Sheet Metals

Kuldeep Kumar Sareen Department of Mech. & Prod. Engg. Engg. Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana

Overview
Sheet metal - <1/4 (>1/4 considered plate)
Comes in gage thickness
Smaller numbers are thicker

Part usually comes from a larger rolled sheet

Must deal with the rolling characteristics of the particular sheet

Sheet metal forming processes are very common in industry. Some products that are manufactured using sheet metal forming include: house appliances car bodies aircraft fuselages

Some advantages of sheet metal forming over bulk forming (forging) and casting are: Products are lightweight The process is cost-effective Simple tooling and processing conditions are required

Examples of sheet metal forming processes: Shearing bending Drawing and stretching Spinning

SHEET MATERIALS
The workpiece shape is formed by displacing material from unwanted unwanted locations into positions required by the part shape. This demands that demands the material should be able to sustain plastic deformation without without fracture.
Pure metals that have a sufficient number of slip systems. Compare Compare Al and Zn. Most solid solution alloys of the same metals Two phase and multiphase materials are deformable if they meet certain minimum requirements. There must be no liquid or brittle phase on the grain boundaries or several grains. (Gray iron, Al-Si alloy cannot be cold worked) AlSteels represent the largest segment of sheet materials. across

Sheet Materials

Sheet Metal Properties

All sheet metal forming processes involve some type of stretching and bending. These types of loading result in tensile strains, which indicate that the tension properties of the sheet metal are important.

Compare to bulk deformation, what is the difference in their deformation modes?

Three major concerns regarding sheet metal properties: Formability limits Product appearance Textures (anisotropy)

Formability Limits This is how much the sheet metal can withstand deformation before fracture or necking (localized deformation). Properties that delay fracture and necking are desirable, such as: eu , ef , and q (fracture) n and m (necking)

Stress-Strain Curve
Sheet metal properties relating to ductility are limited by necking and fracture. Here, n (strain hardening exponent) is proportional to the uniform deformation where m (strain rate sensitivity) represents post necking deformation. Both m and n reflect the total formability of the sheet metal.
FIG 2.2

Product Appearance
Sheet metal products are highly visible, therefore any mark or texture that causes a bad appearance is highly undesirable. Examples include orange peel (grainy) appearance and Lders bands (stretcher-strain marks, or worms).

Orange Peel Appearance Orange peel is what occurs when a stretched sheet becomes grainy in appearance. Large grain size in sheet metal results in this rough surface finish and surface texture.
If grainy appearance is esthetically objectionable, a finerfinergrained material will produce graininess on such a small scale as to be invisible to the naked eye

Lders Bands Some materials such as low carbon steel are subject to initial yielding that is due to highly localized yield point phenomena. Discontinuous yielding results in the formation of visible surface bands (Luders line, stretcherstrain marks). As the material is stretched more, groups of these lines criss-cross the surface.

Lders Bands

FIG 8-4

One way to remedy this is to predeform the metal by a type of rolling called temper pass rolling. In this process, the rolling. metals thickness is reduced about 1% by rolling to exceed metal the yield point elongation.

Yield-Point Phenomena
The yield-point elongation yieldtypical of mild steel returns if a steel subjected to strain aging is stored after initial deformation.

Textures (Anisotropy)
Most polycrystalline materials possess a texture (directional properties). This directionality or anisotropy of properties is evident in variation of E, YS, TS, elongation and other properties. In sheet forming, the relative magnitudes of strains also change during deformation due to texture.

Anisotropy of Deformation
The development of a texture (a) reflects in variations of mechanical properties (b) The effects of anisotropy on the deformation of a material are determined in tension tests (c), which are repeated in different directions relative to the rolling direction (d).

Strain in Anisotropy Volume of material remains constant : 1 + 2 + 3 = 0 or the sum of length, width and thickness strain is equal to zero: l + w + t = 0 plastic strain ratio: r = w / t

Comparison of r values
plastic strain ratio: r = ew / et

Isotropic Material:
r0=r90=r45=1

Normal Anisotropy:
r0=r90=r451 r = (r0+ r90 + 2r45)

Planar Anisotropy:
r0r90r45 r = (r0+ r90 - 2r45)

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A Sheet metal must have following Mechanical and physical properties:

A high uniform elongation (or n value). Large post-necking strain (or high m value). postIn industrial practice, a high total elongation in the tension test. test. Adequate ductility is a necessary but not sufficient criterion. A desirable material shows no Luders bands (stretcher-strain (stretchermarks or worms). A desirable material shows no orange peel appearance. Has a favorable anisotropy.

Sheet Materials

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SHEARING
Shearing is the process of separating adjacent parts of sheet metal through controlled fracture. Examples of shearing processes: blanking (contours, cutting out part from sheets) punching (removing unwanted parts of sheets) Slitting Notching Shaving

Many types of operations

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Punching
Want to apply pure shear, but due to bending end up applying a combination of shearing and bending load

Overcoming Rough Sheared Edges

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Acceptable finish of Sheared Parts:

(a) blanking with optimum clearance, (b) skirt of torn edge is produced with a small clearance (undesirable), (c) burr produced with excessive clearance (undesirable)

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Vital Aspects of Shearing Process: Clearance between the two shearing edges Tool edges wear Tool Maintenance

Shearing Forces Ps=C1(UTS)hl h=sheet thickness l=length of cut C1= 0.85, ductile materials (ef >25%) = 0.65, less ductile materials = 0.7, average value

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Shearing Forces
Ps=C1(UTS)hl h=sheet thickness l=length of cut e is the base of natural logarithm C1= 0.85, ductile materials (ef >25%) = 0.65, less ductile materials = 0.7, average value

n Ps = C1 K hl e

The Shearing Energy Es

The shearing energy to be delivered by the press is equal to the area under the force-displacement curve An approximate value can be forceobtained from

Es = C2Psh
C2 = 0.5 for soft materials C2 = 0.35 for hard materials

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The Shearing Process

Shearing forces can be reduced by giving a rake or shear to (a) blades, (b) the die in blanking, or (c) the punch in piercing.

Beveled Shears
Beveling designed to reduce force required for operation Only shearing a portion of the cross section at a time

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Finish Blanking and Punching

There is a high demand for processes that produce clean-cut edges that are perpendicular to the sheet surface and of a surface finish smooth enough to allow immediate use of the parts.

Parts with finished edges can be produced by (a) precision blanking, (b) negative-clearance negativeblanking, (c) counterblanking, or (d) shaving a counterblanking, previously sheared part

High speed cutting improves quality cut (order of 30 m/s) m/s)

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Processes and Equipment

In mass production, punches and dies made of tool steel or sintered tungsten carbide (WC) are used. Complex geometries can be created in compound dies, while several sheet forming operations are sequentially performed in progressive dies.

Acceptable finish of sheared parts:

(a) blanking with optimum clearance, (b) skirt of torn edge is produced with a small clearance (undesirable), (c) burr produced with excessive clearance (undesirable)

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Compound Die
A compound die perform all cuts simultaneously; several cutting edges work simultaneously

Progressive Die
A progressive die performs different cuts in successive stations.

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Bending
Parts are often further shaped by the relatively simple process of bending, either in one or several places. Stretching on the outer surface is typical of this process. And compression on the inner surface.

Bending
Used to increase the stiffness of a part, or create a desired cross-sectional shape Three point bending is very common

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During bending, the entire stress-strain curve is trasversed. Only the neutral line retains its original length. Fibers below the neutral line are subjected to tensile (+) stresses and fibers above the neutral line are subjected to compressive (-) stresses. Stresses are greatest on the outside and zero at neutral line.

For a given sheet thickness h, tensile and compressive strains increase with decreasing forming radius Rb (i.e. with decreasing Rb/h ratio). For a part to retain its shape, the Rb/h ratio must be small enough to bring much of the sheet cross section into the state of plastic flow. Only one line (the neutral line) retains its original length. b

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Process Limitations
There are three limitations to the process of bending: Orange peel Localized Necking Fracture Springback

Necking
Localized necking occurs when: et exceeds eu
2R et = b + 1 eu h
1

where et is the elongation on the outer fiber of the section below the neutral line.

e u = (exp n ) 1 = (exp u ) 1

where eu = uniform elongation in tension test and u = true uniform strain. where n = strain hardening exponent

(n u)

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Necking
Sheet metal properties relating to ductility are limited by necking and fracture. Here, n (strain hardening exponent) is proportional to the uniform deformation where m (strain rate sensitivity) represents post necking deformation. Both m and n reflect the total formability of the sheet metal.

FIG 2.2

Fracture
Fracture is directly related to the reduction in area, q, measured in tension test.
q= A0 A f A0

Minimum permissible bend radius:

1 R b = h - 1 for materials with q < 0.2 2q
Rb = h
2 (1 q)

2q q2

for materials with q > 0.2

A material of q > 0.5 can usually be bent on itself (zero bend radius) radius)

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Springback
Stress state is complex in bending. Around the neutral plane, the stresses must be elastic because complete tensile and compressive stress-strain curves of the material are traversed on both bend sides. When the forming tool is removed from the metal, the elastic components of stress cause springback which changes both the angle and radius of the bent part.

Fig. 10-12 Dimensions used to characterize springback

If, Radius after springback = Rf Radius of bending tool = Rb

For a material with a high ratio of yield strength to elastic modulus E; modulus therefore springback changes according to the approximate formula

Rb R R = 1 3 b 0.2 + 4 b 0.2 Rf E E h h

where 0.2 is the yield strength of the sheet. E is the modulus of elasticity of the sheet material.

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If Angle after springback = f Angle of bending tool = b

Since the length of the neutral line does not change, the angle after springback, f can be obtained (in radians) from springback,

h h f Rf + = b Rb + 2 2
Springback establishes a new force equilibrium with a residual stress distribution typified by a compressive stress on the outer outer and tensile stress on the inner surface, Figure 10-11b. 10-

Bending Example
A 302 SS sheet of 1-mm thickness is bent around radii of 2, 10, 50, 1100, and 250 mm. Calculate the approximate values of radii after after springback. YS = 250 GPa, E = 193 GPa. springback. GPa, GPa.

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Bending Example

3R Rb R = 1 3 b 0.2 = 1 b 772 Rf h E
Rb, mm
Rb / Rf

10

50

100

250

0.9922 2.016

0.9611 10.405

0.8057 62.06

0.6144 163.56

0.285 877.2

R f, mm

Combating Springback
Spring-back may be neutralized or eliminated by (a), (b) overbending, (c) plastic deformation at the end of the stroke, and (d) subjecting the bend zone to compression during bending with a counterpunch.

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Bending Force
w h A free estimate of the bending force in free bending to 90 90 may be obtained from: Wb

wh2 (TS) Pb = Wb

TS=Tensile Strength w = length of bend Wb = width of die opening

Bending Methods Press Brake Forming Wiping die bending Profile rolling or Bending rolls

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Press Brake Forming

Press-brake forming of (a) a 90o angle, (b) the same but with a polyurethane female die, (c) a Uchannel, and (d)-(f) a bead

Wiping die bending

Wiping die bending method involves bending along a straight line.

FIG 10-15

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Bending Rolls
Bending rolls allows continuous production and very high production rates.

Complex profiles such as door frames may be formed by a sequence of operations on (a) press brakes, (b) wiping dies, or (c) by profile rolling.

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Stretch Forming
Enormous quantities of sheet metal are formed into deep container-like components of a great variety of shapes. They are characterized by curvatures in two directions. They can be produced by
1. Stretch forming 2. Deep drawing 3. Combination of Stretch forming and Deep drawing

Stretch Forming
The shape is developed entirely at the expense of wall thickness in (a) pure stretch forming: fuselage skins, wing skins, boat hulls can be formed. Low volume production, only one die is needed. (b) stretch drawing: automotive and appliance industries, high volume volume production, male and female die set. High tool cost. (c) embossing: sheet provides restraint.

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Stretch Formability
Stretch Formability is the ability of a material to stretch until it reaches its formability limit (stress = limit strain). It is desirable that sheet metal undergoes the preferred shape change without any type of failure such as necking or tearing. Limit Strain is a function of material, strain state and friction on punch surface. Limit strain can be determined with a forming limit diagram (FLD) experiment for different sheet materials.

Combined Stretching and Drawing

In many practical applications, particularly in the production of automotive body and chassis parts, the drawing process is neither pure stretching nor pure forming. The sheet is not entirely clamped (pure stretching) neither is it allowed to draw in entirely (pure drawing).

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Forming Limits Diagram (FLD) Use of a FLD can help one compare various materials. A sheet blank is marked with a grid pattern of circles with electrolytic etching. The blank is subjected to a dome test on a hemispherical punch. The results are plotted on the FLD.

Forming Limits
When stretching and drawing exceeds their forming limits, one can apply the following methods to reduce the drawing ratio (h/D): increase minor strain by increasing the restraint of the sheet in that direction reduce the major strain by reducing the depth of stretch or allow more material to draw in reduce localized thinning by increasing friction on the male tool

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Deep Drawing
In deep drawing, the blank is allowed (even encouraged) to draw into the die and the thickness of the sheet metal is nominally unchanged. As compared to deep drawing, the blank is clamped and depth is attained at the expense of the sheet thickness in stretching.

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Aluminum two piece beverage cans. Note fine surface finish

How many aluminum cans are produced annually in North America? 110 billion cans

Containers may be formed by drawing (a) without or (b) with a blankholder.

LDR < 1.2 THICK

Dp

Blank holding Pressure = 1.5% o Blank holding force = Af(1.5% o) o = Yield strength of the sheet material
do

Af

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The stress state varies greatly in different parts of a partly drawn cup

Base: is in balanced biaxial tension Side Wall: is in plane-strain tension, no circumferential contraction planeFlange and Wall transition: bending and rebending (straightening out) Flange: is in radial tension and circumferential compression, circumference of the circumference blank is reduced while it is forced to conform to the smaller diameter of die open. diameter

The significant independent variables in deep drawing are:

Properties of the sheet metals The ratio of the blank diameter to the punch diameter The clearance between the punch and the die The corner radii of the punch and die Blank holding force Friction and lubrication at the punch, die, and workpiece interfaces Thickness of the sheet Punch Force The speed of the punch Anisotropy

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Drawing Force

do Pd = D p h ( TS ) 0.7 Dp
Blank holding Pressure = 1.5% o Blank holding force = Af(1.5% o) o = Yield strength of the sheet material

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Limiting Draw Ratio

Dp

Af

LDR =

do(max) Dp
do

The maximum diameter of the original blank that can be drawn without fracture under ideal conditions is expressed as the limiting draw ratio.

Factors that Affect LDR

1. 2. 3. A high n strengthens the cup wall but also increases the draw force, hence it is force, fairly neutral. A high m strengthens an incipient neck in the wall while barely affecting the draw force, slightly positive effect. A high r value resists thinning while voluntarily reducing its width. This helps width. the blank to conform to the reduced diameter of the cup and is thus a positive thus factor. Tight punch and part radii impose severe bending strain and thus increase the draw force. Very large radii would leave much of the blank unsupported. R > unsupported. 4h for thick (> 5mm) and R > 8h for thin (<1 mm) sheet. Friction between blankholder, die, and flange surfaces adds to the draw force and blankholder, is thus harmful. Friction on the punch is helpful because it transfers the draw force from the cup force to the punch

4.

5. 6.

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Comparison of r values
plastic strain ratio: r = ew / et

Isotropic Material:
r0=r90=r45=1

Normal Anisotropy:
r0=r90=r451 r = (r0+ r90 + 2r45)

Planar Anisotropy:
r0r90r45 r = (r0+ r90 - 2r45)

Effect of r on LDR

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Sheet Metal Properties

Sheet Metals Zinc Hot-rolled steel HotCold-rolled rimmed steel ColdCold-rolled aluminum-killed steel ColdaluminumAluminum Copper and brass Titanium r 0.2 0.8-1.0 0.81.0-1.35 1.01.35-1.8 1.350.6-0.8 0.60.8-1.0 0.84 -6

Further Drawing
Cups of a depth greater than permitted by the LDR can be made by Further Forming after initial cupping. The 3 methods of Further Drawing: (a) redrawing, (b) ironing, or (c) reverse drawing.

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Further Drawing
Cups of a depth greater than permitted by the LDR can be made by Further Forming after initial cupping. The 3 methods of Further Drawing: Redrawing: wall thickness essentially unchanged
Food containers, oil-filter housings, fountain-pen caps

Ironing: inner diameter virtually unchanged, achieved greater depth by reducing wall thickness (similar to drawing a tube on a bar)
Mass production of drawn-and-ironed beverage cans, and ammunition cartridges.

Reverse Drawing: used for cold-worked materials which exhibit greater ductility when deformation direction is reversed in successive operations
Reverse redrawing of cups

Combined Stretching and Drawing

In many practical applications, particularly in the production of automotive body and chassis parts, the drawing process is neither pure stretching nor pure drawing. The sheet is not entirely clamped (pure stretching) neither is it allowed to draw in entirely (pure drawing).

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Shape Analysis
When a sheet metal working process involves both stretching and drawing, one should use shape analysis to judge the overall severity of the operation. One of the end points is determined by the LDR and the other end point is found by applying pure stretching (by pressing a steel ball into a clamped sheet until a localized neck is observed. The stretching limit SL is the height of stretch hs divided by the diameter of the die Ds The stretchdraw limit is then obtained by connecting these two endpoints.

Combined Stretch-Draw Limit Diagram

Combined stretch-draw limit diagram is used for judging the severity of combined operations.

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Special Processes Flanging and Necking

Complex forms of bending are encountered in working the edges of blanks, holes, and tubes. Some examples: flanging of a blank flanging of a hole expansion/flanging the ends of a tube Flanging a sheet and the end of a tube are encountered in the forming of double seams for sealing food and beverage cans

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Spinning
Spinning, a type of stretch forming, is related to bending. In spinning, a circular blank is held against a male die/form, which in turn is rotated by a mechanism similar to a lathe spindle.

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A low graphite steel blank of 200-mm diameter and 2-mm thickness is 2002to be drawn into a cylindrical cup of 100-mm internal diameter. The 100bottom radius is 5 mm. (a) Check whether the draw is feasible and, if and, it is, (b) estimate the press force. Solution: (a) D0max/Dp = 200/100 = 2 mm. From combined stretch-draw limit diagram, LDR = 2.4, stretchHence the draw is feasible. Manufacturing properties of steel, for 1008 steel, TS = 320 Mpa. From Mpa. equation for draw force, Pd = (100)(2)(320[200/100) 0.7] = 261 KN

Shearing Process Example Circular blanks of d0 = 200-mm diameter are to be cut from h = 3-mm thick, annealed 5052 aluminum alloy. What press force and energy are needed. The material has TS = 190 Mpa. Solution: Ps = Ps=C1(UTS)hl 0.85(190)(3)(200) 0.85(190)(3)(200 h=sheet thickness = 304 KN. l=length of cut
C1= 0.85, ductile materials (ef > 25%) (e = 0.65, less ductile materials = 0.7, average value

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Shearing energy Es = C2Psh Where C2 = 0.5 for soft materials and 0.35 for hard materials Es = 0.5(304)(3) = 457 N.m.

Example 2. Drawing-quality aluminum killed steel of r = 1.7 Drawinghas an LDR of 2.4. A cylindrical cup is drawn from sheet of h = 2-mm thickness with a punch of diameter Dp = 100 2mm and zero nose radius. Find (a) the maximum blank diameter d0(max), (b) (b) the depth of cup, assuming a constant wall thickness of 2 mm, and (c) (c) the height-to-diameter ratio. height- toSolution: (a) From LDR eqn., d0(max), = LDR x Dp = 2.4(100) = 240 mm. eqn.,

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(b) Since wall thickness remains unchanged and the cup is relatively thin, we can equate the volume of the starting blank with the volume of the cup. Vol. of blank = (Vol. of base) + (volume of wall) (2402/4)(2) = [(104)2 /4](2) + [(1042 1002)/4](h) 115200 = 21632 + 816(h) Wall height h = 114.67 mm

c) h/Dp = 114.67/100 = 1.15

Bending Example
A 302 SS sheet of 1-mm thickness is bent around radii of 2, 10, 50, 1100, and 250 mm. Calculate the approximate values of radii after after springback. YS = 250 GPa, E = 193 GPa. springback. GPa, GPa.

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Bending Example
A 302 SS sheet of 1-mm thickness is bent around radii of 2, 10, 50, 1100, and 250 mm. Calculate the approximate values of radii after after springback. YS = 250 GPa, E = 193 GPa. springback. GPa, GPa.

3R Rb R = 1 3 b 0.2 = 1 b 772 Rf h E
Rb, mm
Rb / Rf

10

50

100

250

0.9922 2.016

0.9611 10.405

0.8057 62.06

0.6144 163.56

0.285 877.2

R f, mm

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