EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

ASSIGNMENT ON:

RESEARCHES ON SPORTS PSYCHOLOGY

SUBMITTED BY: SUBMITTED TO: DATE OF SUBMISSION:

MAIMOONA MUSAMMAR SIR HAYAT 14th DECEMBER 2011.

B.S 3rd Semester

DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY UNIVERSITY OF PESHAWAR

(DECEMBER, 2011) TABLE OF CONTENTS:

Cortical activity of skilled performance in a complex sports related motor task. 04 Effects of differential self-monitoring and level of mastery on sports performance: Brain power bowling.............05 Sports Engineering and Sustainability06 Sport psychiatry and psychotherapy. Mental strains and disorders in professional sports. Challenge and answer to societal changes..07 Behavioral Momentum in Sports.08 Footballs Versus Barbies: Childhood Play Activities as Predictors of Sport Participation by Women09 Quantitative Analysis of Sports10 Giftedness and Talent in Sport..11 The dark side of visual awareness in sport: Inattentional blindness in a real-world basketball task.12 Emotional Intelligence in Sport: Theoretical Linkages and Preliminary Empirical Relationships from Basketball...13 Insightful learning in school physical education..14 Womens Precollege Sports Participation, Enjoyment of Sports, and Self-esteem..15 Gender Stereotyping in Televised Media Sport Coverage ..16

Sport Events and Criminal Activity: A Spatial Analysis.. ..17 Motivation for sport participation in older Italian athletes: the role of age, gender and competition level. .18 Gender Differences in Beliefs About the Influence of Ability and Effort in Sport and Physical Activity 19 Psychophysiology of sports addictions (exercise addiction)20 High School Sport Participation and Subsequent Psychological Well-Being and Physical Activity: The Mediating Influences of Body Image, Physical Competence, and Instrumentality.21 Autonomy support, basic need satisfaction and the optimal functioning of adult male and female sport participants: A test of basic needs theory 22 Sports, dietary habits, self-perception and BMI in a sample of young Italian athletes 23 Refrences..24

RESEARCH NO 1:
Cortical activity of skilled performance in a complex sports related motor task.

European Journal of Applied Physiology Volume 104, Number 4, 625-631, DOI: 10.1007/s00421-008-0811-x BY: Jochen Baumeister, Kirsten Reinecke, Heinz Liesen and Michael Weiss

Abstract
A skilled player in goal-directed sports performance has the ability to process internal and external information in an effective manner and decide which pieces of information are important and which are irrelevant. Focused attention and somatosensory information processing play a crucial role in this process. Electroencephalographic (EEG) recordings are able to demonstrate cortical changes in conjunction with this concept and were examined during a golf putting performance in an expert-novice paradigm. The success in putting (score) and performance-related cortical activity were recorded with an EEG

during a 5 4 min putting series. Subjects were asked to putt balls for four min at their own pace. The EEG data was divided into different frequencies: Theta (4.756.75 Hz), Alpha-1 (79.5 Hz), Alpha-2 (9.7512.5 Hz) and Beta-1 (12.7518.5 Hz) and performance related power values were calculated. Statistical analysis shows significant better performance in the expert golfers (P < 0.001). This was associated with higher front-midline Theta power (P < 0.05) and higher parietal Alpha-2 power values (P < 0.05) compared to the novices in golf putting. Frontal Theta and parietal Alpha-2 spectral power in the ongoing EEG demonstrate differences due to skill level. Furthermore the findings suggest that with increasing skill level, golfers have developed task solving strategies including focused attention and an economy in parietal sensory information processing which lead to more successful performance. In a theoretical framework both cortical parameters may play a role in the concept of the working memory.

RESEARCH NO 2:
Effects of differential self-monitoring and level of mastery on sports performance: Brain power bowling.

Cognitive Therapy and Research Volume 6, Number 3, 335-341, DOI: 10.1007/BF01173581 BY: Daniel S. Kirschenbaum, Arnold M. Ordman, Andrew J. Tomarken and Robert Holtzbauer

Abstract
On the basis of laboratory research on self-regulation, it was hypothesized that positive self-monitoring, more than negative self-monitoring or comparison and control procedures, would improve the bowling averages of unskilled league bowlers (N =60). Conversely, negative self-monitoring was expected to produce the best outcome for relatively skillful league bowlers (N =67). In partial support of these hypotheses, positive self-monitors significantly improved their bowling averages from the 90-game baseline to 5

the 9- to 15-game postintervention assessment (Ximprovement = 11 pins) more than all other groups of low-skilled bowlers; higher skilled bowlers' groups did not change differentially. In conjunction with other findings in cognitive behavior therapy and sports psychology, the implications of these results for delineating the circumstances under which positive self-monitoring facilitates self-regulation are discussed.

RESEARCH NO 3:
Sports Engineering and Sustainability.
The Engineering of Sport 6 2006, 1, 47-52, DOI: 10.1007/978-0-387-45951-6_9 BY: R. Keith Hanna and Eckehard Fozzy Moritz

Abstract
The last 20 years has witnessed an explosion of professional sporting and leisure activities, driven by consumers having more disposable income to spend, economic globalization, multi-channel 24 hour TV, the WWWeb and mobile telecommunications all hungry for content and information. It comes as no surprise then, that science and engineering have already embraced these opportunities with the advent of new disciplines like sports nutrition, sports psychology and the latest one onto the scene, sports engineering. This paper analyses some of the recent and likely future developments, and on this basis puts forward the view that sports engineering will be a transforming agent for the Sports & Leisure Industry well into the 21st Century. The yardstick for these developments will be considerations of sustainability, briefly introduced here in analytical categories, and their resulting innovation potentials.

RESEARCH NO 4:
Sport psychiatry and psychotherapy. Mental strains and disorders in professional sports. Challenge and answer to societal changes.
European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience Volume 261, Supplement 2, 182-185, DOI: 10.1007/s00406-011-0239-x BY: Valentin Z. Markser From the issue entitled "Psychiatry Interdisciplinary"

Abstract
Professional athletes are subject to massive somatic, social, and mental stress. Despite great public interest for athletic achievements, the emotional strains thereof are very poorly investigated and discussed. The main reason for this is the widespread assumption that only emotionally very strong athletes are able to compete at the highly professional level and therefore mental disorders do not exist in professional sports. But available research data about the prevalence of mental disorders in this area suggest that this hypothesis must be revised. With respect to depression and the overtraining syndrome, attempts have been made to demonstrate the difficulties with etiology, diagnostics, and treatment for sports psychiatry and psychotherapy. Scientifically, sport psychiatry and psychotherapy can be defined as a discipline, whose focus is the investigation, treatment,

and prevention of the extreme and sports-specific emotional strains and disorders. In addition to sport psychology, which focuses mainly on performance enhancement, mental stress, and disorders can hereby be recognized, disorders be treated and the athletic performance sustained. With the foundation of the Task Force for Sports Psychiatry and Psychotherapy at the German Association for Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, scientific research, further education, prevention, and treatment for mental disorders in professional sports will be improved.

RESEARCH NO 5:
Behavioral Momentum in Sports.
Behavioral Sport Psychology 2011, Part 3, 143-155, DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4614-0070-7_9 BY: Henry S. Roane

Abstract
The property of momentum is one of the most fundamental principles of physics. The basis of physical momentum is Newtons second law of motion, which states that the change in the movement of an object is inversely related to its mass. Thus, momentum describes the relationship between the velocity of an object and the mass of that object. This relationship is expressed as p = mv, where momentum (p) is a product of the mass (m) and velocity (v) of an object. Thus, the greater physical mass or velocity an object has, the greater is its momentum. Conversely, the greater an objects momentum, the more opposing force required to alter the objects momentum.

RESEARCH NO 6:
Footballs Versus Barbies: Childhood Play Activities as Predictors of Sport Participation by Women.
Sex Roles Volume 42, Numbers 3-4, 159-181, DOI: 10.1023/A:1007035122089 BY: Traci A. Giuliano, Kathryn E. Popp and Jennifer L. Knight

Abstract
The present study examined the extent to which childhood play activities predict future sport participation by women. Eighty-four college women (40 Division III varsity athletes and 44 no athletes) at a predominantly White liberal arts school in the Southwest completed a questionnaire that measured their adult experiences with sports as well as their childhood play activities. The results revealed that playing with masculine (rather than feminine ) toys and games, playing in predominantly male or mixed-gender groups, and being considered a tomboy distinguished between women who later became college athletes and those who did not. These findings suggest that childhood play activities should be considered, along with other agents of socialization (i.e., family, peers, coaches), as important factors in predicting future sport participation by females.

RESEARCH NO 7:
Quantitative Analysis of Sports.
Behavioral Sport Psychology 2011, Part 2, 43-59, DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4614-0070-7_3 BY: Derek D. Reed

Abstract
In 2003, Michael C. Lewis published the book Moneyball: The Art of Winning an Unfair Game, detailing Billy Beanes (the general manager of the Oakland Athletics Major League Baseball [MLB] team) contemporary use of advanced statistical methods to draft or select players and to devise strategic approaches to game play in hope of launching the team into the competitive echelon of the MLB, despite the numerous odds against them. To the novice reader or sports enthusiast, this simple description seems an endearing tale of an underdogs success, and rightly so the Oakland Athletics, with a salary budget of only 41million competedagainstteamswithmuchhighersalaries suchastheNewYorkYankeeswith 200 million to spend on its players. Transcending beyond this triumph over adversity tale, however, Lewiss Moneyball has become a panacea for analytically maximizing outcomes from an economic approach.

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RESEARCH NO 8:
Giftedness and Talent in Sport.
International Handbook on Giftedness 2009, Part VIII, 751-791, DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4020-6162-2_37 BY: Jacques H.A. van Rossum

Abstract
The chapter starts with three examples, as a short, but concrete introduction into the field of sports. Next, a classic study by Bloom (1985) is addressed and discussed extensively. In this study, the career of talented individuals from the domains of art, science and sport is outlined in three phases. Blooms study is used as a stepping stone to various aspects of talent development in sports. Characteristics of successful athletes are presented. Next, three topics are addressed which are often believed to be talent facilitators: the athletes motivation for achievement, the coach, and the amount of the athletes practice. Then, three topics are introduced which are often thought of as talent inhibitors: the athlets parents, schooling, and injury. To end the chapter, the three introductory examples are readdressed successively in the context of prediction of athletic achievement, the issue of athletic dropout, and the interpretation of winning. In addition to presenting relevant findings from the scientific literature, pertinent findings will be introduced from a recently finished 8-year longitudinal study on talent development in sports by the author. 11

RESEARCH NO 9:
The dark side of visual awareness in sport: Inattentional blindness in a real-world basketball task
Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics Volume 72, Number 5, 1327-1337, DOI: 10.3758/APP.72.5.1327 BY: Philip Furley, Daniel Memmert and Christian Heller

Abstract
Most research in the field of decision making in sports has focused on the bright side of visual attention and has not taken the dark side of visual awareness into account. Understanding the costs of such inattention should be complementary to the study of how attention facilitates perception. In the present study, we provide evidence for the existence of inattentional blindness (IB) in a real-world basketball setting among adults (Experiment 1). In Experiment 2, we found that players with hardly any basketball experience were more likely to experience IB in a real-world basketball setting, as compared with experienced athletes. Improving the ecological validity of the setting by enhancing the perception-action coupling (Experiment 3) and increasing task difficulty (Experiment 4) did not appear to affect the occurrence of IB among experienced athletes. IB can be considered a limitation of the visual system, but it also highlights a critical aspect of visual processing, which allows us to remain focused on the important aspects

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of the world. But as is shown in the present experiments, it is possible to induce an attentional setfor example, by sport-specific instructionsthat leads to players missing important game-relevant information.

RESEARCH NO 10:
Emotional Intelligence in Sport: Theoretical Linkages and Preliminary Empirical Relationships from Basketball
Assessing Emotional Intelligence Plenum Series on Human Exceptionality, 2009, Part 4, 291-305, DOI: 10.1007/978-0387-88370-0_15 BY: Con Stough, Mathilde Clements, Lena Wallish and Luke Downey

Abstract
Recently there have been suggestions from within sports psychology (e.g., Meyer & Fletcher, 2007) that there are similarities in the use of psychological tools and programs in the corporate and sporting worlds. Therefore it is somewhat surprising that despite the growing body of research supporting emotional intelligence (EI) as an important tool for identifying superior performance levels within the workplace, it is yet to be the subject of rigorous research within other performance arenas such as the sporting environment. The aim of this chapter is to explore the potential relationship between EI and sport basis of their type of sport. The chapter starts with a discussion of earlier conceptions of emotions in sport, progresses to discuss the construct of EI and then provides some empirical data assessing the utility of at least one application of EI to the elite sporting arena. Throughout the chapter we propose theoretical linkages between EI and elite sporting variables that should be the focus of future empirical research. 13

RESEARCH NO 11:
Insightful learning in school physical education
(A study to develop intelligent knowledge in theory and practice of linking physical education Meaningful learning in school physical education An investigation on the development of intelligent knowledge in sports instruction integrating theory and practice) Sportwissenschaft Volume 40, Number 1, 31-38, DOI: 10.1007/s12662-010-0104-5 BY: Andr Gogoll

Abstract
The latest in the secondary school also offers physical education learning opportunities, deal in which students not only motor but also cognitively active way with problems and tasks of the playful and athletic movement practice. The present work deals with the question of whether and under what conditions a theory and practice, linking physical education for understanding learning and thus contribute to building intelligent knowledge can. First, the hitherto neglected cognitive learning potential of high school sports and worked out hypotheses made about her appearance. The findings of the subsequent empirical analysis show that students perform well in high school sports learning activities that facilitate the understanding of sport-curricular learning content. They do so only under the condition that their motivation is based on self-determination and interest. There is evidence to show that this unique form of learning effective motivation is influenced particularly by the academic self-assessment of students in

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professional sports. At latest in the upper school, physical education (PE) offers opportunities to deal with games and sports not only in a motor but also in a cognitive manner. The present paper asks if and under what conditions on integrating instructional design theory and practice in PE promotes meaningful learning and knowledge construction. It brings out the less considered cognitive learning potential of upper school PE and advances hypotheses about their occurrence. The results of the empirical study show that pupils in upper school PE already use learning activities that promote meaningful learning. It also shows that meaningful learning activities are restricted to a self-regulated learning and intrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation, learning itself is highly dependent on the pupils' academic self-concept in PE.

RESEARCH NO 12:
Womens Precollege Sports Participation, Enjoyment of Sports, and Self-esteem
Sex Roles Volume 55, Numbers 3-4, 225-232, DOI: 10.1007/s11199-006-9074-3 BY: David R. Shaffer and Erin Wittes

Abstract
This study tested a model that specifies that the psychosocial impact of womens precollege sports participation depends on the quality of their sports experience, that is, on participants enjoyment of sports and the benefits derived from athletic pursuits. A sample of 245 college women (mean age=19.9 years) provided retrospective reports of their precollege sports involvement as well as assessments of their enjoyment of sports, perceived physical competence, body image, gender role orientation, and self-esteem. Consistent with past research, women students precollege sport participation was a modest predictor of their self-esteem in bivariate analyses. Follow-up analyses revealed that enjoyment of sports mediated the sports participation/self-esteem relationship and implied that female participants who find sports less enjoyable may be at risk of experiencing declining self-esteem. However, enjoyment of sports explained little unique variance in global self-esteem after we controlled for the influence of other sports-related benefits (e.g., improved physical competence). Implications for those who hope to help more girls reap psychosocial benefits from sporting activities are discussed.

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RESEARCH NO 13:
Gender Stereotyping in Televised Media Sport Coverage
Sex Roles Volume 41, Numbers 7-8, 589-604, DOI: 10.1023/A:1018899522353 BY: Nathalie Koivula

Abstract
Sports spectators usually experience sportsthrough different mass media. To deepen ourunderstanding of the cultural values embedded in sportsand to explore current values and power structuresregarding men and women, it is necessary to investigatethe potential effect that mass media may have ininfluencing beliefs about gender-appropriate sportbehavior. In several cases previous studies have shownbiases in the representation and portrayal ofathletes, particularly with reference to gender. Thepresent study examined samples of televised sports inSweden during 1995/96 (1,470 minutes), with a follow-up examination in 1998 (528 minutes). The resultsindicated gender differences regarding both quantity andtype of coverage. For example, less than 10% of thetotal examined sports news time covered female athletes, and less than 2% of the time was usedto cover women athletes in sports categorized asmasculine. It seems that televised media sports coveragecontinues to reinforce constructions of divisions along lines of gender and to reproducetraditional expectations regarding femininity andmasculinity.

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RESEARCH NO 14:
Sport Events and Criminal Activity: A Spatial Analysis
Violence and Aggression in Sporting Contests Sports Economics, Management and Policy, 2012, Volume 4, Part 5, 175-187, DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4419-6630-8_11 BY: Stephen B. Billings and Craig A. Depken

Abstract
This chapter investigates spatial crime patterns associated with events taking place in two downtown venues in Charlotte, NC: an open-air football stadium and an enclosed multipurpose arena. The evidence suggests neither venues events contribute to an overall increase in reported total, property, or violent crimes in the city. However, both venues experience an increase in crimes within one-half mile from the venue on event days relative to nonevent days. For the arena, violent crimes increase up to a mile away while property crimes decrease for up to 2 miles away on event days compared to nonevent days. For the stadium, violent crimes decrease up to 2 miles away while property crimes increase up to 1 mile away on event days compared to nonevent days. Combined, the evidence suggests that events in these two arenas shift the pattern of reported crime, but in different ways. The results help inform public safety concerns during events and contribute to the debate over public subsidies for venues.

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RESEARCH NO 15:
Motivation for sport participation in older Italian athletes: the role of age, gender and competition level.
Sport Sciences for Health Volume 5, Number 2, 61-69, DOI: 10.1007/s11332-009-0078-6 BY: Roberta De Pero, Stefano Amici, Cinzia Benvenuti, Carlo Minganti, Laura Capranica and Caterina Pesce

Abstract
This study aimed at identifying whether age, competition level and gender influence motivation for sport participation in Italian senior athletes. Four hundred and thirty-three athletes aged 4580 years participated in the study by completing the SMS questionnaire validated for this population. Separate scores for the 7 Extrinsic Motivation (EM), Intrinsic Motivation (IM) and Amotivation (AM) subscales of the SMS questionnaire, as well as a global self-determination index, were calculated. Psychometric testing did not fully support the factor structure of the SMS due to the presence of cross-loading items, suggesting that some items should be revisited to better fit the older athlete population. The analyses of the effects of age, competition level and gender on sport motivation of senior athletes showed a significant interaction between age (4555, 5565, >65 years) and competition level (local, regional, national, international) both for the global selfdetermination index and for the EM scale score. It suggests that the oldest athletes

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competing at local level are less supported by self-determination as compared to their younger counterparts or to age-matched athletes competing at national or international level and that EM may be a key motivational factor for the ageing athlete depending on his/her competition level. Despite the hypothesised influence of stereotyped gender role socialisation on self-determination of older athletes, no gender difference emerged.

RESEARCH NO 16:
Gender Differences in Beliefs About the Influence of Ability and Effort in Sport and Physical Activity.
Sex Roles Volume 54, Numbers 1-2, 147-156, DOI: 10.1007/s11199-006-8876-7 BY: Weidong Li, Amelia M. Lee and Melinda A. Solmon

Abstract
The purpose of this study was to explore gender differences in reasoning about the relationships between natural ability, effort/practice, and final skill level/performance across 16 physical activities at both elite and recreational levels. The participants were 153 college students enrolled in 6 physical activity classes. They completed 2 questionnaires. The results indicated that in physical activity domains, male students tended to rate natural ability as more influential for successful skill level or performance than did female students, but the beliefs seemed to vary for activities that are genderlinked. For all the participants, natural ability was viewed as more important at the elite level than at the recreational level. A strategy for practitioners and coaches to use foster beliefs in the efficacy of effort must be developed by challenging the conception of sports as gender-typed and promoting the concept of sports for all.

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RESEARCH NO 17:
Psychophysiology of sports addictions (exercise addiction).
Human Physiology Volume 37, Number 4, 509-513, DOI: 10.1134/S0362119711030030 BY: S. G. Krivoschekov and O. N. Lushnikov

Abstract
Addictive behavior is an attempt to escape real life by means of artificial changing ones own psychical state by taking drugs or performing certain activities. Depending on the means of the escape, pharmacological or chemical and nonchemical or behavioral addictions may be distinguished. During recent years, researchers focused their attention on nonchemical addictions, in which a behavioral pattern becomes an object of dependence instead of a psychoactive substance. In Russia, the first classification of nonchemical addictions was suggested by Korolenko. He pointed out direct nonchemical addictions, such as gambling, addiction of relationships between individuals, sexual and love addiction, avoidance addiction, ergomania, overspending addiction, and urgent addiction and intermediate addictions, including eating addiction, i.e., either overeating or starvation, which involve biochemical mechanisms. In addition to the abovementioned types of addictions, a substantial number of other nonchemical addictions have been described. Some of them are various dependences on computers or the Internet, addiction to exercises or sports, and others.

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RESEARCH NO 18:
High School Sport Participation and Subsequent Psychological Well-Being and Physical Activity: The Mediating Influences of Body Image, Physical Competence, and Instrumentality.
Sex Roles Volume 61, Numbers 9-10, 714-726, DOI: 10.1007/s11199-009-9671-z BY: Christy Greenleaf, Elizabeth M. Boyer and Trent A. Petrie

Abstract
This study examined the relationship of high school sport participation to psychological well-being and physical activity involvement in college. First semester female undergraduates (n =260) at a large public university in the southern United States reported their high school sport participation and completed a series of questionnaires assessing their current body image, physical competence, instrumentality, psychological well-being, and physical activity levels. Body image, physical competence, and instrumentality mediated the relationships between high school sport involvement and college well-being and level of activity. This model accounted for 46% of the variance in college physical activity and 60% in psychological well-being, suggesting that these benefits accrue as a result of changes in how women view themselves and their bodies.

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RESEARCH NO 19:
Autonomy support, basic need satisfaction and the optimal functioning of adult male and female sport participants: A test of basic needs theory.
Motivation and Emotion Volume 32, Number 3, 189-199, DOI: 10.1007/s11031-008-9095-z BY: James W. Adie, Joan L. Duda and Nikos Ntoumanis

Abstract
Grounded in Basic Needs Theory (BNT; Ryan and Deci, American Psychologist, 55, 68 78, 2000a), the present study aimed to: (a) test a theoretically-based model of coach autonomy support, motivational processes and well-/ill-being among a sample of adult sport participants, (b) discern which basic psychological need(s) mediate the link between autonomy support and well-/ill-being, and (c) explore gender invariance in the hypothesized model. Five hundred and thirty nine participants (Male = 271; Female = 268; M age = 22.75) completed a multi-section questionnaire tapping the targeted variables. Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) analysis revealed that coach autonomy support predicted participants basic need satisfaction for autonomy, competence and relatedness. In turn, basic need satisfaction predicted greater subjective vitality when engaged in sport. Participants with low levels of autonomy were more susceptible to feeling emotionally and physically exhausted from their sport investment. 22

Autonomy and competence partially mediated the path from autonomy support to subjective vitality. Lastly, the results supported partial invariance of the model with respect to gender.

RESEARCH NO 20:
Sports, dietary habits, self-perception and BMI in a sample of young Italian athletes.
Sport Sciences for Health Volume 6, Numbers 2-3, 67-75, DOI: 10.1007/s11332-011-0099-9 BY: Camilla Cerizza, Elena Campanini, Giacomo Di Benedetto and Cinzia Menchise

Abstract
The concept of health closely associates absence of disease and a state of overall wellbeing (physical, mental, social). This state can be achieved by a healthy dietary habit and by engagement in physical activity. Despite this, children and teenagers are increasingly becoming overweight and obese. The aim of this study was to evaluate whether different exercise habits, dietary habits and self perceptions could influence anthropometric characteristics, in particular the body mass index (BMI), in selected participants in highlevel sport aged between 10 and 18 years. An anonymous questionnaire consisting of 20 multiple choice questions was submitted to 1,096 participants (757 males and 339 females) undergoing the preparticipation physical examination that is necessary before taking part in high-level sport in Italy. A descriptive analysis was developed based on relative frequencies because of the qualitative nature of most of the questions with the aim of determining the influence on BMI of: each type of sport; training hours; training hours and type of sport; individual diet (carbohydrates and proteins); habit with regard to 23

breakfast; hours of training and diet; and psychological motivations for eating. Only the combined action of a proper dietary habit and an adequate number of training hours resulted in a radical shift towards an optimal BMI. Moreover, a negative psychological motivation for eating possibly influenced the distribution of BMI even in athletes who followed a correct dietary and training lifestyle.

REFRENCES:
http://www.athleticinsight.com/Vol9Iss4/TrackFieldConsulting.htm http://www.athleticinsight.com/ http://www.journals.elsevier.com/psychology-of-sport-and-exercise/ http://www.americanboardofsportpsychology.org/ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sport_psychology http://www.springerlink.com/

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