Aluminum Industry Primer V2

AN EDE PRIMER ON ALUMINUM SMELTERS
An Internal Training Document

For distribution to and use by FM Global employees only
Larry J. Moore, PE Principal Engineer Mining and Metallurgical Refining Staff Engineering
JULY 2008
Copyright 2008 Factory Mutual Insurance Company. All rights reserved. Do not reproduce this report. It is for distribution to and use by FM Global employees only. Do not distribute beyond these groups
Aluminum Smelter EDE Primer July 2008
Summary FM Global has a well developed and institutionalized mine industry specialists program called the MINERS Program which includes comprehensive engineering standards and training for mining occupancies. This specialists program also covers as a subset aluminum refining and smelting but not downstream secondary processes such as rolling mills. A fundamentals class entitled Understanding and Quantifying the Hazards in Aluminum Smelters was developed and deployed in 2005 and 2006. There are currently about 40 field (EH and FH) engineers who attended one of the aluminum fundamentals classes or are seasoned senior engineers with some aluminum smelter expertise. An industry specific Operating Standard OS 7-64 Aluminum Industry - has been published for many years and this covers in detail the entire industry from refining to consumer products. This standard also includes a comprehensive tutorial on the industry as a Reference document. Procedures for field engineering servicing of aluminum facilities are also detailed in the HRG and Visit Planner. As a direct result of a pending 2008 summer candidate campaign for Alcoa Aluminum several operations expressed concern that adequately trained field engineering resources were not available in all operational locations. The primary concern involves the smelting part of the aluminum production chain but extends to the upstream refining and downstream converting operations as well. To address this gap in geographical resources the Principal Engineer offered to deploy a crash abbreviated class on aluminum smelting for those field engineers who have no experience in the industry and had not attended one of the fundamentals classes. FBI operations accepted the offer and a class was deployed July 24th and 25th in the Paris office for European field engineers.
A class for North and South American Operations was discussed but could not be deployed in a suitable time frame to aid in the upcoming candidate campaign. Instead the Principal Engineer agreed to develop basic EDE guidelines to help inexperienced engineers know where to spend their time in complex smelting facilities. The following EDE Primer supplements OS 7-64 but is not a replacement for studying and understanding this comprehensive OS and its excellent Reference document. This is also not a substitute for following the HRG and Visit Planner nor should these guidelines overrule any Operating Requirements. The following guidelines only cover aluminum smelting. On site power generation and other occupancies associated with aluminum industry are not covered. Aluminum Industry Overview: The aluminum industry is comprised of the following general manufacturing segments:
Mining/Concentration: A mine extracts and produces concentrated bauxite ore Refining: A refinery produces alumina from bauxite ore in the Bayer digestion process Primary Smelting: A smelter (a/k/a reduction works) produces aluminum metal by electrolytic reduction of alumina. Secondary Melting: These plants process recycled materials or remelt bar stock from smelters for purification. These plants are heavy industrial occupancies with principle hazards being molten metals, rolling operations with typical Equipment and Facility hazards and large robust equipment like presses.
Consumer products: Downstream metal working processes like rolling, wire drawing, etc produce final products.
The following flow diagram demonstrates the aluminum industry production chain.
Bauxite Mining
Alumina Refining
Aluminum Smelting
Refined Metal
Other Transformation
Processes
Rolling Mills
Extrusion Processes
End Use
Some aluminum industry facts:
Recycling
Aluminum is the third most abundant element in the Earth's crust and constitutes 7.3% by mass. In nature it only exists in very stable combinations with other materials (particularly as silicates and oxides) Its existence was first established in 1808
Is it Aluminium or Aluminum? The word is derived from the Latin Alumen for Alum (Potassium aluminium sulphate). In 1761 French Chemist Louis-Bernard Guyton de Morveau proposed the term Alumine. In 1808 the name Alumium was proposed for the metal.
Aluminium was adopted by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemists in order to conform with the "ium" ending of most elements. By the mid-1800s both spellings were in common use. Charles Dickens commented that both names were too difficult for the masses to pronounce. The first US company was called the Pittsburgh Reduction Aluminum Company and the metal gradually began to be known only as Aluminum in the US. In 1907 this company became the Aluminum Company of America (ALCOA). In 1925 the American Chemical Society decided to adopt the name Aluminum in their official publications. Most of the world has kept the i in Aluminium but it is interesting to note that the name for the metal's oxide, Alumina has been universally accepted over its more convoluted alternatives, Alumine and Aluminia. Both Aluminium and Aluminum thus have an equal claim to etymological and historical justification.
Exposure Driven Engineering (EDE) Guidelines

The following gives a brief overview of the principal EDE FH and EH hazards found in electrolytic aluminum reduction smelters. Protection guidance for various identified exposures is detailed in OS 7-64, Aluminum Industry, and other operating standards and is not repeated herein except generally. A smelter consists of distinct and common processes and infrastructure. While there are variances this is typical of modern smelters using Pre-Baked Anode (PBA) technology. Older Soderberg technology is not described in this paper as it is now more uncommon and many of the same hazards and exposures are the same with PBA. Soderberg is well covered in OS 7-64. Production of primary aluminum requires the following systems and infrastructure delivery, storage, and handling of raw materials production of anodes
production and handling of molten metal
o electrolytic reduction process o casting

processing of waste emissions electrical supply and distribution other utilities and administration support
Figure 1: Modern aluminum smelter with raw material delivery systems and carbon plant at bottom, potlines at top center, and electrical distribution at top right
Delivery, storage and raw material handling systems

Primary bulk raw materials consist of
Alumina (a purified form of aluminum oxide) produced in an upstream alumina refinery and the primary feedstock used for production of aluminum metal. Liquid or solid organic pitch (resin binder) Petroleum coke (carbon) Cryolite, solid sodium aluminum fluoride additive used as a conductive flux and molten solvent in potline cells
These are often delivered to the site by marine vessel (common for alumina if the refinery is remote and if there is a nearby port to the smelter) or by surface transport such as trucks or rail. Cross country rubber belt conveyor systems generally are used to transport these materials from point of entry to storage silos of bins at the plant site. Hot liquid pitch is generally delivered by rail or truck and piped into heated tanks. Primary EDE hazards for raw material delivery and distribution systems are:
Windstorm exposure at exposed port facilities with large rail mounted cranes and ship unloaders. Long narrow levees servicing ship ports with conveyor and piping infrastructure are highly susceptible to hurricane or cyclone wind and sea surge damage. Wind induced toppling or severe movement of rail mounted cranes and ship unloaders can occur.
Fires in semi-mobile equipment like ship unloaders and their on-board electrical and lubrication systems Fires in combustible docks and buildings on docks Fires in liquid pitch systems and storage tanks o o o o Sprinklers Interlocks Confinement Drainage
o Protection Reference: OS 7-99, Thermal Oil Systems; 7-32 Flammable

Liquid Operations. Fires in coke (carbon) handling systems Possible dust explosion hazard with coke and solid pitch handling systems (Note: petroleum coke has a low Kst, has been determined in tests to be hard to ignite and thus represents a very low explosion hazard. Solid pitch fines are similar to coke fines. Explosion hazards can generally be controlled by good housekeeping rather than special protection due to very low overall risk)
o Reference: OS 7-76, Combustible Dusts

Fires in rubber belt conveyors and bucket elevators o o Sprinklers Shutdown interlocks
o Reference: OS 7-11, Rubber Belt Conveyor Systems

Mechanical damage to or toppling of large ship unloaders and cranes due to stress cracking, corrosion, fatigue or overloading Implosion of suction unloading systems Breakdown of large motors and suction blowers Electrical breakdown or fires in transformers or switchgear Impact by marine vessel Port blockage
Anode production (PBA processes):

The pre-baked anode smelting process requires anodes and cathodes for the electrolytic process. The cathode is a carbon liner added when the cell (pot) is newly built and lasting the life of the pot. Anodes are large carbon blocks glued together under pressure using a pitch resin binder with copper metal rods for conducting electricity from bus bars. Anodes are consumable products and the carbon that is consumed is the reducing agent for the reduction process per the following equation. 2 Al2O3 (solid) + 3 C (solid) 4 Al (liquid) + CO2 (gas) To put the anode demand in perspective
1 ton of aluminum requires 1100 lbs (500 kg) of carbon anode The life of one anode is about 30-40 days Daily consumption of anodes is from 600 to 1100 t/day
Because of the large continuous demand for anodes a PBA smelter usually requires an on-site production facility to produce rodded anodes. Anodes can rarely be produced economically elsewhere and delivered to the plant although there are plants that specialize only in anode production. This facility called the Carbon or Paste Plant - consists of the following primary processes:
Mixing of the resin-coke (carbon) blend and forming of a green anode block under pressure and temperature. This is done in a multi-story building featuring hot liquid pitch pumping and piping systems, mixers and blenders, thermal oil dryers and hydraulic presses. Hot liquid pitch, thermal oil, hydraulic oils and carbon combine to produce a high combustible loading with flammable liquids.
Adding copper metal conductive rods to the green anode block. Typically done in a continuous process by drilling openings in the block, and inserting and gluing the rods in place with molten iron. This process can produce fine dusts of coke and dry pitch that can be combustible.
Curing (baking and drying) of the green anode block to form the final product which is sent to the potline. The green anodes are delivered to in-ground baking furnaces, which consist of a series of refractory brick lined pits with hollow, surrounding interconnected flue walls. Anodes are packed into the pits with a blanket of coke covering the anodes and filling the space between the anode blocks and the walls of the pits.
The pits are heated with natural gas for a period of several days. The flue system of the furnace is arranged so that hot gas from the pits being fired is drawn through the next few sections of pits to preheat the next batch of anodes before they are fired. Air for combustion of the gas travels through the flues of previously fired sections, cooling these anodes while reheating the air. The anodes are fired to approximately 2100o F (1150C), and the cycle of placing green anodes, preheating, firing, cooling, and removal is approx. two weeks.
Large waste emission systems associated with anode forming and baking ovens consisting of off-gas collection ducts (often called ring mains), scrubbers, precipitators etc.
Automated or manual systems for delivering pre-baked anodes to the potline
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Figures 2 and 3: Enclosed and open multi-story carbon plants Primary EDE hazards for Carbon (Paste) Plants are: Fires in thermal oil systems in multi-story buildings o o o o Sprinklers Interlocks Confinement Drainage
o Protection Reference: OS 7-99, Thermal Oil Systems; 7-32 Flammable

Liquid Operations; 7-14, Protection of Chemical Process Structures
Fires in hydraulic oil systems with high pressure spray potential o o Sprinklers Interlocks
o Protection Reference: OS 7-98, Hydraulic Fluid Oil Systems

Fires in hot liquid pitch storage, pumping and piping systems with pool potential o o o o Sprinklers Interlocks Confinement Drainage
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o Protection Reference: 7-32 Flammable Liquid Operations

Fires in conveyor systems (both rubber belt and bucket) o o Sprinklers Shutdown interlocks
o Protection Reference: OS 7-11, Rubber Belt Conveyor Systems

Fires in pitch or bake oven fumes collection (waste emission) systems (combustible deposits inside ducts, precipitators, scrubbers etc) o o Housekeeping Internal fire protection
Fires in electrical cables, transformers and switch rooms
o Products of combustion (POC) detection at minimum

o Additional fire protection as needed
Low dust explosion hazard with coke and solid pitch handling systems (See Material Handling above) Mechanical damage to gears and motors on ball mills, extruders, and presses o o o o Maintenance Vibration analysis Spares NDE
Electrical breakdown of transformers and switchgear o o o Maintenance, inspection and testing Spares Clean, cool and dry environments
Production and handling of aluminum metal

At a primary smelter this generally consists of
Electrolytic reduction process Casting of ingots, billets or other shapes to customer specification
Electrolytic reduction process

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The Hall-Heroult process is the method by which alumina (Al2O3) is separated into its component parts of aluminum metal and oxygen gas by electrolytic reduction. It is a continuous process with alumina being dissolved in cryolite bath material (sodium aluminum fluoride) in electrolytic cells called pots and with oxidation of the carbon anodes. The bath is kept in its molten state by the resistance to the passage of a large electric current. Pot temperatures are typically around 1688-1769 F (920- 980C). The aluminum is separated by electrolysis and regularly removed by siphoning for subsequent casting. The pots are connected electrically in series to form a potline. A potline is a group of 100 to 300 electrolytic cells or "pots" that are connected in electrical series. An aluminum smelter consists of one or more potlines In each pot, direct current passes from carbon anodes, through the cryolite bath containing alumina in solution, to the carbon cathode cell lining and then to the anodes of the next pot and so on (see Figures 4 and 5). Steel bars embedded in the cathode carry the current out of the pot while the pots themselves are connected through an aluminum bus-bar system. The pot consists of a steel shell in which the carbon cathode lining is housed. This lining holds the molten cryolite and alumina in solution and the molten aluminum created in the process. An electrically insulated superstructure mounted above the shell stores alumina automatically delivered via a sealed system and holds the carbon anodes, suspending them in the pot. The electrolyte, which fills the space between the anodes in the pot, consists of molten cryolite containing dissolved alumina. A solid crust forms at the surface of the electrolyte. The crust is broken periodically and alumina is stirred into the electrolyte to maintain the alumina concentration. Approximately 13 -16 kilowatt-hours of direct current electrical energy, 2.2 lbs (1/2 kg) of carbon, and 4.4 lbs (2 kg) of aluminum oxide are consumed per kg of aluminum produced.
13
Figures 4 and 5: Cross section views of pot
Figures 5 and 6: Photo of a modern PBA pot and series of pots in a potline building.
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As the electrolytic reaction proceeds, aluminum, which is slightly denser than the pot bath material, is continuously deposited in a metal pool on the bottom of the pot while oxygen reacts with the carbon material of the anodes to form oxides of carbon, primarily large amounts of carbon dioxide. As the anodes are consumed during the process, they must be continuously lowered to maintain a constant distance between the anode and the surface of the metal, which electrically is part of the cathode. The anodes are replaced on a regular schedule. The vigorous evolution of carbon dioxide at the anode helps mix the added alumina into the electrolyte but carries off with it any other volatile materials and even some fine solids. If any carbon monoxide does form it usually burns to carbon dioxide when it contacts air at the surface of the crust. Compounds of fluoride formed in side reactions are the other main volatile product. As electrolysis progresses, the aluminum oxide content of the bath is decreased and is intermittently replenished by feed additions from the pot's alumina storage to maintain the dissolved oxide content at about 2 to 5 percent. If the alumina concentration falls to about 1.5 to 2 percent, the phenomenon of "anode effect" may occur. During anode effect, the bath fails to wet the carbon anode, and a gas film forms under and about the anode. This film causes a high electrical resistance and the normal pot voltage, about 4 to 5 volts, increases 10 to 15 times the normal level. Correction is obtained by computer controlled or manual procedures resulting in increased alumina content of the bath. The most critical issues associated with potline operation are
Power supply and all electrical equipment must be designed to provide maximum reliability and continuity of operations. Raw material handling, pneumatic systems, instrumentation, computer and process controls must be arranged, protected and maintained in good working order.
Centralized exhaust and effluent treatment systems must be protected and maintained. Back up systems or alternative operating capabilities must be in place for all critical support systems.
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Loss of critical support systems for more than a few hours can cause pots or potlines to freeze.
A Potline process consists of the following systems and infrastructure: Electrical power
o Electrolysis power to pots and potlines is delivered from rectiformers by

metal (usually aluminum) bus bars. Control systems power is usually by electrical cable. Both systems are typically in a space or basement below the pots. Compressed air o Used for control air for regulating equipment and for pneumatic power for raw materials (alumina, Cryolite, etc.) delivery systems Raw materials conveying system o Alumina and Cryolite are delivered to storage bins by elevated rubber belt conveyor systems and are fed continuously into pots by pot tending machines o Anodes are delivered by mobile pot tending machines and inserted into pots as they are consumed
Fumes and effluent exhaust and handling system
o Off-gases consisting primarily of CO2 and fines containing alumina and

Cryolite fluorides are captured in waste emission ducts and sent to scrubbers and precipitators for recovery of valuable feed stock and air cleaning
Service cranes and mobile equipment o o o Replenishing feed hoppers Changing PB anodes (or feeding Soderberg pots with anode paste) Tapping metal
Primary EDE hazards for potline processes are:
Loss of a critical utility can cause potline freeze
o A potline freeze is caused when there is an interruption to the pot or

potline for more than several (4 to 8) hours. This can result in the metal and electrolyte in the pot freezing (solidifying) and this cannot generally
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be re-melted by electrical means due to poor conductivity. The frozen electrolyte often needs to be physically removed. This can result in all or many of the pots needing to be torn apart and rebuilt, a long and costly process. (Refer to OS 7-64, Aluminum Industry - Reference Document for a more detailed description. Also refer to OS 7-64 Section 5.0 Loss Expectancy Guidelines - for a procedure to quantify potline freeze.)
o A potline freeze might be caused by many different sub- events including:

Uncontrolled fire at anode paste plant Fire/explosion anode baking ovens/fume extraction system Loss of main electrical switchgear/substation Loss of main auxiliary power switchgear Loss of more than one power group/transformer Fire exposure to DC bus bars Molten metal pot tap out damaging DC bus bar Loss of potline gas treatment center Electrical utility service interruption Loss of compressed air service Loss of environmental waste effluent treatment (fume handling) Loss of shipping facility (unloader, conveyers) Loss of casting center (molten metal explosion) Loss of critical production equipment (ball mill, induction furnace, paste mixer) Loss of main DCS control system Loss of cooling water
Events that can cause a loss of electrical power:
o Area-aide power outage such as weather event destroying power lines o Failure of on-premises generation
o o Switchgear or transformer failure Failure involving component within the DC bus bar network
o Sudden tap out from a pot damaging bus bars or control cables
o o Transformer fire damaging bus bars Poor coordination of electrical system resulting in failure
Methods to reduce risk of electrical failure

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o o o
Redundant incoming power supply lines Proper layout of power lines, transformers, bus bars Testing, inspection and maintenance of electrical equipment o Conduct thermography of welds, joints, risers. Perform milli-volt drop tests of welds, joints, risers and DC isolators. o Conduct thermography of DC isolators. Protection of electrical equipment Availability of emergency equipment Conduct thermography of welds, joints, risers. Perform milli-volt drop tests of welds, joints, risers and DC isolators. Conduct thermography of DC isolators. o section of busbars). Equipment and procedures to handle failure of
o o
o o
o
welds and joints (similar to handling a pot tap out that washes away a o Visually inspect welds for cracking.
Protection References: UTH - Service Interruption
(P0229); UTH Electrical Hazards; OS 7-64 Aluminum Industry; Electrical operating standards
compressed air
Events that can cause a loss of
Loss will shut down plant causing possible potline freeze Power outage Fire Mechanical breakdown
o
o Power outage
Environmental waste effluent handling systems (fume system)
Fire in combustible components (e.g. bag house)
Protection References: OS 7-64, Aluminum Industry Section
2.1.3.3; OS 7-73 Dust Collection Systems; OS 7-78 Industrial Exhaust Systems
Molten Material See casting operations below

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Figure 7: Closely spaced regulating transformers exposing main AC bus bars
Casting Operations
Molten aluminum is tapped from pots and transferred (usually by mobile carriers with crucibles) to holding furnaces in a cast house. Furnaces are generally oil or gas fired but may be electric. From furnaces molten aluminum is cast into shapes such as ingots, billets, sows, or slabs. Casting stations often use water cooling baths. Aluminum metal is highly reactive in both solid and liquid (molten) forms. Solid particles can cause dust explosions. Solid particles however are usually not found in or near casting operations unless there is a powder making operation or cutting of metal in the area. Liquid aluminum in aerosol (mist droplet) form in air can cause a violent mist explosion. Aerosols can be formed in casting operations when chemical reactions occur or when a strong disturbing force such as a lightning strike or a precursor explosion occurs. This phenomenon is rare but has occurred in industrial settings with molten metal mists.
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Molten aluminum is reactive in the presence of water and some other materials such as hydrated lime, iron and copper oxides, and fertilizers. The reaction with water is partially a steam expansion event compounded with formation of hydrogen gas by the rapid decomposition of water. Reaction with oxides (i.e., iron rust) is called a thermite reaction. The presence of hydrated lime (i.e., concrete) can cause a rapid exothermic reaction under certain ideal conditions. Since casting operations include water cooled casters and sometimes metal lined or concrete pits these explosion potentials can exist in modern smelters. Fire hazards are also present from potential molten metal spills contacting combustibles. Primary EDE hazards for casting operations are:
Fuel explosion in furnace Proper fuel burner combustion safeguards
Molten metal-water explosion Eliminate water from furnace charge Proper design and maintenance of water cooling on casters Good operator training Organic coatings on metal and concrete surfaces in pits
Chemical reaction between aluminum and lime, metal catalysts or Proper understanding of hazards Elimination of potential catalysts Proper grounding and bonding against lightening
oxidizers
Molten metal spill
Can cause fires in other combustibles Can damage control systems Proper location of cables, control an utility systems Dikes and curbs Pits
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Fire hazards in hydraulic (furnace lifting jacks), lube oil and fuel oil
systems
Proper location Shielding against molten metal spill AS protection if not near molten metal Interlocks
Fire hazards in grouped cables or switchgear Proper location Shielding against molten metal spill AS protection if not near molten metal
Mechanical and electrical breakdown Maintenance of equipment
Primary protection Reference: OS 7-64 Aluminum Industry
Administrative and support facilities

The plant will have warehousing, offices, maintenance shops, buildings housing electrical and other utilities. These buildings will typically be non-combustible in modern smelters. Fire protection might be needed for combustible occupancy.

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AN EDE PRIMER ON ALUMINUM SMELTERS

An Internal Training Document

Aluminum Smelter EDE Primer July 2008

Aluminum Smelter EDE Primer July 2008

Aluminum Smelter EDE Primer July 2008

Aluminum Smelter EDE Primer July 2008

Exposure Driven Engineering (EDE) Guidelines

Aluminum Smelter EDE Primer July 2008

production and handling of molten metal

o electrolytic reduction process o casting

Delivery, storage and raw material handling systems

Aluminum Smelter EDE Primer July 2008

o Protection Reference: OS 7-99, Thermal Oil Systems; 7-32 Flammable

o Reference: OS 7-76, Combustible Dusts

Aluminum Smelter EDE Primer July 2008

o Reference: OS 7-11, Rubber Belt Conveyor Systems

Anode production (PBA processes):

Aluminum Smelter EDE Primer July 2008

Automated or manual systems for delivering pre-baked anodes to the potline

Aluminum Smelter EDE Primer July 2008

o Protection Reference: OS 7-99, Thermal Oil Systems; 7-32 Flammable

o Protection Reference: OS 7-98, Hydraulic Fluid Oil Systems

Aluminum Smelter EDE Primer July 2008

o Protection Reference: 7-32 Flammable Liquid Operations

o Protection Reference: OS 7-11, Rubber Belt Conveyor Systems

Fires in electrical cables, transformers and switch rooms

o Products of combustion (POC) detection at minimum

Production and handling of aluminum metal

Electrolytic reduction process

Aluminum Smelter EDE Primer July 2008

Aluminum Smelter EDE Primer July 2008

Figures 4 and 5: Cross section views of pot

Aluminum Smelter EDE Primer July 2008

Aluminum Smelter EDE Primer July 2008

o Electrolysis power to pots and potlines is delivered from rectiformers by

Fumes and effluent exhaust and handling system

o Off-gases consisting primarily of CO2 and fines containing alumina and

Primary EDE hazards for potline processes are:

Loss of a critical utility can cause potline freeze

o A potline freeze is caused when there is an interruption to the pot or

Aluminum Smelter EDE Primer July 2008

o A potline freeze might be caused by many different sub- events including:

Events that can cause a loss of electrical power:

Methods to reduce risk of electrical failure

Aluminum Smelter EDE Primer July 2008

Protection References: UTH - Service Interruption

Events that can cause a loss of

Environmental waste effluent handling systems (fume system)

Fire in combustible components (e.g. bag house)

Protection References: OS 7-64, Aluminum Industry Section

2.1.3.3; OS 7-73 Dust Collection Systems; OS 7-78 Industrial Exhaust Systems

Molten Material See casting operations below

Aluminum Smelter EDE Primer July 2008

Figure 7: Closely spaced regulating transformers exposing main AC bus bars

Aluminum Smelter EDE Primer July 2008

Fuel explosion in furnace Proper fuel burner combustion safeguards

Molten metal spill

Aluminum Smelter EDE Primer July 2008

Mechanical and electrical breakdown Maintenance of equipment

Primary protection Reference: OS 7-64 Aluminum Industry

Administrative and support facilities

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