Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
HIV is a worldwide health concern. Since 1981 when the AIDS epidemic was first
recognized in the Untied States, all U.S. states and U.S. dependent areas have conducted AIDS
surveillance by using a standardized reporting system (1). Since 1985 many of the areas have
also implemented HIV case reporting as part of their HIV/AIDS surveillance program (1). The
HIV/AIDS Surveillance Report, for statistical purposes, is based off data from the 37 areas (33
states and 4 US dependent areas) that have had HIV infection reporting since 2001(1). This
ensures enough time for the data to stabilize (1). This data tells us that through 2005 the
prevalence rate of HIV (not AIDS) among adults and adolescents was estimated at 136.5 per
100,000 (1). Also, the CDC estimates that there have been approximately 40,000 new cases of
HIV infection annually since the early 1990s, and currently there are between 850,000 and
Currently, there is no cure for HIV infection or AIDS. However, during the last decade
management of HIV infection has dramatically improved thanks to the increasing effectiveness
of antiretrovirals (ARVs) (3). Optimal management of the infection includes at least three ARVs
from at least two different drug classes (3). This is known as HAART: highly active antiretroviral
therapy (3). HAART has proven highly effective in reducing disease-associated mortality and
morbidity in patients infected with HIV (3-6). However, HAART is plagued by a broad range of
side effects (4). Predictably, several of these side effects have a major impact on patient
nutrition, and it is therefore important to understand the relationship between HAART and
nutritional status.
2
There are several ARVs with multiple overlapping side effects. It is useful to know what
the major ARVs are before looking at some of the common nutritional side effects and the
HIV is a virus that infects CD4+ T lymphocytes (3). After attaching and binding to the
CD4 receptor and specific chemokine co-receptors, the virus and host cell membranes fuse and
HIV RNA enters the host cell (3). The HIV RNA undergoes reverse transcription from RNA to
DNA and is then transported into the nucleus to integrate with the host DNA (3). Multiple copies
of completed HIV RNA are made and exported from the nucleus (3). Viral proteins are
processed, and together with full-length HIV RNA, are packaged at the cell surface and viral
ARVs work to interfere at various points in this cycle. NRTIs (Nucleos(t)ide reverse
(protease inhibitors) are currently the three major prescribed classes of ARVs (3).
In recent years, clinicians have begun to observe elevated cholesterol and often elevated
triglyceride levels in HIV patients on HAART (5). This dyslipidemia (an abnormal concentration
of lipids or lipoproteins in the blood) is often associated with other metabolic abnormalities
characterized by the accumulation of visceral fat, an enlarged dorsocervical fat pad, and atrophy
of subcutaneous fat in the face, buttocks, and extremities) (3,5,7). This broad array of metabolic
currently considered the most potentially serious side effect of HIV medication (5,7).
LDHIV is recognized primarily by the loss of subcutaneous adipose tissue from the facial
and peripheral regions (7). Some patients also experience deposition of excess adipose tissue
3
around the neck (double chin), over the dorsocervial spine (buffalo hump), upper torso, and
intraabdominal region (7). Peripheral fat loss is often considered the primary abnormality, and
excess fat deposition in other regions is often considered as secondary or compensatory (7).
Breast enlargement has been observed in both women and men, and women may develop
Currently, LDHIV does not present in patients naïve to all ARVs and PIs appear to be the
strongest link. (7). LDHIV was not reported before the introduction of PIs in 1993 when only
NRTIs were available, but since then LDHIV has been associated with all PIs and with longer
duration of PI therapy (7). The average rate of LDHIV is 42% in patients treated with PI-
containing HAART, and a generally higher prevalence is reported in patients after long-term
therapy (7).
Estimates vary, but up to 50% of patients with HIV develop one or more features of
LDHIV (5). As previously stated, patients with LDHIV often have an array of symptoms
including dyslipidemia, impaired glucose tolerance, and insulin resistance, and it is therefore
important to understand and look for these conditions individually as well as in association with
each other.
In a study by Johnson et al. fat redistribution (lipodystophy), with a lower percentage leg
fat and a higher percentage of trunk fat, was observed in those subjects taking PIs compared with
those subjects not taking PIs (8). Additionally, each 6 months of treatment with HAART is
As for impaired glucose tolerance and insulin resistance, “most studies report a
prevalence of hyperglycemia ranging from 0-20% during PI-containing HAART therapy” (7).
Additionally, “impaired glucose tolerance was reported in 62% of patients taking PIs, and a rise
4
in fasting blood glucose levels was reported after initiation of PI-based therapy” (7). In
conjunction with the overall syndrome, a study by Vigouroux et al. reported diabetes occurring in
79% of patients with LDHIV compared with 20% of patients taking PI-containing HAART
without LDHIV (7). As for drug differences, reports have shown a higher prevalence of insulin
resistance in patients taking PI-containing HAART compared with those taking NRTIs alone, and
this was more prevalent in those receiving prolonged treatment with PIs (7). Of interest in
regards to the actual body morphology, Mynarcik et al. were able to show that insulin resistance
in patients with LDHIV was related to the loss of limb fat and not the accumulation of truncal fat
(7). It has subsequently been concluded that glucose intolerance, hyperinsulinemia, and insulin
LDHIV (7).
defining characteristics of dyslipidemia in patients with LDHIV (7). But, with or without
patients since the introduction of HAART (4). “In patients who receive a PI-containing ARV
to be dose and time related” (4). As seen earlier, this is also true of LDHIV in general.
The important thing to gather from this data is that exposure to PIs is clearly associated
with the entire range of metabolic abnormalities known as LDHIV. Exposure can result in the
5
triglycerides, but not severe hypertriglyceridaemia, which appears to be linked to PIs alone” (5).
“Fat redistribution and dyslipidemia are correlated in patients on HAART, but PIs, in particular
understanding the full implications of HIV medication on nutritional status. Knowing the risks of
dyslipidemia, impaired glucose tolerance, and insulin resistance help in understanding a whole
For instance, PIs can also increase a patient’s risk of developing osteopenia and
osteoporosis (9). PI related negative side effects such as lipodystrophy and hyperlipidemia are
risk factors for development of weakened bones (9). Also, it is hypothesized that PIs may
contribute to avascular necrosis, a condition in which the thigh bone is no longer connected to
the hip bone (9). The theory is that the elevated blood fats, especially triglycerides, caused by the
drugs may block blood supply to the bones and lead to tissue death (9).
Making the correlation to osteoporosis is one connection; however, given the support
behind HAART causing dyslipidemia, it is important to look at a more broad and life threatening
problem. Prior to research, anecdotal reports suggested “that premature cardiovascular events
(coronary artery disease and myocardial infarction), may be associated with HAART and
abnormal plasma lipid value” (4). For example, many doctors reported serious arterial blockage
and resulting angina (pain around the heart) in patients on HAART, and a significant increase in
the incidence of myocardial infarction was found among HIV-positive subjects after the
introduction of PI-containing HAART (4,10). The thought began to form that since
“hypertriglyceridaemia, elevated total and LDL cholesterol levels, decreased HDL cholesterol
levels, insulin resistance, diabetes mellitus, and truncal adiposity are known to increase CVD risk
6
in the general population, they may similarly predispose HIV-infected subject to accelerated
Interesting research into the specifics of this correlation has begun to show how this
happens. “Given the fat accumulation or fat wasting that occurs in [LDHIV, Addy et al.]
hypothesized that adipocyte function may play a very important role in the development of
associated metabolic abnormalities” (6). Adipocytes are metabolically and hormonally active
cells that secrete proteins. An excess or deficiency of these proteins in conjunction with obesity
disease (6). A new protein, adiponectin, has been inversely correlated with features of the
metabolic syndrome (6). What remained to be seen was whether adiponectin was also associated
The study by Addy et al. involved 112 subjects and concluded that adiponectin levels
were significantly lower in a sample of HIV infected subjects with fat redistribution caused by
HAART compared with those subjects without fat redistribution (6). The results further
demonstrated that adiponectin is significantly inversely correlated with insulin resistance and
triglycerides, while there is a strong direct correlation of adiponectin with HDL in HIV infected
patients treated with HAART (6). In addition, adiponectin was found to be “inversely associated
with abdominal visceral fat and positively associated with subcutaneous fat; [findings which are]
consistent with the role of visceral adiposity in the development of insulin resistance and lipid
abnormalities associated with the metabolic syndrome” (6). In regards to specific ARVs,
adiponectin was found to be inversely related with cumulative months of NRTI use, but not in
7
the other ARV classes including PIs (6). This is somewhat contrary to what would be expected
and the lack of association is potentially a type two error (the accidental labeling of a truth as
false) (6).
Understanding the meaning of this research is important. Low adiponectin can be a result
of fat redistribution caused by HAART. The decreased adiponectin levels are correlated with
several factors that accompany the fat redistribution in LDHIV, such as dyslipidemia, insulin
resistance, and impaired glucose intolerance, in such a way as to parallel metabolic syndrome in
non-HIV positive patients and thus strongly support a hypothesis of increased development of
Further research has been done by Johnson et al. Through their work they have been able
to show that HIV-infected subjects with fat redistribution have increased adipose tissue secretion
and circulating levels of proinflammatory markers, and that these increases were more
pronounced in patients undergoing HAART (8). Their conclusion was that “increased adipose
tissue production and serum levels of proinflammatory cytokines may play a significant role in
adipocytokines can lead to the symptoms of metabolic syndrome, one being coronary heart
disease. We have seen how HAART causes a deficiency in adiponectin resulting in symptoms,
and here we see a correlation with HAART influencing excess production. These, and further
studies, are what have allowed scientists officially to acknowledge the increased risk for
cardiovascular disease while on HAART, and as of the most recent literature, the conclusion is
that the “association between PI exposure and the risk for increased cardiovascular events is well
established [and, although weaker,] has also been demonstrated with NRTIs and NNRTIs” (3).
8
Recent switch studies looking into the effects of altering the medication used have shown that
blood fats that were elevated during PI therapy fell after people switched to other medications
(10).
Of further concern among those with dyslipidemia is the substantiated fact that prolonged
is the inflammation of the pancreas, an important organ that secretes enzymes, to aid in
digestion, and insulin, to aid in glucose utilization (10). It can also cause symptoms such as
vomiting and nausea which further increases health concerns (10). “High triglyceride levels are
usually associated with fasting chylomicronemia and can cause the ‘chylomicronemia
syndrome,’ which includes acute pancreatitis, abdominal pain with normal pancreatic enzymes,
dyspnea, memory loss, lipemia retinalis, and eruptive xanthomata” (5). “In addition, non-
alcoholic steatohepatitis is associated with hypertriglyceridaemia but can also be seen in patients
with normal lipids” (5). With specific regards to HAART, “in HIV patients on PIs with extremely
high triglycerides clinicians reported cases of pancreatitis and lipemia retinalis, both of which
resolved with discontinuing the PI and initiating lipid lowering therapy” (5).
the mitochondria that can cause problems in the heart, nerves, muscles, pancreas, kidneys, and
liver” (9). “It can also cause changes in the blood such as thrombocytopenia, anemia, and
As for an explanation and specific example, when the mitochondria do not work properly
excess lactate is produced and severe hyperlactatemia leads to lactic acidosis, a somewhat rare,
9
but very serious side effect that can harm the body’s cells (9). NRTIs can also cause the liver to
become fatty which is known as hepatic steatosis, and a fatty liver cannot break down the lactate
efficiently (9). Some side effects of lactic acidosis are persistent nausea, vomiting, and weight
loss among other things (9). These are obviously of concern from a nutritional standpoint and
To further discuss HAARTs effects on the liver, hepatoxicity, or liver damage, has
developed in HIV patients taking all three of the main types of HIV medication: PIs, NRTIs, and
NNRTIs (9). Hepatoxicity can present itself as hepatitis, hepatic necrosis, or hepatic steatosis
which, as previously discussed, can lead to lactic acidosis (9). The symptoms of hepatoxicity are,
unsurprisingly, similar to those for lactic acidosis and thus of obvious concern from a nutritional
standpoint: nausea, vomiting, loss of appetite, and diarrhea (9). Elevated bilirubin levels are also
Common side effects such as nausea and diarrhea, which are seen with serious
complications like hepatoxicity, can also be primary symptoms of ARVs. Nausea is very
common, especially in the first few weeks of starting HAART (10). Nausea is caused by a wide
array of drugs and almost always disappears with the discontinuation of the drug (10).
Unfortunately, nausea will persist if there has been liver damage (10). Diarrhea is caused by
many ARVs and it is very important to monitor (10). Besides the common solutions and
precautions, increasing fiber intake and drinking water to prevent dehydration, other nutritional
methods are being developed to deal with the diarrhea on certain drugs. Another excretory
problem is kidney stones which have been found to have a direct link to PI use (10).
From this brief overview, it is obvious that living with HIV/AIDS is taxing in many
ways. The medications that have evolved in recent years have increased the life expectancy of
10
patients diagnosed with HIV infection, but they come with a high cost. May patients cannot
tolerate the side effects. The physical and psychological toll they take can be devastating.
Unfortunately, once a patient has started HAART therapy, it is highly unadvisable to quit as the
first regimen has the best chance for long-term success (9). It is up to current doctors and health
care providers to make sure patients are aware of the side effects and risks and are
psychologically prepared before starting treatment, and it is up to the rest of the world to keep
11
References
1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. HIV/AIDS Surveillance Report. 2005;17:5-9.
Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/hiv/topics/surveillance/resources/
reports/2005report/pdf/2005SurveillanceReport.pdf. Accessed April 6, 2007.
2. Position of the american dietetic association and dietitians of canada: nutrition
intervention in the care of persons with human immunodeficiency virus infection. J Am
Diet Assoc. 2004;104(9):1425-1441.
3. Chen LF, Hoy J, Lewin SR. Ten years of highly active antiretroviral therapy for HIV
infection. MJA. 2007;186 (3):146-151.
4. Calza L, Manfredi R, Chiodo F. Dyslipidaemia associated with antiretroviral therapy in
HIV-infected patients. JAC. 2003;53(1):10-14.
5. Green ML. Evaluation and management of dyslipidemia in patients with HIV infection. J
Gen Intern Med. 2002;17:797-810.
6. Addy CL, Gavrila A, Tsiodras S, Brodovicz K, Karchmer AW, Mantzoros CS.
Hypoadiponectinemia is associated with insulin resistance, hypertriglyceridemia, and fat
redistribution in human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients treated with highly
active antiretroviral therapy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2003;88(2):627-636.
7. Chen D, Misra A, Garg A. Lipodystrophy in human immunodeficiency virus-infected
patients. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2002;87(11):4845-4856.
8. Johnson JA, Albu JB, Engelson ES, Fried SK, Inada Y, Ionescu G, Kotler DP. Increased
systemic and adipose tissue cytokines in patients with HIV-associated lipodystrophy. Am
J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2004;286:261-271.
9. A Service of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Sciences. Health topics.
Available at: http://www.aidsinfo.nih.gov/HealthTopics/HealthTopicDetails
.aspx?MenuItem=HealthTopics&Search=Off&HealthTopicID=67&ClassID=51.
Accessed April 6, 2007.
10. Canadian AIDS Treatment Information Exchange. Living with HIV. Available at:
http://www.catie.ca/sideeffects_e.nsf/TOC/CE2E82 F5B07F397E85256C7
0006367AD?OpenDocument. Accessed April 7, 2007.
12