Psychology Chapter 7: Human Memory

Introduction Memory is critical to human, it enables us to learn new skills and to form habits. In human memory: Encoding refer to the initial perception and registration of information. Storage is the retention of encoded information over time. Retrieval refer to the processes involved in using stored information. Forgetting an important fact reflects a breakdown in one of these stages of memory. If any problem in encoding we forget things. Description Forgetting is defined as the loss of information over time and its good for the memory to update the information. Under most conditions, people recall information better soon after learning it than after long delay; as time passes, they forget some of the information. We have all failed to remember some bit of information when we needed, so often seen forgetting as a bother us. However, forgetting can also be useful because we need to continually update our memories. When we mo move and receive a new telephone number, we need to forget old one and learn the new one. If you park your car everyday on a large lot, you need to remember where you parked it today and not yesterday or the day before. Thus, forgetting can have an adaptive function. German Philosopher -Hermann Ebbinghaus initiated the scientific study of human memory in experiments that he began in 1879 and published in 1885 in his book on memory. Ebbinghaus developed an ingenious way to measure forgetting. Ebbinghaus Experiment He created dozens of lists of nonsense syllables, which consisted of pronounceable but meaningless three letter combinations such as XAK or CUV. He would learn a list by reapting the items in it over and over, until he could many trails or how long it took him to learn the list. He measured how much he had forgotten by the amount of time or the number of trials it took him to relearn the list by conducting this experiment with many lists.

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Psychology Chapter 7: Human Memory

Ebbinghaus found that the rate of forgetting was relatively consistent. Forgetting occurred relatively rapidly at first and then seemed to level off over time. Decay Theory of Forgetting The oldest idea about forgetting is that it is simply caused by decay. That is memory traces are formed in the brain when we learn information and they gradually disintegrate over time. Although decay theory was accepted as a general explanation of forgetting for many years, most psychologists do not lend it credence today for several reasons. First decay theory does not really provide an explanation of forgetting, but merely a description. Interference Theory of Forgetting According to many psychologists, forgetting occurs because of interference from other information or activities over time. Ebbinghauss Forgetting Curve

Theory of Forgetting: Encoding Failure (Which penny is the real thing?)

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Psychology Chapter 7: Human Memory

Theory of Forgetting: Encoding Failure

Sensory Memory The definition of sensory memory is the ability to retain impressions of sensory information after the original stimulus has ceased. It refers to items detected by the sensory receptors which are retained temporarily in the sensory registers and which have a large capacity for unprocessed information but are only able to hold accurate images of sensory information momentarily.

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Psychology Chapter 7: Human Memory

Short-Term Memory The definition of short term memory is the capacity for holding a small amount of information in mind in an active, readily available state for a short period of time. Short-term memory acts as a scratch-pad for temporary recall of the information under process. For instance, in order to understand this sentence you need to hold in your mind the beginning of the sentence you read the rest. Long-Term Memory The definition of long term memory is memory that can last as little as a few days or as long as decades. It differs structurally and functionally from working memory or shortterm memory, which ostensibly stores items for only around 18 seconds. There are three main activities related to long term memory: storage, deletion and retrieval. Information from short-term memory is stored in long-term memory by rehearsal. The repeated exposure to a stimulus or the rehearsal of a piece of information transfers it into long-term memory. Experiments also suggest that learning time is most effective if it is distributed over time. Deletion is mainly caused by decay. Emotional factors also affect longterm memory. However, it is debatable whether we actually ever forget anything or whether it becomes increasingly difficult to access certain items from memory. Having forgotten something may just be caused by not being able to retrieve it.

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Psychology Chapter 7: Human Memory

Information may not be recalled sometimes but may be recognized, or may be recalled only with prompting. This leads us to the third proves of memory: information retrieval. There are two types of information retrieval: recall and recognition. In recall, the information is reproduced from memory. In recognition the presentation of the information provides the knowledge that the information has been seen before. Recognition is of lesser complexity, as the information is provided as a cue. However, the recall can be assisted by the provision of retrieval cues which enable the subject to quickly access the information in memory.

Flashbulb Memory Flashbulb memories are distinctly vivid, precise, concrete, long-lasting memories of a personal circumstance surrounding a persons discovery of shocking events. People remember with almost perceptual clarity details of the context in which they first heard about the news, such as what they were doing, with whom they were with and where they were. These flashbulb memories are not as accurate or permanent as photographic memories but the flashbulb memories forgetting curve is far less affected by time than is the case for other types of memories studied in basic memory research. Why we forget?

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Psychology Chapter 7: Human Memory

Forgetting curve is where forgetting occurs most rapidly immediately after learning. It is relearning takes less time than initial learning.

Ineffective Encoding Decay theory is where the information in memory eventually disappears if it is not accessed (applies better to short-term than to long-term memory). Interference theory includes proactive and retroactive. Retroactive interference: when recently learned material interferes with ability to remember similar material stored previously. Proactive interference is when previously stored material interferes with ability to remember similar, more recently learned material

Retrieval Failure is where memories stored in LTM are shortly inaccessible (tip-ofthe-tongue phenomenon). Motivated Forgetting is when motivation to forget unpleasant,

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Psychology Chapter 7: Human Memory

painful, threatening, or embarrassing memories. The recovered memories controversies include recovered memories: support and recovered memories: skepticism. Types of Memory Exist

Declarative Memory (factual information) consists of Semantic memory (general knowledge) and Episodic memory (personal knowledge). Non-declarative memory (aka procedural memory) (actions, motor skills, emotional memories)

Declarative Memory This system deals with factual information based on conscious and effortful processes. This type of memory appears to be more susceptible to forgetting. Declarative memory can be split into two parts (Semantic and Episodic) which will be summarized later on. Non-declarative (procedural) Memory This type of memory deals with memory for actions, skills, conditioned/emotional responses. Riding a bicycle, typing, and tying of shoes are all examples of procedural memory. The difference between the above two types of memory stems from evidence that they operate differently. For example, Declarative memory requires more effort than Procedural memory. Semantic Memory This is a division of Declarative memory. This type contains general and impersonal facts e.g. Abu Dhabi is the capital of the UAE. Semantic memory contains general facts that are not tied to the time when the information was learned, rather like an encyclopedia. Episodic Memory This is also a division of Declarative memory. Like Semantic memory, this is also contains facts. The difference is that the facts are personal facts arranged somewhat chronologically, rather like an autobiography. An example would be memories of a school play or visiting the Grand Canyon.

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Psychology Chapter 7: Human Memory

Further research shows that "memory tasks" can be classified as either:

Prospective memory (actions for the future, e.g. remember to lock house door, or to call someone). This topic seems to interest researchers since it plays a strong role in everyday life, and yet it contains actions which we might tend to forget. People who suffer from weak Prospective memories are sometimes called "absent minded". Research is ongoing on this type of memory, especially on the effect of cues.

Retrospective memory (remembering past events, e.g. remembering who won a sports match, or what did your professor say last week.). This type of memory has been "forgotten" because it has suffered some neglect by researchers, if you will excuse the pun. Additionally, Prospective memory can be split into Event-based tasks and Time-based

tasks. Very simply-speaking, age seems to play a role on the strength of these "memory tasks" reflecting on the chapters themes. One of the main reason that two people can be exposed to the same events and walkway with entirely different perceptions is that what you see in the world around you depends on where you focus your attention. And the second, is that the reconstructive nature of memory should further explain peoples tendency to view the world with a subjective slant for example, dont store exact copy of event, you have to memories something near or rough to it. And the main reason for forgetting is that existence of multiple memory systems. Finally, the multifaceted nature of memory demonstrated once again that behavior is governed by multiple cause. Improving Everyday Memory Mnemonic devices are strategies for enhancing memory which is the key to improving ones everyday memory. Practice usually improved retention and retention improves with increased rehearsal because rehearsal helps to transfer information into long term memory. Studies have shown that taking a test on material increase performance on as sequence test even more than studying for equal amount of time. Another possible remedy for overconfidence is trying to over learn material which means that refers to continued rehearsal of material after you first appear to have mastered it. One other point related to rehearsal is also worth mentioning. If you are memorizing some type of list, be aware of the serial-

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Psychology Chapter 7: Human Memory

position effect, which is often observed when subject are tested on their memory of list serial position effect occurs when subjects shown better recall for items at the being and end of a list than for items in middle. Deep processing and organize information it is useful when you real your textbooks, try to relate information to your own life and experience. For example, when you read about classical condition my try to think of your own responses that are attributable to classical conditioning it is important to understand that retention tends to be greater when information is well organized, believes that visual images create a second memory code and that codes are better than one. Acrostics and Acronyms which is like poems that is helping yourself by remembering the first litter of each word and connected to one word it is useful to memories. Narrative methods which are list the words is to create a story that includes the words in the appropriate order. Rhymes repeating the information many times. Link methods involves forming a mental image of items to be remembered in way that links them together like you need to remember some items to pick up at the drugstore; news magazine, shaving cream, film, and pens. To remember these items, you might visualize a public figure on the magazine cover shaving with a pen while being photographed. The more bizarre you make image the more helpful it is likely to be. Method of loci that involves taking an imaginary walk along a familiar path where images of items to be remembered are associated with certain locations. When you need to remember the items imagine yourself walking along the path.

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References Baddeley. (1999). Essentials of human memory: Cognitive psychology. New York: Psychology Press. Craik, Benjamin, Moscovitch, & Roediger. (2001). Perspectives on human memory and cognitive aging: essays in honour of Fergus Craik. New York: Psychology Press. Goleman, D. (1995). Emotional intelligence: Why it can matter more than IQ for character, health and lifelong achievement. New York: Bantam Books. Klatzky, R.L. (1980). Human Memory: Structures and Processes (2 nd Edition). San Francisco: Freeman. Izawa. (1999). On human memory: evolution, progress, and reflections on the 30th anniversary of the Atkinson-Shiffrin model. New York: Routledge. Scientific American. (1999). The Scientific American book of the brain. New York: The Lyons Press. Stillings, N, Feinstein, M., Garfield, J., Rissland, E., Rosenbaum, D., Weisler, S., & BakerWard, L. (1987). Cognitive science: An introduction. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

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