19090001) Pushpesh kranti(19090038) Sumit kumar(19090053) Vikas kumar mishra(19090059) 6th Semester, Electrical & Electronics Engineering, Reg no- 19090059 CUSAT, KOCHI, Kerala

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Certificate
This is to certify that the project work done on Light Following Robot by this group as a part of B.Tech Mini Project Thesis, conducted in the department, during the period of Semester 6th, is a bonafide record of work done by them, under my guidance. They have finished the project in time. Dr. Usha Nair Dept of Electrical & Electronics Engineering, School Of Engineering CUSAT, Kochi, Kerala India

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CONTENTS:
1. INTRODUCTION ------------------------------------------------------------------------2. APPLICATION AREAS-----------------------------------------------------------------3. OUR PROJECT ---------------------------------------------------------------------------3.1 Block Diagram of the robot-------------------------------------------------------------3.2 Components required-------------------------------------------------------------------3.3 Component Explanation----------------------------------------------------------------3.3.1 LEDs-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------3.3.2 5V Power Supply----------------------------------------------------------------------3.3.3 Connecting Wires ---------------------------------------------------------------------3.3.4 Resistors -------------------------------------------------------------------------------3.3.5 L298N Motor Driver Chip ----------------------------------------------------------3.3.6 DC Motor -----------------------------------------------------------------------------3.3.7 CDS Photo Resistors Sensors (LDR) ---------------------------------------------3.3.8 Bread Board --------------------------------------------------------------------------3.3.9 Robot Wheels ------------------------------------------------------------------------3.3.10 Castor Wheel -----------------------------------------------------------------------3.3.11 IOR Rectifier------------------------------------------------------------------------3.3.12 Embeded Systems------------------------------------------------------------------3.4 Programme------------------------------------------------------------------------------3.5 AT89C51 Microcontroller------------------------------------------------------------3.5.1 Features-------------------------------------------------------------------------------3.5.2 Pin Configurationn------------------------------------------------------------------3.5.3 Block Diagram-----------------------------------------------------------------------3.5.4 Package Availability of AT89C51 ------------------------------------------------4 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM-------------------------------------------------------------------5. FUTURE WORKS-----------------------------------------------------------------------6. CONCLUSIONS-------------------------------------------------------------------------7. REFERENCES ----------------------------------------------------------------------------

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ABSTRACT
Light FOLLOWING Robot is an optical sensing robot. The robot will move towards the direction with maximum light intensity. These robots maybe used for carrying loads out of caves, tunnels etc, also be used for pipeline maintenance applications, as it can find its own way out ofthe pipe by finding opening through where light is entering the pipe.

This project includes the PIC micro controller, which is widely used inindustries like robotics, automobiles, and other embedded systems. There are three optical sensors attached to the microcontroller . The robot will work on the basis amount of voltage signal that received from the sensor. The voltage signals from the optical sensors are sampled, converted to digital value and which will be compared by the compared by the microcontroller.

The robot will always tend to get high signal strength in the sensor located at the middle. If the signal strength is high in the S1 it will turn it will turn to left. If the S3 will receive the high signal strength, robot turns right. The motor driver circuit is essentially a L293d IC, which can control 2 DC motors at a time.

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1 INTRODUCTION
Robotics has been one of the most important milestones achieved by us during 20 th and 21st century. The advancement of technology and revolution in memory capacities of chips have given rise to a condition, where we are now talking about building a robot with equivalent or higher intelligence than human beings. It cannot be denied by any logic that, why it isnt possible by the end of 21st century. The desire of humans to artificially build machines and something very similar to him has been a very primitive one. But in very past, we couldnt build much automated motion of humans like machines. Only simple mechanical motions were possible. Gradually we have come to a point, where we have to now study robot psychology too! It would have been a lucrative dream for our ancestors, only 100 years before to design a machine like we see now days. We cannot be very sure that, our descendants 100 years from now wont be having a very similar point of view towards us. Other than building humans like robot, robotics arm and algorithms in machine has been used since 1960s and 1970s.It has been only less than 50 years of the advent of robotics study, and we are now at this juncture of time where robotics plays an important role in key areas of society. It is very conspicuous that, 50 years is so small of time in world history. The future of robotics is very exciting, and allures the youngest mind towards it A light follower is an autonomous both that can follow a specific colour line painted on a surface of different contrast, such as white on black. Light-following robots with pick- and- placement capabilities are commonly used in manufacturing plants. These move on a specified path to pick the components from specified locations and place them on desired locations. Basically, a line-following robot is a self-operating robot that detects and follows a line drawn on the floor. The path to be taken is indicated by a white line on a black surface. The control system used must sense the line and manoeuvre the robot to stay on course while constantly

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correcting the wrong moves using feedback mechanism, thus forming a simple yet effective closed- loop system.

2 APPLICATION AREAS
We can think of few major application areas of current robotics: * Space Missions * Manoeuvring in unsafe and hazardous areas * Household robots * Precise medical surgery * Industries * To investigate science of consciousness * Defence * Expert Systems * Multitasking and labor reduction * Monitoring public and private places * Multifunctional bots

3 OUR PROJECT
In our project, what we have basically tried to do is, to build a robot, which will follow the path having high intensity of light. It can be diagrammatically represented as shown below

Figure 1: simple schematic of robot working

8|Page Hence, we can think of few major areas of applications of this kind of robots inMonitoring a fixed area Patrolling forrest In tunnel works Following the areas subjected to light Manoeuvring and search in areas with light (artificial or natural)
3.1 Block Diagram of robot

Figure 2: Block diagram of robot The circuit operates as follows: The LDR (Light Dependant Resistor) and the 100k preset resistor form a potential divider. The voltage at the base of the transistor is thus give by. The resistance LDR changes depending on the amount of light falling upon it. More light means less resistance, and so a higher base voltage. The transistor operates as a switch when the base voltage VB rises to a high enough level, the transistor turns on. This allows current to flow through the motor, and hence the motor turns. Because the motor is on the opposite side of the robot to the LDR, it turns towards the light source. If it were on the same side, light evasion behaviour would be the result. The circuit is duplicated once for each side.

9|Page 3.2 Components required LEDs 5V power supply Connecting wires Resistors L298N chip DC motors (9 V, 500 rpm) CdS photo-resistor sensor (LDR) Bread board Robot wheels Castor Wheels IOR rectifier Embeded systems 3.3 Component Explanation
3.3.1 LEDs

Figure 3: Light Emitting Diode A light-emitting diode (LED) is an electronic light source. The first LED was built in the 1920s by Oleg Vladimirovich Losev, a radio technician who noticed that diodes used in radio receivers emitted light when current was passed through them. The LED was introduced as a practical electronic component in 1962. All early devices emitted low-intensity red light, but modern LEDs are available across the visible, ultraviolet and infra red wavelengths, with very high brightness. LEDs are based on the semiconductor diode. When the diode is forward biased (switched on), electrons are able to recombine with holes and energy is released in the form of light. This effect is called electroluminescence and the color of the light is

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determined by the energy gap of the semiconductor. The LED is usually small in area (less than 1 mm) with integrated optical components to shape its radiation pattern and assist in reflection. LEDs present many advantages over traditional light sources including lower energy consumption, longer lifetime, improved
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robustness, smaller size and faster switching. However, they are relatively expensive and require more precise current and heat management than traditional light sources. Applications of LEDs are diverse. They are used as low-energy indicators but also for replacements for traditional light sources in general lighting and automotive lighting. The compact size of LEDs has allowed new text and video displays and sensors to be developed, while their high switching rates are useful in communications technology. As with all diodes, current flows easily from p-type to n-type material. However, no current flows and no light are produced if a small voltage is applied in the reverse direction. If the reverse voltage becomes large enough to exceed the breakdown voltage, a large current flows and the LED may be damaged. If the reverse current is sufficiently limited to avoid damage, the reverse-conducting LED is a useful noise diode.
3.3.2 5V Power supply

Figure 4: a 5 V power supply used in the project Application in the project: It has 2 terminals, + and -. The +ve terminal of the battery is connected to the 1st pin of 5V linear regulator, and the ve pin is grounded.

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3.3.3 Connecting wires

Figure 5: different connecting wires Application in the project: Used for various connections in the bread board.
3.3.4 Resistors

Figure 6: Figure of a practical resistor

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A resistor is a two-terminal electronic component that produces a voltage across its terminals that is proportional to the electric current through it in accordance with Ohm's law: V = IR Application in the project: 2 values of resistors, i.e. 23 K and 330 are used in the circuit for various connections in the sensor module with BC547 and with the sensor.
3.3.5 L298N Motor Driver chip

The L298 is an integrated monolithic circuit in a 15-lead Multi watt and Power SO20 packages. It is a high voltage, high current dual full-bridge driver designed to accept standard TTL logic levels and drive inductive loads such as relays, solenoids, DC and stepping motors. Two enable inputs are provided to Enable or disable the device independently of the input signals. The emitters of the lower transistors of each bridge are connected together and the corresponding external terminal can be used for the connection of an external sensing resistor. An additional supply input is provided so that the logic works at a lower voltage.

Figure 7: L298N chip

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Figure 8: Pin description of various pins used in a L298N chip

Interfacing circuit for L298N :

Interfacing circuit for L298N motor driving ic

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Compact Motor Driver Using L298N IC Circuit Diagram

Figure 9: Motor Driving Circuit Using IC l298N

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Application in our project: to drive the DC motors

3.3.6 DC Motors

Figure 10: A simple DC motor Application in our project: The9V, 500 rpm DC motor was used in the project for forward and backward movement of the robot.
3.3.7 CdS Photo-resistors sensors (LDR)

Figure 11: a simple CdS photosensor

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A photo resistor or light dependent resistor or cadmium sulfide (CdS) cell is a resistor whose resistance decreases with increasing incident light intensity. It can also be referenced as a photoconductor. A photo resistor is made of a high resistance semiconductor. If light falling on the device is of high enough frequency, photons absorbed by the semiconductor give bound electrons enough energy to jump into the conduction band. The resulting free electron (and its hole partner) conduct electricity, thereby lowering resistance. A photoelectric device can be either intrinsic or extrinsic. An intrinsic semiconductor has its own charge carriers and is not an efficient semiconductor, e.g. silicon. In intrinsic devices the only available electrons are in the valence band, and hence the photon must have enough energy to excite the electron across the entire band gap. Extrinsic devices have impurities, also called dopants, and added whose ground state energy is closer to the conduction band; since the electrons do not have as far to jump, lower energy photons (i.e., longer wavelengths and lower frequencies) are sufficient to trigger the device. If a sample of silicon has some of its atoms replaced by phosphorus atoms (impurities), there will be extra electrons available for conduction. This is an example of an extrinsic semiconductor.
Sensor Circuit Diagram

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Application in our project: It acts as the eye of the robot, and gives proper feedbacks to the motors through L298N IC.
3.3.8 Bread Board

Figure 13: used for several electrical connections of the circuit .Application in our project: Connection
3.3.9 Robot Wheels

Figure 14: the wheels of the robot

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3.3.10 Castor wheel

Figure 15: castor wheel in the rear portion of the robot for smooth movement 3.3.11 IOR Rectifier Advanced HEXFET Power MOSFETs from International Rectifier utilize advanced processing techniques to achieve extremely low on-resistance per silicon area. This benefit, combined with the fast switching speed and ruggedized device design that HEXFET power MOSFETs are well known for, provides the designer with an extremely efficientand reliable device for use in a wide variety of applications. The TO-220 package is universally preferred for all commercial-industrial applications at power dissipation levels to approximately 50 watts. The low thermal resistance and low package cost of the TO-220 contribute to its wide acceptance throughout the industry. The figure below shows an ior rectifier:

Figure 16: IOR Rectifier

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3.3.12 Embedded systems

Embedded systems have already improved our lives in numerous ways. The embedded system is a combination of hardware, software and perhaps additional mechanical parts designed to perform a specific function. Such a system is in direct contrast to personal computer, which is not designed to do a specific task. An embedded system is designed to do a specific task within a given time frame, repeatedly, endlessly, with or without human intervention. Unlike a PC, embedded

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system does not require a complete operating system, which may make the system bulky,but only the basic functionality of an operating system is needed.
Advantage of Embedded Systems

High performance- The integration of various ICs shortens the traveling route and time of data to be transmitted resulting in higher performance. Low power consumption- The integration of various ICs eliminates buffers and other interface circuits. As the no of components is reduced less power will be consumed. Slimmer and more compact- Housed in a single separate package, the chip is smaller in size and therefore occupies less space on the PCB. Hence products using embedded system are slimmer and more compact. Reduced design and development system-The system on a chip provide all the functionality required by the system. System designers need not worry about the basic function of the system-right from the beginning of the design phase, they can focus on the development of the new features. As a result, the time spent on research and development is reduced and this in turn reduces the time to market of their products. Lower system cost- In the past, several chips in separate packages were required to configure a system. Now, just one system-on chip can replace all of these, dramatically reducing the packaging costs.

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3.4 Programme
#include <AT89X52.h> /* Sensors input port - P1 P1_0 --------> Left sensor P1_4 --------> Right sensor

Motors output port - P0

P0_0 --------> Enable pin of the left half of the H-bridge P0_1 --------> will drive the left motor in forward direction P0_2 --------> will drive the left motor in reverse direction P0_3 --------> will drive the right motor in forward direction P0_4 --------> Enable pin of the right half of the H-bridge P0_5 --------> will drive the right motor in reverse direction */ /*Delay function runs an idle loop to create a time delay. If the crystal used is of 11.0592 MHz then the argument passed in delay is in 'milliseconds'.*/ void Delay(unsigned int itime) {

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unsigned int i,j; for(i=0;i<itime;i++) for(j=0;j<1275;j++); } void Forward() { P0_1=1; P0_2=0; P0_3=1; P0_5=0; } //Idle loop

/*Generally for turning we use a pulsated wave so the bOt doesnt get out of control i.e. we run the motor for sometime then again stop it and this is done very quickly to create an effective pulse. See the function below.*/

void TurnLeft() { P0_1=0; /*Left motor is not running in any direction.*/

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P0_2=0; P0_3=1; /*Right motor is running in forward direction. bOt will eventually turn left*/ P0_5=0; Delay(50); /* Wait for 50 ms*/ P0_1=0; /*Motors are not running*/ P0_2=0; P0_3=0; P0_5=0; Delay(50); /*Delay of another 50 ms*/

/*So in the above program we have effectively created a pulse of 100ms which is on for 50ms and off for another 50ms. You can change this value to suit your needs*/

/*Similarly we can write a function to turn right*/

void TurnRight() { P0_1=1; /*Left motor running in forward direction.*/

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P0_2=0; P0_3=0; /*Right motor is not running.*/ P0_5=0; Delay(50); /*50ms time delay*/ P0_1=0; /*Motors not running in any direction*/ P0_2=0; P0_3=0; P0_5=0; Delay(50); /*50ms time delay*/

} void main() { /* The pins which are receiving inputs from the sensors should be initially set to logic 1.*/ P1_0=1; /*Left sensor input*/ P1_4=1; /*Right sensor input*/ P0_0=1; /*Enable pin of the left half of the H-bridge*/ P0_4=1; /*Enable pin of the right half of the H-bridge*/

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//main loop of the program while(1) {

if((P1_0==0)&&(P1_4==1)) TurnRight(); else if((P1_0==1)&&(P1_4==0)) TurnLeft(); Else Forward();

} } 3.5 AT89C51 Microcontroller Here we have used AT89C51 microcontroller. The AT89C51 is a low-power, highperformance CMOS 8-bit microcomputer with 4K bytes of Flash programmable and erasable read only memory (PEROM). The device is manufactured using Atmels high-density nonvolatile memory technology and is compatible with the industry-standard MCS-51 instruction set and pinout. The on-chip Flash allows the program memory to be reprogrammed in-system or by a conventional nonvolatile memory programmer. By combining a versatile 8-bit CPU with Flash on a monolithic chip, the Atmel AT89C51 is a powerful microcomputer which provides a highly-flexible and cost-effective solution to many embedded control applications

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3.5.1Features Compatible with MCS-51 Products 4K Bytes of In-System Reprogrammable Flash Memory Endurance: 1,000 Write/Erase Cycles Fully Static Operation: 0 Hz to 24 MHz Three-level Program Memory Lock 128 x 8-bit Internal RAM 32 Programmable I/O Lines Two 16-bit Timer/Counters Six Interrupt Sources

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3.5.2 Pin configuration

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3.5.3 Block Diagram

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3.5.4 Package availability of AT89C51:

4 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Figure 22: the circuit diagram for the project

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Working of the robot: Depending on the output from the sensor, the sensors send the clock signal to the ic.. Now depending on the value of the signal from the sensor the wheel of the dc motor move or stop. And thus the robot start to move according to the intensity of light observed by the sensors. 5 FUTURE WORK Future work on the robot may include the involvement of advanced microcontrollers like PIC and AVR Atmel chips. We can also work with more than two sensor, and it would increase the accuracy of the movement of the robot. We can also do programming of the microcontroller for following much more advanced paths and mesh. PIC uses MPLAB and AVR Atmel uses softwares like AVR STUDIO, PonyProg, and WinAVR. The code in case of PIC has to be written in assembly language. Once the code has been written in MPLAB environment, we need to burn the HEX file obtained after burning to the PIC. In case of ATMEL, we can write our code in C language in AVR STUDIO environment, and then build it to get the HEX file. The HEX file can be used to burn it into the ATMEL microcontrollers using any kind of programmer. The programmer can be SERIAL ( 9 pin), PARALLEL or USB type. 6 CONCLUSIONS The movement of the robot in desired way was obtained. 7 REFERENCES GOOGLE AVRFREAKS SOCIETY of ROBOTS BOTSKOOL ATMEL WEBSITE WikiPEDIA ROBOTICS INDIA TRI INDIA www.datasheetcatalogue.com

1.Introduction 2.Comparision between todays grid and smart grid 3.definition of smart grid in Europe and US 4.problems with the existing load 4.1.power outage and power disruption cost 4.2.insufficient for managing peak load 4.3.does not support robust information flow 4.4.limited supports for 5.Goals of the smart grid 5.1response to many condition in supply 5.2smart energy demand 5.3scale and scopes 6.functions and benefits 6.1.self healing 6.2.consumer participation 6.3resist attack 6.4.high quality power 6.5.efficiency 6.6.accomodate generation option 7.Features. 7.1.load adjustment 7.2.deemand response support 7.3.greater resilience 7.4.decentralisation of power generation 7.5.price signaling to consumer 8.technology used in smart grid 8.1.integrated communication 8.2.sensing and measurement 8.3.smart meter 8.4.phasor measurement unit 8.5 advanced component 9.Obstacles for further development 9.1.upfront consumer expense 9.2lack of standarlisation 9.3.regulatory barriers 9.4.lack of widespread understanding 10.Policy options to promote a smart grid in America 10.1.develop national standard 10.2provide federal funding for smart grid 10.3requier greater reliability

10.4.investment tax credit for smart grid related technology 10.5.develop the national communications infrastructure 10.6.provide the utility cost recovery 10.7.increase consumer awareness 11.Key applications 11.1.advance metering infrastructure 11.2.real time pricing 11.3.demand response 11.4.smart charging 11.5.distribution automation 11.6.distributed generation integration 12.makig the smart grid a reality 12.1.the role of government 12.2.role of electric utility companies 12.3.role of technology companies 13.Indian plan and steps on smart grid 14.conclusion 15.References