Antenna 1

Antennas
Amanogawa, 2001 Digital Maestro Series 1

Antennas
Antennas are transducers that transfer electromagnetic energy
between a transmission line and free space.
Transmitting
Antenna
I
I
Transmitter
Transmission Line
Electromagnetic
Wave
Receiving
Antenna
I
I
Receiver
Transmission Line
Electromagnetic
Wave
Antennas
Here are a few examples of common antennas:
Linear dipole fed
by a two-wire line
Ground plane
Linear monopole
fed by a single wire
over a ground plane
Coaxial ground
plane antenna
Parabolic (dish) antenna
Linear elements connected
to outer conductor of the
coaxial cable simulate the
ground plane
Uda-Yagi dipole array
Passive elements
Loop dipole
Logperiodic array
Loop antenna
Multiple loop antenna wound
around a ferrite core
Antennas
From a circuit point of view, a transmitting antenna behaves like an
equivalent impedance that dissipates the power transmitted
The transmitter is equivalent to a generator.
I
I
Transmitter
Transmission Line
Transmitting
Antenna
I
I
Transmitter
Transmission Line
Electromagnetic
Wave
Z
eq
= R
eq
+ jX
eq
P t R I
eq
( ) =
1
2
2
V
g
Z
g
Antennas
A receiving antenna behaves like a generator with an internal
impedance corresponding to the antenna equivalent impedance.
The receiver represents the load impedance that dissipates the time
average power generated by the receiving antenna.
I
I
Transmission Line
Receiving
Antenna
I
I
Receiver
Transmission Line
P t R I
in
( ) =
1
2
2
V
eq
Z
eq
Electromagnetic
Wave
Z
in
Z
R
Antennas
Antennas are in general reciprocal devices, which can be used both
as transmitting and as receiving elements. This is how the
antennas on cellular phones and walkietalkies operate.
The basic principle of operation of an antenna is easily understood
starting from a twowire transmission line, terminated by an open
circuit.
Imagine to bend the end of the transmission line, forming a dipole
V
g
Z
g
| I |
| I |
Note: This is the return
current on the second wire,
not the reflected current
already included in the
standing wave pattern.
Z
R

Open circuit
Antennas
antenna. Because of the change in geometry, there is now an
abrupt change in the characteristic impedance at the transition
point, where the current is still continuous. The dipole leaks
electromagnetic energy into the surrounding space, therefore it
reflects less power than the original open circuit the standing
wave pattern on the transmission line is modified
In the space surrounding the dipole we have an electric field. At
Z
0
V
g
Z
g
| I |
| I |
| I
0
|
| I
0
|
Antennas
zero frequency (d.c. bias), fixed electrostatic field lines connect the
metal elements of the antenna, with circular symmetry.
At higher frequency, the current oscillates in the wires and the field
E
E
Antennas
emanating from the dipole changes periodically. The field lines
propagate away from the dipole and form closed loops.
Antennas
The electromagnetic field emitted by an antenna obeys Maxwells
equations
Under the assumption of uniform isotropic medium we have the
wave equation:
Note that in the regions with electrical charges
j
j
E H
H J E
w m
we
= -
= +
, ,
, , ,
2
2
E H J E
H J E
J H
j j
j
w m w m w me
we
w me
= - =- +
= +
= +
, , , ,
, , ,
, ,
( )
2 2
E E E E r e = - = -
, , , ,
Antennas
In general, these wave equations are difficult to solve, because of
the presence of the terms with current and charge. It is easier to
use the magnetic vector potential and the electric scalar potential.
The definition of the magnetic vector potential is
Note that since the divergence of the curl of a vector is equal to
zero we always satisfy the zero divergence condition
We have also
B A =
, ,
( )
B A 0 = =
, ,
( )
j j j E A E H A 0 w w m w = - = - = +
, , , , ,
Antennas
We define the scalar potential first noticing that
and then choosing (with sign convention as in electrostatics)
Note that the magnetic vector potential is not uniquely defined,
since for any arbitrary scalar field
In order to uniquely define the magnetic vector potential, the
standard approach is to use the Lorenz gauge
( )
0 f =
( )
( )
E A E A j j w w f f + = - - - =
, , , ,
( )
B A A y = = +
, , ,
j A 0 w me f + =
,
Antennas
From Maxwells equations
From vector calculus
( ) ( )
j
j
j j
1
H B J E
B J E
A J A
we
m
m w me
m w me w f
= = +
= +
= + - -
, , , ,
, , ,
, , ,
( ) ( )
j
2 2
A A A J A w me f m w me = - = - +
, , , , ,
( )
j j A A w w m f me f e = - = -
, ,
Lorenz Gauge
( ) ( )
2
= -
Antennas
Finally, the wave equation for the magnetic vector potential is
For the electric field we have
The wave equation for the electric scalar potential is
2 2 2 2
A A A A J w me b m + = + = -
, , , , ,
( )
( )
2 2
D E
A
A j
j j j w me f
r
r w f
e
r
f w f w
e
= = - - =
+ = + = - -
,
,
, ,
2 2 2 2
r
f w me f f b f
e
+ = + = -
Antennas
The wave equations are inhomogenoeous Helmholtz equations,
which apply to regions where currents and charges are not zero.
We use the following system of coordinates for an antenna body
z
x
y
r
,
r '
,
r r ' -
, ,
Radiating antenna body
Observation point
r
r
J( ')
( ') r
,
,
,
dV'
Antennas
The generals solutions for the wave equations are
The integrals are extended to all points over the antenna body
where the sources (current density, charge) are not zero. The effect
of each volume element of the antenna is to radiate a radial wave
( )
( )
j r r
V
J r e
r dV
r r
'
'
A '
4 '
b
m
p
- -
=
-
, ,
,
,
,
,
, ,
( )
( )
j r r
V
r e
r dV
r r
'
' 1
'
4 '
b
r
f
pe
- -
=
-
, ,
,
,
, ,
j r r
e
r r
'
'
b - -
-
, ,
, ,
Antennas
Infinitesimal Antenna
z
x
y
r r r ' = -
, , ,
r ' 0 =
,
Infinitesimal antenna body
Observation point
J(0)
(0) r
,
dV'
S D
z D
I constant
phasor
=
,
z l D <<
Dielectric medium ( , )
Antennas
The current flowing in the infinitesimal antenna is assumed to be
constant and oriented along the zaxis
The solution of the wave equation for the magnetic vector potential
simply becomes the evaluation of the integrand at the origin
( ) ( )
( )
z
S r S
V r z
V
i
S z I J ' J 0 '
' J ' I
= D = D D =
D D
D
=
D
, , ,
, ,
,
,
,
1
H A
I
A
4
1
E H
j r
z
z e
i
r
j
b
m
m
p
we
-
D

=

, ,
,
, ,
, ,
Antennas
There is still a major mathematical step left. The curl operations
must be expressed in terms of spherical coordinates
z
x
y
r
,
q
j
i
j
,
i
j
,
i
q
,
r
i
,
Azimuthal angle
Elevation angle
Antennas
In spherical coordinates
( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
r
r
r
r
r
i r i r i
r
r
A rA r A
A A i
r
A r A i
r r
r A A i
r r
2
sin
1
A
sin
sin
1
sin
sin
1 1
sin
1
q j
q j
j q
j q
q j
q
q j
q
q
q
q q j
q j
q

=

= -

+ -

+ -

, , ,
,
,
,
,
Antennas
We had
For the fields we have
j r
z z r
j r
z e
i i i i
r
j z e
i
r r
ith
j
w
I
A cos sin
4
I
1
A 1 sin
4
b
q
b
j
m
q q
p
m b
q
p b
-
-
D
= = -
D

= +

,
, , , , ,
,
, ,
j r
j z e
i
r j r
I
1 1
H A 1 sin
4
b
j
b
q
m p b
-
D

= = +

,
, , ,
Antennas
The general field expressions can be simplified for observation
point at large distance from the infinitesimal antenna
( )
( )
j r
r
j z e
j r
i
j r
j r
i
j r
j r
2
2
I
1
E H
4
1 1
2cos
1 1
sin 1
b
q
b
m
we e p
q
b
b
q
b
b
-
D
= =

+ + +

,
, ,
,
,
( )
r r
j r
j r
2
1 1 2
1 1
p
b
b l
b
>> >> = >>
Antennas
At large distance we have the expressions for the Far Field
At sufficient distance from the antenna, the radiated fields are
perpendicular to each other and to the direction of propagation.
The magnetic field and electric field are in phase and
These are also properties of uniform plane waves.
E H H
m
h
e
= =
, , ,
j r
j z e
i
r
I
H sin
4
b
j
b
q
p
-
D
,
, ,
j r
j z e
i
r
I
E sin
4
b
q
b
m
q
e p
-
D
,
, ,
r 2p l >>
Antennas
However, there are significant differences with respect to a uniform
plane wave:
The surfaces of constant phase are spherical instead of planar,
and the wave travels in the radial direction
The intensities of the fields are inversely proportional to the
distance, therefore the field intensities decay while they are
constant for a uniform plane wave
The field intensities are not constant on a given surface of
constant phase. The intensity depends on the sine of the
elevation angle
The radiated power density is
{ }
2
*
2
2
1 1
( ) Re E H
2 2
I
sin
2 4
r
r
P t i H
z
i
r
j
m
e
b
h
q
p
= =
D
=

, , , ,
,
,
Antennas
The spherical wave resembles a plane wave locally in a small
neighborhood of the point ( r, , ).
z
( ) P t
,
E
q
H
j
r
,
q
J
,
j
Antennas
Radiation Patterns
Electric Field and Magnetic Field
z
x
or H E
q j
q
y
x
Plane containing the antenna
proportional to sin
Plane perpendicular to the antenna
omnidirectional or isotropic
Fixed r
Antennas
Timeaverage Power Flow (Poynting Vector)
z
x
( ) P t
,
q
Plane containing the antenna
proportional to sin
2
Plane perpendicular to the antenna

omnidirectional or isotropic
y
x
Fixed r
Antennas
Total Radiated Power
The timeaverage power flow is not uniform on the spherical wave
front. In order to obtain the total power radiated by the infinitesimal
antenna, it is necessary to integrate over the sphere
Note: the total radiated power is independent of distance. Although
the power decreases with distance, the integral of the power over
concentric spherical wave fronts remains constant.
2
2
0 0
2
2 2
2 3
0
4 3
sin ( )
I I
4
2 sin
2 4 3 4
p p
p
p
j q q
b b
h p h
p q q
p p
=
=
=
D D
= =

tot
P d d r P t
z z
r d
r
,
, ,
Antennas
1 2 tot tot
P P =
1 tot
P
2 tot
P
Antennas
The total radiated power is also the power delivered by the
transmission line to the real part of the equivalent impedance seen
at the input of the antenna
The equivalent resistance of the antenna is usually called radiation
resistance. In free space
2
2
2 2
I
1 4 2 1 2
I I
2 3 4 2 3
eq
tot eq
R
z
z
P R
ph p ph
l p l

D
D

= = =

,
, ,
_
[ ] [ ]
2
2
8 20 0 1
o
o
eq o
z
R p
m
h p
l
h
e
= =
D

= W =
W
Antennas
The total radiated power is also used to define the average power
density emitted by the antenna. The average power density
corresponds to the radiation of a hypothetical omnidirectional
(isotropic) antenna, which is used as a reference to understand the
directive properties of any antenna.
z
x
( , ) P t q
,
q
ave
P
Power radiation pattern of an
omnidirectional average antenna
Power radiation pattern
of the actual antenna
Antennas
The timeaverage power density is given by
The directivity (formerly called directive gain) of the infinitesimal
antenna is defined as
( )
Surface of wave front
2
2
2
Total Radiated Powe
2
r
I
1
I
12 3 4
4 4
ave
tot
P
z
P
z
r
r r
b
h h
b
p p
p p
= =
D
= = D =

,
,
1
2 2
2
2
( , , )
I I
si ( , )
3
sin
2
n
2 4 3 4
ave
P t r
z z
P r r
D
q
b b
h h
q q
q
p
j
p
-

D D
= =

=
, , ,
Antennas
The maximum value of D(,) is also called directivity (if
unspecified, maximum is implied). For the infinitesimal antenna,
the maximum occurs when the elevation angle is 90
The directivity gives a measure of how the actual antenna performs
in the direction of maximum radiation, with respect to the ideal
isotropic antenna which emits the average power in all directions.
{ }
2
3
max ( , ) sin 1 Directivi . t
2 2
y 5 D
p
q j

= = =

x
z
90
ave
P
max
P
Antennas
The infinitesimal antenna is a suitable model to study the behavior
of the elementary radiating element called Hertzian dipole.
Consider two small charge reservoirs, separated by a distance z,
which exchange mobile charge in the form of an oscillatory curent
+
( ) I t
t
z D
+
Antennas
The Hertzian dipole can be used as an elementary model for many
natural charge oscillation phenomena. The radiated fields can be
described by using the results of the infinitesimal antenna.
Assuming a sinusoidally varying charge flow between the
reservoirs, the oscillating current is
current flowing
out of reser
charge on
reference rese
voir
rvoir
cos ( ) ( ) ( ) I
phaso
o
r
o o
d d
I t q t q t j q
dt dt
w w = = =
_
Radiation
pattern
o
q
o
I
Antennas
A short wire antenna has a triangular current distribution, since the
current itself has to reach a null at the end the wires. The current
can be made approximately uniform by adding capacitor plates.
The small capacitor plate antenna is equivalent to a Hertzian dipole
and the radiated fields can also be described by using the results of
the infinitesimal antenna. The short wire antenna can be described
by the same results, if one uses an average current value giving the
same integral of the current
max
2
o
I I =
I
max
I
o
z D
I
o
Antennas
Example A Hertzian dipole is 1.0 mm long and it operates at the
frequency of 1.0 GHz, with feeding current I
o
= 1.0 Ampres. Find
the total radiated power.
For a short dipole with triangular current distribution and maximum
current I
max
= 1.0 Ampre

8 9
2
2 3 2
Hertzian dipole
3 10 10 0.3 m 300 mm
1 mm
4 2 1 2
120 ( ) ( 1 10 )
3 4 12 0.3
4.39 mW
o
o
o
tot
I z
c f
z
I z
P
h
l
l
l
p h p p
p
l p p
-
D
= = =
D =
D

= =

=
<
max
2 4.39/ 4 1.09 mW
o tot
I I P = =
Antennas
Timedependent fields - Consider the farfield approximation
( )
{ }
( )
( )
{ }
( )
2
I sin
Re H Re
4
I sin
Re cos( ) sin
I sin
s
I sin
sin(
in
( )
4
Re
( )
4
4
E
)
j t r j t
j t
j z
e i e
r
z
i j t r j t
E t
H t
z
i t r
r
t
r
e
r
r
z
i
r
q
w b w
j
j
j
w
b q
p
b
b q
h w
q
w b w
b q
w
p
p
b
b
p
b
-
D
=

D
- + -

=
- -
D
-
D
-
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
Antennas
Linear Antennas
Consider a dipole with wires of length comparable to the
wavelength.
z D
' q
q
' r
r
'
i
q
,
i
q
,
' z
z
1
L -
2
L
Antennas
Because of its length, the current flowing in the antenna wire is a
function of the coordinate z. To evaluate the farfield at an
observation point, we divide the antenna into segments which can
be considered as elementary infinitesimal antennas.
The electric field radiated by each element , in the farfield
approximation, is
In farfield conditions we can use these additional approximations
'
I
' sin '
4 '
j r
j z e
E i
r
b
q
b
m
q
e p
-
D
D =
,
,
r r z
'
' ' cos
q q
q
-
Antennas
The lines r and r are nearly parallel under these assumptions.
z D
' q q
q
' r
r
' z
z
2
L
'cos z q
This length is neglected if
' 'cos r r z q -
Antennas
The electric field contributions due to each infinitesimal segment
becomes
The total fields are obtained by integration of all the contributions
you cannot
neglect here
'cos
4 'cos
I
'
4
j r j z
j z e e
E i
r z
b b q
q
b
m
e p q p
-
D
D =
-
,
,
you can
neglect here

sinq
2
1
2
1
cos
cos
E sin I( )
4
H sin I( )
4
j r
L
j z
L
j r
L
j z
L
j e
i z e dz
r
j e
i z e dz
r
b
b q
q
b
b q
j
m b
q
e p
b
q
p
-
-
-
-
=
=
, ,
, ,
Antennas
Short Dipole
Consider a short symmetric dipole comprising two wires, each of
length L << . Assume a triangular distribution of the phasor
current on the wires
The integral in the field expressions becomes
( )
( )
max
max
1 0
I( )
1 0
I z L z
z
I z L z
-
=

+ <
cos
max
since short
1
dipole for a

cos
2
max 1
1
2
I( ) I( )
2

z
L L
j
L L
j
z
L
z e dz z dz
z L L
I
e
b
b q
q
p
b b
l
-
-
= =
_
<
Antennas
The final expression for farfields of the short dipole are similar to
the expressions for the Hertzian dipole where the average of the
triangular current distribution is used
average
current
max
max
max
E sin 2
4 2
sin
4
H sin
4
j r
j r
j r
j e I
i L
r
j I L e
i
r
j I L e
i
r
z
b
q
b
q
b
j
m b
q
e p
m b
q
e p
b
q
p
-
-
-
=
=
D
=
, ,
,
, ,
Antennas
Halfwavelength dipole
Consider a symmetric linear antenna with total length /2 and
assume a current phasor distribution on the wires which is
approximately sinusoidal
The integral in the field expressions is
max
I( ) cos( ) z I z b =
( )
4
cos
max
max
2
4
2 cos
cos cos
2
sin
j z
I
I z e dz
l
b q
l
p q
b
b q
-

=

Antennas
We obtain the farfield expressions
and the timeaverage Poynting vector
max
max
cos
E cos
2 sin 2
cos
H cos
2 sin 2
j r
j r
j e I
i
r
j e I
i
r
b
q
b
j
m p q
e p q
p q
p q
-
-

=

=

, ,
, ,
2
2
max
2 2 2
cos
( ) cos
2
8 sin
r
I
P t i
r
m p q
e
p q

=

, ,
Antennas
The total radiated power is obtained after integration of the
timeaverage Poynting vector
The integral above cannot be solved analytically, but the value is
found numerically or from published tables. The equivalent
resistance of the halfwave dipole antenna in air is then
( )
2.4376
2
2
max
0
2
max
1 cos 1 1
2 4
1
0.193978
2
eq
tot
R
u
P I du
u
I
p m
e p
m
e
-

=

=
_
_
( 2) 0.193978 73.07
eq
R
m
l
e
= W
Antennas
The direction of maximum radiation strength is obtained again for
elevation angle =90 ande we obtain the directivity
The directivity of the halfwavelength dipole is marginally better
than the directivity for a Hertzian dipole (D = 1.5).
The real improvement is in the much larger radiation resistance,
which is now comparable to the characteristic impedance of typical
transmission line.
2
max
2 2
2
2
max
2 2
( , , 90 )
8
1.641
1
4
2.4376
8
tot
I
P t r
r
D
P r
I
r
m
e
p
m
p
e
p
= =
,
Antennas
From the linear antenna applet
Radiation Pattern for E and H Power Radiation Pattern
Antennas
For short dipoles of length 0.0005 to 0.05
Antennas
Antennas
Antennas
For general symmetric linear antennas with two wires of length L, it
is convenient to express the current distribution on the wires as
The integral in the field expressions is now
( ) ( ) { }
max
I sin z I L z b = -
( )
( ) ( ) { }
cos
max
max
2
sin
2
cos cos cos
sin
L
j z
L
I L z e dz
I
L L
b q
b
b q b
b q
-
- =

= -
Antennas
The field expressions become
( ) ( ) { }
( ) ( ) { }
2
1
2
1
cos
max
cos
max
E sin I( )
4
cos cos cos
2 sin
H sin I( )
4
cos cos cos
2 sin
j r
L
j z
L
j r
j r
L
j z
L
j r
j e
i z e dz
r
j I e
i L L
r
j e
i z e dz
r
j I e
i L L
r
b
b q
q
b
q
b
b q
j
b
j
m b
q
e p
m
b q b
e p q
b
q
p
b q b
p q
-
-
-
-
-
-
=
= -
=
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Antennas
Examples of long wire antennas
Antennas
Antennas
Antennas
Antennas
Antennas
Radiation Pattern for E and H
Power Radiation Pattern
Antennas
Antennas
Antennas
Antennas

Antenna 1

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Antenna 1

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Antennas

Amanogawa, 2001 Digital Maestro Series 1

Plane perpendicular to the antenna

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