1

Forward Dierence Operator

Denition 1: Forward dierence operator is a linear operator which is denoted by and is dened as follows: f (x) = f (x + 1) f (x) Following properties follows from denition: (f (x) + g(x)) = f (x) + g(x) If k is a constant then, (kf (x)) = kf (x) Following is product rule due to Lebinitz: (f (x)g(x)) = f (x)g(x) + g(x)f (x) If one applies operator again on f (x) then one has, 2 f (x) = f (x) = f (x + 1) f (x) = f (x + 2) 2f (x + 1) + f (x) after which one has, 3 f (x) = f (x+2)2f (x+1)+f (x) = f (x+3)3f (x+2)+3f (x+1)f (x) Carrying out similarly one will note occurence of bionomial coecients. Theorem 1: For n 0 one has,
n

(1)

f (x) =
j=0

n (1)nj f (x + j) j

(2)

Proof : If one assumes (2) then one has,

n

n+1 f (x) =
j=0

n (1)nj (f (x + j + 1) f (x + j)) j

which after the property of bionomial coecients, n j produces,

n+1

n+1 n j j1 n+1 (1)n+1j f (x + j) j

n+1

f (x) =
j=0

Hence (2) is proved using induction on n. If one puts f (x) = xk in (2) then one has,
n

n xk =
j=0

n (1)nj (x + j)k j 1

(3)

One would also be able to note that each time he applies on a polynomial he gets a degree less than that of polynomial. Thereafter one has, For n > k, n n n x k = (1)nj (x + j)k = 0 (4) j j=0 Theorem 2: For Bernoulli numbers Bn one has,
n

Bn =
j=0

j 1 (1)m mn j + 1 m=0 m

(5)

Proof : One has, x = log(1 + ex 1) and after innite series expansion, x = ex 1

j=0

(1 ex )j j+1
j

j=0

(1 ex )j = j+1

j=0

1 j (1)m exm j + 1 m=0 m

j

x = ex 1

j=0

1 j (1)m m j + 1 m=0

xn mn n! n=0 1 j (1)m mn m j + 1 m=0

j

j=0

1 j (1)m m j + 1 m=0

xn m n xn = n! n! n=0 n=0

j=0

Therefore one has, x xn = ex 1 n=0 n! and after the view of (3) one has, xn x = ex 1 n=0 n!

j=0

1 j (1)m mn j + 1 m=0 m

j=0

1 (1)j |j xn |x=0 j+1

Comparing both sides and after the view of (4) one has,
n

Bn =
j=0

1 (1)j |j xn |x=0 j+1

Denition 2: Stirling numbers of second kind will be denoted as S(n, j) and are dened as follows: j xn |x=0 S(n, j) = j! 2

It also follows from denition that for j > n, S(n, j) = 0. Theorem 3: For 0 < j n one has, S(n + 1, j) = jS(n, j) + S(n, j 1) Proof : (6) follows from denition itself. From (6) one can conlude that S(n, j) are integers. Stirling numbers of second kind are interesting combinatorial objects. after we have, n j! (1)j S(n, j) Bn = j+1 j=0 Theorem 4: Let p be a prime number then, If p-1 divides 2n(p = 2) (denoted by p 1|2n) then,
p1

(6)

There-

(1)m
m=0

p1 m2n 1(modp) m

(7)

and if p-1 does not divide 2n then,

p1

(1)m
m=0

p1 m2n 0(modp) m

(8)

Proof : One has from Fermats little theorem, mp1 1(modp) for m = 1, 2, ..., p 1 If p 1|2n then one has, m2n 1(modp) for m = 1, 2, ..., p 1 and afterwards,
p1

(1)m
m=1

p1 p1 m2n (1)m (modp) m m m=1 p1 m2n 1(modp) m

p1

and therefore,
p1

(1)m
m=0

If p-1 does not divide 2n then after Fermats theorem one has, m2n m2n(p1) (modp)
1 Refer

to Combinatorics by Russell Merris

for m = 1, 2, ..., p 1, 2n If one lets = [ p1 ] then after iteration one has,

m2n m2n(p1) (modp) for m = 1, 2, ..., p 1 where one has 0 < 2n (p 1) < p 1. After summation on m one has,
p1

(1)m
m=0

p1 p1 m2n (1)m m2n(p1) (modp) m m m=0

p1

which after the view of (4) gives (8). Theorem 5 For a > 2 and b > 2, ab|(ab 1)! Proof : (9) is easy to see. (9)

Von-Staudt Clausen Theorem

1 p

Von-Staudt Clausen theorem says: B2n = In

p1|2n

where In is an integer. One already has,

2n

B2n =
j=0

1 j (1)m m2n m j + 1 m=0

2n

(10)

and also, B2n =

j=0

j! (1)j S(2n, j) j+1

(11)

where S(2n, j) are integers. If j + 1 is a composite number then, j + 1|(j)! for j > 3 by (9). For j = 3 we have,
3

(1)m
m=0
2 [x]

3 m2n = 3.22n 32n 3 0(mod4) m

represents greatest integer less than or equal to x

If j + 1 is prime, j is even except for j = 1 For j = 1 we have,

1

m=0

(1)m

1 m2n 1(mod 2) m

Using above arguments and (7) and (8) one can derive Von-Staudt Clausen theorem. Exercise 1: Prove using induction:
n

n (f (x)g(x)) =
j=0

n nj f (x)j g(x) j

Exercise 2: Use Von-Staudt Clausen theorem to show that denominators of Bernoulli numbers are divisible by 6. Exercise 3: Prove following using induction:
j

jk =
m=0

(j)(j 1)....(j m + 1)S(k, m)

Exercise 4: Prove the following as a corrolary of Ex.3:

j

jk =
m=0

j m!S(k, m) m

Dene m!S(k, m) = A(k, m) and use: j m to obtain:

M 1 j

j+1 j m+1 m+1 M N )A(k, m) m+1 m+1

jk =
j=N

(
m=0

Exercise 5: Dene Bernoulli polynomials Bk (x) as:

j

Bk (x) = k
m=0

x A(k 1, m) + Ck m+1

where Ck is a constant. Show the following: jk = Bk+1 (j + 1) Bk+1 (j) j+1