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Aryabhata and Axial Rotation of Earth .

1. Khagola (The Celestial Sphere)
Amartya Kumar Dutta

A r y a b h a t a (b o r n 4 7 6 C E ) is r e g a r d e d a s a p io . n e e r o f m a th e m a tic a l a stro n o m y in a n c ie n t In d ia . In th is th r e e -p a r t a r tic le , I sh a ll d isc u ss o n e im p o r ta n t c o n tr ib u tio n o f A r y a b h a t a in a str o n o m y . in v o lv in g th e le a st te c h n ic a l b a c k g r o u n d { th e p r in c ip le o f a x ia l ro ta tio n (P a r t 1 ) a n d c o m p u ta tio n s o n th e sid e r e a l d a y (P a r t 2 ). P o r tio n s o f 4 v e r se s, p e r ta in in g to E a r th 's r o ta tio n , fr o m h is fa m o u s tr e a tise A r y a b h a t a w ill b e q u o te d . In .y P a r t 3 , I sh a ll g iv e a b r ie f h isto r ic a l a c c o u n t o n th e c o n c e p t o f a x ia l r o ta tio n o f E a r th . T h e A ry a b h a t a (`co m p o sitio n o f A ry a b h a ta ') is d e.y . sig n ed a s a co n cise tex t o f 1 2 1 v erses b rie y p resen tin g im p o rta n t p rin cip les in a stro n o m y a n d m a th em a tics in th e sty le o f terse a p h o rism s. T h is h ig h ly co n d en sed trea tise is n o t m ea n t to p rov id e co m p lete o r d eta iled ex p o sitio n s. V a rio u s fa cts o r m eth o d s, w h ich w ere p erh a p s w ell-k n ow n in h is tim e, a re ta k en fo r g ra n ted in th e tex t. T h erefo re, a m a jo r p o rtio n o f th is a rticle w ill in tro d u ce certa in b a sic fea tu res o f sp h erica l a stro n o m y in m o d ern la n g u a g e to fa cilita te d iscu ssio n s o n th e q u o ted v erses. T h ere w ill b e in cid en ta l referen ces to o th er sta tem en ts o f A ry a b h a ta . . a T h e A ry a b h a t a is d iv id ed in to 4 sectio n s (p da). In .y tik th e rst a n d in tro d u cto ry sectio n G a (1 3 v erses), s tik u th ere a re ten v erses ca lled D a ag a -s tra (ten a p h o rism s in th e g m etre) su m m a risin g , fo r th e b eg in n er, tik a th e essen tia l p a ra m eters o f A ry a b h a ta 's sy stem . T h e . rem a in in g th ree sectio n s (to ta l 1 0 8 v erses), th a t co n stitu te th e m a in tex t, a re G an ita (m a th em a tics): 3 3 v erses, .

Amartya Kumar Dutta is in the Stat-Math Unit of Indian Statistical Instiutte, Kolkata. His research interest is in commutative algebra.

Keywords Aryabhatiya; axial rotation; celestial sphere, celestial poles, celestial equator, Earths equator, latitude.

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B o x 1 . A ry a b h a t a o r A r y a b h a t t a ? . ..

The celebrated astronomer-mathematician is popularly known as ` Aryabhat t a' in Indian .. languages. Early Indologists like H T Colebrooke (1817) too spelt the name with double `t '. However, as Bhau Daji (1865) pointed out ([7] , p 518) , the Sanskrit spelling of the . name, as found in the manuscripts of Brahmagupta and other ancient Indian astronomers, corresponds to ` Aryabhat a'. The situation was aptly summarised by W E Clark (1930) . in ([8] , vii-viii) : \There has been much discussion as to whether the name of the author should be spelled Aryabhat a or Aryabhat t a. B h a .a means `hireling,' ` mercenary,' `warrior,' and bh a ..a t tt . .. means `learned man,' `scholar'. ` Aryabhat t a' is the spelling which would naturally be .. expected. However, all the metrical evidence seems to favour the spelling with one t . It is claimed by some that the metrical evidence is inclusive, that bh a .a has been t . substituted for bh a ..a for purely metrical reasons, and does not prove that Aryabhat a tt . is the correct spelling.. .. However, until more denite historical or metrical evidence favoring the spelling Aryabhat t a is produced I prefer to keep the form Aryabhat a." .. . Historians of Indian science have adopted ` Aryabhat a' as the ocial spelling. .

K lakriy (reck o n in g o f tim e): 2 5 v erses a n d G ola (cea a lestia l sp h ere): 5 0 v erses. T h e o rig in a l v erses o f A ry a b h a t a (a lo n g w ith E n g .y lish tra n sla tio n s) a re g iv en in ([1 ]). O n e ca n see ([2 ]) fo r a g en era l stu d en t-frien d ly g u id a n ce a n d ([3 ],[4 ]) fo r ov erv iew a rticles o n In d ia n a stro n o m y, ([5 ]) fo r a co m p ila tio n o f a n cien t S a n sk rit v erses (w ith E n g lish tra n sla tio n s) o n va rio u s co n cep ts, th eo ries, tech n iq u es a n d in stru m en ts in a stro n o m y, a n d ([6 ]) fo r a sta n d a rd m o d ern trea tm en t o n sp h erica l a stro n o m y. T h e P rin c ip le o f R o ta tio n T h e g rea t d iscov ery th a t th e E a rth ro ta tes a ro u n d its ow n a x is fro m w est to ea st is reco rd ed in th e A ry a b h a t a .y (G 3 ,6 ; K la k riy 5 ; G o la 9 ,1 0 ). T h e y o u n g a stik a a a tro n o m er b o ld ly d ecla red th a t th e a p p a ren t m o tio n o f th e h eav en ly b o d ies ro u n d th e E a rth is o n ly a n illu sio n (G o la 1 0 ). H e ex p la in ed it u sin g th e fo llow in g sim ile (G o la 9 ):

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a n u lo m a g a tirn a u sth a h p a y a ty a ca la m_ v ilo m a g a m_ . s y a d va t a ca l n i b h n i ta d va t sa m a p a cim a g n i la n k y m a a s a _ a a

The great discovery that the Earth rotates around its own axis from west to east

[an u lom a : in th e n a tu ra l d irectio n ; gati : m ov in g ; n au s : b o a t; stha : b ein g in ; pa yati : sees; acala : sta tio n a ry, m o u n ta in ; vilom a : a g a in st th e n a tu ra l d irectio n ; ga : a m ov in g ; yadvat : ju st a s; acal n i : sta tio n a ry (p lu ra l); bh n i : sta rs; tadvat : lik ew ise; sam a : sa m e, eq u a l, a s ex a ct, sim ila r (a lso co m p lete, w h o le, en tire); pa cim a : a _ a a w est; g n i : m ov in g (p lu ra l); la n k y m : a t L a n k .] _ a

is recorded in the Aryabhatiya.

Ju st as a passen ger in a boat m ovin g dow n stream sees the station ary (trees on the river ban ks) as traversin g u pstream , ju st so does an observer at L a n k see the xed stars as _ a m ovin g tow ards the w est at exactly the sam e speed (at w hich the E arth m oves from w est to east).

F u rth er, a s w e sh a ll see in th e n ex t p a rt o f th is a rticle, h e m a d e a n a ccu ra te estim a te o f th e tim e ta k en b y th e E a rth fo r o n e co m p lete ro ta tio n . N o te th a t L a n k , in th e q u o ted v erse, d o es n o t refer to _ a m o d ern S ri L a n ka . It d en o ted th e p o in t o n th e eq u a to r so u th o f U jjay in (2 3 .0 9 N , 7 5 .4 3 E ), i.e., th e p o in t a t w h ich th e m erid ia n th ro u g h U jjay in (7 5 .4 3 E ) in ter sects th e eq u a to r. (T h u s th e p o in t is n ow o n th e In d ia n O cea n n ea r th e M a ld iv e isla n d s.) B u t w h y th e referen ce to L a n k ? W e rst d e n e th e celestia l sp h ere a n d its rel_ a eva n t circles m en tio n in g th e a n cien t In d ia n a n a lo g o u es. T h e C e le stia l S p h e r e
estimate of the

Aryabhata made . an accurate time taken by the Earth for one complete rotation.

T h e sk y a p p ea rs to u s a s th e u p p er h a lf o f a la rg e h o llow sp h ere. T h e sta rs a n d p la n ets a p p ea r a s lu m in o u s p o in ts o n th e in n er su rfa ce o f th is u p p er h em isp h ere. T h e co m p lete sp h ere seem s to m eet th e E a rth 's su rfa ce

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in a circle w h ich w e ca ll th e (v isib le) h o rizo n . T h is im a g in a ry h o llow sp h ere o f a n a rb itra rily la rg e ra d iu s w ith th e o b serv er a t th e cen tre is ca lled th e celestial sphere. T h e ra d iu s o f th e celestia l sp h ere is u su a lly co n ceiv ed to b e su cien tly la rg e so th a t th e en tire E a rth ca n b e reg a rd ed a s a p o in t a t th e cen tre o f th e h u g e sp h ere. A lth o u g h th e sta rs a re sca ttered in sp a ce a t d i eren t d ista n ces fro m th e E a rth , th ey a ll a p p ea r eq u a lly rem o te to a n o b serv er { th e d i eren ces in th eir d ista n ces a re n o t p ercep tib le to o rd in a ry o b serva tio n . T h u s th e a p p a ren t p o sitio n o f a sta r o n th e im a g in a ry celestia l sp h ere sig n i es o n ly th e direction o f th e sta r fro m th e o b serv er; n o th in g else is in d ica ted a b o u t its p o sitio n in sp a ce. T w o sta rs w ill b e v ery clo se o n th is sp h ere w h en th ey h av e n ea rly th e sa m e d irectio n ev en if o n e o f th e sta rs is p h y sica lly m u ch m o re rem o te th a n th e o th er. T h e a p p a ren t d ista n ce b etw een tw o celestia l b o d ies is sim p ly th e d i eren ce in th eir d irectio n s a n d is m ea su red b y th e a n g le su b ten d ed a t th e o b serv er b y th e tw o o b jects. `S p h erica l a stro n o m y ' ex a m in es th is a n g u la r d ista n ce b etw een o b jects o n th e celestia l sp h ere. S in ce th e a ctu a l lin ea r d ista n ces b etw een celestia l o b jects a re n o t o f m u ch releva n ce h ere, th e ex p ressio n `a n g u la r d ista n ce' is o ften a b b rev ia ted to `d ista n ce' w h en th ere is n o sco p e fo r co n fu sio n . T h e a n g u la r d ista n ce is m ea su red in d eg rees, m in u tes a n d seco n d s. R eca ll: 1 0 = 6 0 0 a n d 0 1 0 = 6 0 0. T h u s, \ sta r X is a t a d ista n ce o f 3 0 0 fro m sta r Y " m ea n s th a t th e d irectio n s o f th e tw o sta rs X a n d Y fro m a terrestria l o b serv er m a k e a n a n g le o f 1 d eg ree. 2 T h e g eo cen tric m o d el o f celestia l sp h ere, p resen tin g th e u n iv erse as it appears to th e o b serv er, p rov id es a co n v en ien t fra m ew o rk fo r th e co m p u ta tio n a l stu d y o f th o se a stro n o m ica l p h en o m en a w h ich essen tia lly in v o lv e th e d irectio n s o f celestia l o b jects w h en v iew ed fro m th e E a rth . M o d ern tex ts o n b a sic a stro n o m y, th erefo re, b eg in w ith a ch a p ter o n th e celestia l sp h ere. In sta n d a rd p la n e-

The apparent distance between two celestial bodies is simply the difference in their directions and is measured by the angle subtended at the observer by the two objects.

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ta riu m sh ow s, th e rela tiv e p o sitio n s (i.e., d irectio n s) o f celestia l o b jects a re d ep icted o n a d o m e rep resen tin g th e celestia l sp h ere. O b serv ers a t d i eren t p la ces o n E a rth g et d i eren t p ictu res o f th e celestia l sp h ere. T h is is b eca u se th e h o rizo n ta l p la n es a t tw o d istin ct p o in ts o n th e E a rth 's su rfa ce a re d i eren t. T w o o b serv ers a t d i eren t sp o ts see d ifferen t p o rtio n s o f th e sk y. M o reov er, ev en if a sta r is seen b y b o th o b serv ers, its o rien ta tio n s tow a rd s th e tw o h o rizo n s a re d i eren t. F o r a sim u lta n eo u s a n a ly sis o f th e situ a tio n s a t d i eren t p la ces, it w o u ld b e d esira b le to en v isa g e a co m m o n cen tre o f o b serva tio n . T h e cen tre o f th e E a rth is a n a tu ra l ch o ice. T h erefo re, w h ile it is u n d o u b ted ly co n v en ien t to co n sid er th e sp h ere cen tred a t th e o b serv er a t a p la ce O , it m ig h t a lso b e n ecessa ry to red u ce th e o b serv ed d irectio n s o f celestia l b o d ies (a s o b serv ed fro m O ) to th e co rresp o n d in g geocen tric d irectio n s { th e d irectio n s o f th e celestia l o b jects th a t w o u ld b e o b serv ed b y a h y p o th etica l o b serv er a t th e cen tre o f th e E a rth C p o sitio n ed a lo n g C O (i.e., p a ra llel to th e o b serv er a t O ). T h e a n g le b etw een th e o b serv ed d irectio n o f a h eav en ly b o d y X a n d its g eo cen tric d irectio n , i.e., th e a n g le su b ten d ed b y C O a t X , is ca lled th e geocen tric parallax o f X (F igu re 1 ). N ow ea ch sta r is a t su ch a n en o rm o u s d ista n ce fro m th e E a rth th a t its g eo cen tric p a ra lla x is p ra ctica lly zero . T h erefo re, a s m en tio n ed in th e rst p a ra g ra p h o f th is sectio n , C a n d O m ay b e trea ted a s th e sa m e p o in t w h ile m a p p in g th e sta rs.1 H ow ev er, w h ile co n sid erin g o b jects w h ich a re rela tiv ely n ea r { lik e th e M o o n o r ev en th e S u n { o n e ca n n o t b e so d ism issiv e a b o u t th e E a rth 's ra d iu s. A t th e h o rizo n , th e g eo cen tric p a ra lla x o f th e 0 M o o n is a b o u t 5 7 0 w h ile th a t o f th e S u n is 8 0. T h u s, w h ile stu d y in g th e o rb its o f th e M o o n , th e S u n a n d th e p la n ets, a t d i eren t p la ces o f th e E a rth , co rrectio n s fo r

Figure 1. Geocentric parallax. OX: Observed direction CX: Geocentric direction CXO: Geocentric parallax.

For observers in distinct positions O 1 and O 2 , even though the directions O 1X and O 2 X of a star X coincide, the celestial coordinates of X are different. Figure 2 shows a star X to be simultaneously at the horizon of O 1, zenith of O 2 and nadir of O 3.

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Figure 2. Coordinates of a star X for different observers O1, O2, O3. Z: Zenith of O1 H: At horizon of O1 (north point/south point) N: zenith of O2 and nadir of O3 .

th e g eo cen tric p a ra lla x h av e to b e em p loy ed fo r a ccu ra cy. T h e In d ia n a stro n o m ers co n ceiv ed o f th e celestia l sp h ere a n d a n a ly sed it in d eta il. R o ta tin g sp h eres w ere co n stru cted a s co n crete m o d els fo r th e celestia l sp h ere. T h e S a n sk rit term s fo r th e celestia l sp h ere a re bhagola, i.e., sp h ere o f th e sta rs [bha : sta r o r p la n et; gola : sp h ere], a n d khagola, i.e., h o llow sp h ere o r sp h ere o f th e sk y o r celestia l sp h ere [kha : h o llow , sk y, h eav en ]. T h e term bhagola w a s u sed fo r th e celestia l sp h ere cen tred a t th e E a rth 's cen tre, w h ile khagola d en o ted th e sp h ere cen tred a t th e o b serv er. A ry a b h a ta b eg a n th e sectio n \ G o la " . w ith a b rief d escrip tio n o f th e bhagola a n d th e khagola a n d u sed th em to d em o n stra te th e m o tio n o f th e celestia l b o d ies { th e bhagola w a s u sed fo r d escrib in g th e

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Figure 3. Bhagola. O: Observer C: Centre of the Earth as well as Bhagola CO: radius of the Earth __: Visible portion of Bhagola - - - : Invisible portion of Bhagola.

m o tio n o f th e S u n , th e M o o n , a n d th e p la n ets in th eir o rb its; th e khagola fo r th e a p p a ren t d a ily m o tio n o f th e h eav en ly b o d ies d u e to E a rth 's ro ta tio n ([1 ], p 1 1 3 ). In G o la 1 5 , A ry a b h a ta ex p la in ed : \ O n e h a lf o f th e bhagola, . d im in ish ed b y th e E a rth 's ra d iu s, is v isib le fro m a lev el su rfa ce. T h e (v iew o f) o th er h a lf, in crea sed b y th e E a rth 's ra d iu s, is cu t o b y th e E a rth ." (see F igu re 3 ). T h e fo cu s o n bhagola fo r th e S u n , th e M o o n , a n d th e p la n ets, is p erh a p s a re ectio n o f th e co n cern fo r a ccu ra cy (reca ll g eo cen tric p a ra lla x ). F o r sim p licity, w e sh a ll n o t d istin g u ish b etw een th e tw o sp h eres.
At a given place,

A x is o f R o ta tio n a n d C e le s tia l P o le s
the picture of the

A t a g iv en p la ce, th e p ictu re o f th e celestia l sp h ere ch a n g es slow ly b u t co n tin u o u sly w ith tim e. T h e E a rth ro ta tes fro m w est to ea st a ro u n d th e lin e jo in in g th e g eo g ra p h ica l n o rth a n d so u th p o les. It is d u e to th is ro ta tio n th a t a n o b serv er o n E a rth sees th e sy stem o f \ x ed sta rs" (see B ox 2 fo r cla ri ca tio n o f th e term \ x ed " ) a s rev o lv in g fro m ea st to w est a ro u n d a lin e th ro u g h th e o b serv er p a ra llel to th e E a rth 's a x is o f ro ta tio n (F igu re 4 ). It is a s th o u g h th e celestia l sp h ere is a ro ta tin g h o llow g lo b e w ith ea ch o f th e x ed sta rs rm ly stu ck o n its in n er su rfa ce. S in ce th e ra d iu s o f E a rth is n eg lig ib le co m p a red to

celestial sphere changes slowly but continuously with time. The Earth rotates from west to east around the line joining the geographical north and south poles.

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B o x 2 . T h e F ix e d S ta rs To an observer on Earth, the relative positions of the stars (excluding the Sun) a p pea r to be xed; i.e., the angle subtended (at an observer) by two such stars does not seem to change with time. Hence, the stars (other than the Sun) are referred to as \xed stars" to distinguish them from other star-like celestial obj ects (e.g., planets) . Ancient Indian astronomers used the term n a ksa tra for a xed star and t r gra h a for a planet. a a . We add a caveat regarding the adj ective \xed" . In reality, the stars travel in space in dierent directions at dierent velocities. However, all stars (other than the Sun) are several \light years" away from the Earth. Due to the enormous distances, the relative angular displacements between the stars (excluding the Sun) become too minute to be noticed by the unaided human eye. Only around 200 stars are known to have an angular motion (relative to the rest) at a rate exceeding 1 second (i.e., 3 610 0 degree) per year! But such tiny shifts in relative positions can no longer be ignored when one considers huge time intervals. For instance, the celebrated \Saptars i Mand ala" now appears in . .. the shape of a question mark (?) or a hook (see [2] , p 20) . An observer is unlikely to discern any change in this shape during a lifetime; but after, say, a million years, the shape would become considerably dierent from what it is now!

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B o x 3 . T h e P o le S ta r

The Pole Star is a visible star whose direction from a terrestrial observer is so close to that of the celestial north pole that it appears to play the role of the pole itself. To an observer in the northern hemisphere, other \xed stars" appear to revolve around the \Pole Star" while this distinguished star appears to remain xed in the same position even after a long time. In Indian astronomy, the Pole Star was called d h ru va n a ksa tra or . d h ru va t r (d h ru va : xed, rm, immovable, unchangeable, constant, lasting, permanent, a a eternal) . At present, Polaris, a moderately bright star belonging to the Ursa Minor constellation, is called the Pole Star. In reality, Polaris is now about 1 0 away from the celestial north pole. There is presently no analogous star near the celestial south pole bright enough to catch the eye of an observer in the southern hemisphere. No individual star remains the \Pole Star" for ever. For, due to a phenomenon called \precession" , the celestial north pole executes a slow circular orbit around a certain point on the celestial sphere { it takes about 25,800 years to complete an orbit. Consequently, dierent epochs witness dierent Pole Stars. At present, the pole is approaching Polaris { the current \Pole Star" { and will continue to do so till about the year 2100 CE when they will be at their nearest but still 27:5 0 apart. There will be long periods when the celestial north pole will be unmarked by any bright star in its vicinity. Around 14000 CE, Vega (Alpha Lyrae) , the brightest star of the northern hemisphere, will have the distiction of being the Pole Star j ust as it was around 12000 BCE. However, it will then be twice as far from the true pole as our present Pole Star is today. Around 3000 BCE { at the time of the early astronomers of the Egyptian, Mesopotamian and Indus valley civilisations { the star Alpha Draconis was the Pole Star. From ancient times, navigators and travellers have relied on the Pole Star for determining directions during j ourneys at night. The concept has inspired a literary metaphor for the rm, ever-present, shining, eternal Guide whose constant unfailing luminous radiation alone can be trusted by man for orienting his course through the darkness of his perilous voyage across the sombre ocean of life.

th e d ista n ce o f a n y sta r fro m E a rth , th e a x is o f ro ta tio n o f th e celestia l sp h ere a n d th e a x is o f E a rth 's ro ta tio n m ay b e reg a rd ed a s co in cid en t. T h e a x is o f ro ta tio n , w h en ex ten d ed b o th w ay s, m eets th e celestia l sp h ere in tw o d ia m etrica lly o p p o site p o in ts. O f th e tw o p o in ts, th e p o in t in th e d irectio n o f th e E a rth 's g eo g ra p h ica l n o rth p o le is ca lled th e celestial n orth pole (u ttara dhru va); th e o th er is ca lled celestial sou th pole (daksin a dhru va). F o r p ra ctica l p u rp o ses, th e .. \ P o le S ta r" (see B ox 3 ) is id en ti ed w ith th e celestia l n o rth p o le a n d u sed to lo ca te th e a p p rox im a te n o rth d irectio n .

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S o m e G r e a t C ir c le s o f th e C e le stia l S p h e r e A great circle o n a sp h ere is a circle o n its su rfa ce (in n er o r o u ter) o f m a x im u m p o ssib le ra d iu s { th e ra d iu s o f th e sp h ere. It is fo rm ed b y th e in tersectio n o f th e sp h ere w ith a p la n e p a ssin g th ro u g h th e cen tre o f th e sp h ere. G iv en tw o d istin ct p o in ts o n th e sp h ere w h ich a re n o t d ia m etrica lly o p p o site, th ere is a u n iq u e g rea t circle p a ssin g th ro u g h th e tw o p o in ts. A n y tw o d istin ct g rea t circles b isect ea ch o th er. T h e lin e, th ro u g h th e cen tre o f a g rea t circle, a n d p erp en d icu la r to th e p la n e co n ta in in g th e g rea t circle, in tersects th e sp h ere in tw o p o in ts { th ese p o in ts a re ca lled poles o f th e g rea t circle. A circle o n th e sp h ere w h ich is n o t a g rea t circle is ca lled a sm all circle. In a p la n e, th e p o sitio n o f a p o in t is referred to in term s o f tw o x ed lin es a n d a p o in t ca lled o rig in . A n a lo g o u sly, in a stro n o m y, th e co -o rd in a te o f a h eav en ly b o d y o n th e celestia l sp h ere is d escrib ed w ith referen ce to x ed g rea t circles a n d a n o rig in . W e n ow d e n e a few im p o rta n t g rea t circles o n th e (in n er su rfa ce o f) celestia l sp h ere (F igu re 5 ).
Figure 5. Some great circles on the Khagola (celestial sphere); The portions of the great circles lying below the horizon (and hence invisible to the observer) are indicated by dotted lines. O: Observer Z: Zenith n: Nadir CNP: Celestial north pole CSP: Celestial south pole N: North point S: South point E: East point W: West point.

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Figure 6. Dip of the horizon. C: Centre of the Earth E: Exact location of the observers eye.

T h e g rea t circle o f th e celestia l sp h ere in w h ich th e (h o rizo n ta l) ta n g en t p la n e to th e E arth 's su rfa ce, a t th e p o sitio n o f th e o b serv er, m eets th e celestia l sp h ere, is ca lled th e celestial horizon (ksitija). A s th e o b serv er's ey e is a t . so m e d ista n ce a b ov e th e sea -lev el, th e \ v isib le h o rizo n " a p p ea rs so m ew h a t b elow th e celestia l h o rizo n a s a sm a ll circle (F igu re 6 ). H ow ev er, to m in im ise tech n ica lity, w e sh a ll ig n o re th e d i eren ce 2 in th is a rticle a n d reg a rd th e celestia l h o rizo n itself to b e th e v isib le h o rizo n a n d ca ll it h o rizo n . T h e o b serv er sees o n ly th e p o rtio n o f th e celestia l sp h ere a b ov e th e h o rizo n . In F igu res 3 a n d 5 , th e in v isib le p o rtio n o f th e celestia l sp h ere a n d its circles a re in d ica ted b y d o tted lin es. T h e risin g a n d settin g o f th e sta rs a n d p la n ets ta k e p la ce o n th e h o rizo n to w a rd s th e ea st a n d w est resp ectiv ely. T h e g rea t circle o f th e celestia l sp h ere w h o se p la n e is p erp en d icu la r to th e a x is o f th e celestia l sp h ere (i.e., to th e lin e jo in in g th e celestia l p o les) is ca lled th e celestial equ ator (visu vadvrtta o r n d ivrtta). T h u s, a s w ith a. . . . th e a x es o f ro ta tio n (F igu re 4 ), th e p la n e o f th e celestia l eq u a to r is p a ra llel to th e p la n e o f th e E a rth 's eq u a to r (n iraksa) { th e tw o p la n es p ra ctica lly co in cid e. H a lf th e . celestia l eq u a to r is a b ov e th e celestia l h o rizo n (b o th b ein g g rea t circles). T h e celestial p o les a re th e \ p o les" o f

To avoid a possible confusion, we clarify here that if the dip can be neglected, it would be not because of the smallness of the Earths radius relative to stellar distances but rather the largeness of the Earths radius relative to the height of the observer. While the Earths radius can be regarded as negligible for mapping the stars, the dip of the visible horizon has nothing to do with the distances of the stars. It depends solely on the height of the observers eye from the Earths surface and the Earths radius.

The great circle of the celestial sphere whose plane is perpendicular to the axis of the celestial sphere is called the celestial equator.

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th is \ g rea t circle" . T h u s ea ch x ed sta r trav erses a circu la r o rb it p a ra llel to th e celestia l eq u a to r m a in ta in in g a co n sta n t a n g u la r d ista n ce fro m th e celestia l p o les. W e m en tio n h ere th a t th e celestia l eq u a to r is th e fu n d a m en ta l g rea t circle u sed fo r d e n in g m ea su res o f tim e. T h e zen ith is th e p o in t o n th e celestia l sp h ere v ertica lly ov erh ea d . T h u s th e lin e jo in in g th e zen ith a n d th e o b serv er is a v ertica l lin e p erp en d icu la r to th e p la n e o f th e h o rizo n . A n y g rea t circle th ro u g h th e zen ith is ca lled a vertical g rea t circle. T h e v ertica l g rea t circle th ro u g h th e celestia l p o les is ca lled th e observer's m eridian o r celestial m eridian (y m yottara m an d ala). a .. T h e p o in t b elow th e celestia l n o rth p o le w h ere th e o b serv er's m erid ia n m eets th e h o rizo n is ca lled th e N o rth p o in t. T h e p o in t o n th e h o rizo n o p p o site th e N o rth p o in t is ca lled th e S o u th p o in t. T h e m erid ia n is th u s th e v ertica l circle th ro u g h th e N o rth a n d S o u th p o in ts. T h e p o in ts o f in tersectio n o f th e celestia l eq u a to r a n d th e h o rizo n a re th e E a st a n d W est p o in ts { th e E a st p o in t lies to th e rig h t o f th e N o rth -S o u th lin e fo r a n o b serv er fa cin g N o rth ; th e W est p o in t lies to th e left. T h ese fo u r p o in ts a re ca lled ca rd in a l p o in ts. T h e v ertica l g rea t circle th ro u g h th e E a st a n d W est p o in ts is ca lled th e prim e vertical (sam am an d ala). T h e g rea t cir.. cle th ro u g h th e celestia l p o les a n d th e E a st a n d W est p o in ts is ca lled th e six o'clock circle (u n m an d ala). .. A ry a b h a ta d e n ed th e p rim e v ertica l, m erid ia n a n d h o ri. zo n in G o la 1 8 , th e six o 'clo ck circle in G o la 1 9 ; w h ile th e eq u a to r is im p licit in G o la 1 . T h e h o rizo n is p ictu red a s a n en circlin g co rd a ro u n d th e p rim e v ertica l a n d th e m erid ia n (a s if fa sten in g th em ). T h e su g g estiv e im a g ery is in terestin g . A m id st th e a p p a ren t ro ta tio n o f th e celestia l sp h ere, th e h o rizo n rem a in s rm ly x ed in th e m id d le o f th e sp h ere a t rig h t a n g les to th e p rim e v ertica l a n d th e m erid ia n .

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G e o g r a p h ic a l L a titu d e a n d A ltitu d e o f C e le stia l N o r th P o le T h e a n g u la r d ista n ce b etw een th e celestia l n o rth p o le a n d th e N o rth p o in t (i.e., th e eleva tio n o f th e celestia l n o rth p o le fro m th e h o rizo n ) is p recisely th e g eo g ra p h ica l la titu d e o f th e p la ce o f th e o b serv er (see F igu re 7 ).3 It is a lso th e d ep ressio n o f th e celestia l so u th p o le fro m th e h o rizo n a s a lso th e a n g le b etw een th e celestia l eq u a to r a n d th e p rim e m erid ia n . T h e eq u a lity o f th e la titu d e w ith th e a ltitu d e o f th e celestia l n o rth p o le (o r th e d ep ressio n o f th e celestia l so u th p o le) is im p licit in G o la 1 9 . In p a rticu la r, fo r a n o b serv er o n th e E a rth 's eq u a to r, th e celestia l n o rth p o le co in cid es w ith th e N o rth p o in t, th e celestia l so u th p o le w ith th e S o u th p o in t a n d th e celestia l eq u a to r w ith th e p rim e v ertica l; w h ile fo r a n o b serv er in th e N o rth P o le, th e celestia l n o rth p o le is a t th e zen ith a n d th e celestia l eq u a to r b eco m es th e h o rizo n ! A t th e eq u a to r, th e six o 'clo ck circle co in cid es w ith th e celestia l h o rizo n a n d h en ce u n m an d ala w a s so m etim es .. referred to a s th e \ h o rizo n a t L a n k " ([8 ], p 6 9 ). _ a

Figure 7. Altitude of CNP = Geographical Latitutde of O. GNP: Geographical North Pole GSP: Geographical South Pole C: Centre of Earth CNP: Celestial North Pole N: North point S: South point O: Observer Z: Zenith.

Thus the latitude of a place in the northern hemisphere would be approximately the altitude of the Pole Star at that place. For an observer at Bangalore (12.58N, 77.38E) or Chennai (13.04N, 80.17E), the Pole Star appears about 13 0 above the northern horizon, while for an observer in Kolkata (22.34N, 88.24E), the elevation of the Pole Star is about 22 1/2 0 .

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C h o ic e o f L a n_ k a
We are restricting ourselves to theoretical explanations based essentially on the geometrical aspects of the celestial sphere. But, in reality, one has to take into account the effects of the Earths atmosphere which considerably modify our simplified picture. For instance, due to refraction, a star can appear higher in the sky than its actual geometric position. The effect of refraction is most pronounced at the horizon. As a result, the actual duration of the day is several minutes longer than the theoretical duration. At a place on the equator, where day and night should be of equal duration from geometric consideration, the actual durations are 12 hours 5 minutes and 11 hours 55 minutes respectively. In this article we shall not discuss the visibility corrections employed in ancient India.

D u e to E a rth 's ro ta tio n a ro u n d its a x is, th e o b serv er sees ea ch o b ject o n th e celestia l sp h ere a s rev o lv in g a ro u n d th e a x is o f th e celestia l sp h ere. S o m e o f th ese o b jects (lik e th e S u n , th e M o o n a n d th e p la n ets) a lso h av e a d d itio n a l m o tio n s d u e to o th er p h en o m en a . H ow ev er, fo r a \ x ed sta r" , th e o n ly m o tio n o n th e celestia l sp h ere is th e o n e ca u sed b y E a rth 's ro tatio n . A s m en tio n ed ea rlier, a x ed sta r is seen to d escrib e a circle o n th e celestia l sp h ere parallel to th e celestia l eq u a to r. T h erefo re, a n o b server a t th e E a rth 's eq u a to r (w h ere th e celestia l eq u a to r co in cid es w ith th e p rim e v ertica l a n d th e a x is o f ro ta tion lies in th e p la n e o f th e h o rizo n ) sees th e x ed sta r as trav ellin g fro m ea st to w est in a vertical circle (p a ra llel to th e p rim e v ertica l a n d p erp en d icu la r to th e h o rizo n ). A t a n in term ed ia te la titu d e b etw een th e eq u a to r a n d a p o le, th e o rb it o f a n y x ed sta r is o b liq u e a n d th u s th e fa ct th a t th e sta r is m ov in g fro m ea st to w est co u ld b e less o b v io u s to a ca su a l o b serv er. In th e ex trem e ca se o f th e p o les, th e sta rs a re seen to trav erse in h o rizo n ta l circles (p a ra llel to th e h o rizo n ). It is o n ly a t th e eq u a to r th a t all x ed sta rs rise a n d set. T h eir o rb its cro ss th e h o rizo n a t rig h t a n g les a n d a re b isected b y it, so th a t ev ery x ed sta r rem a in s a b ov e th e h o rizo n fo r 1 2 h o u rs d a ily (if w e n eg lect refra ctio n 4 a n d o th er su b tleties). A n o b serv er in th e n o rth ern h em isp h ere sees th a t n o rth w a rd fro m th e celestia l eq u a tor, th e d a ily o rb its o f th e sta rs co m e u p m o re a n d m o re ab ov e th e h o rizo n till th ey a re en tirely a b ov e it; so u th w a rd fro m th e celestia l eq u a to r, th ey a re d ep ressed m o re an d m o re u n til th ey d isa p p ea r co m p letely fro m th e o b serv er's v iew . T h u s w h ile so m e o f th e sta rs clo se to th e celestia l n o rth p o le rem a in v isib le a ll th e tim e, so m e o f th e sta rs clo se to th e celestia l so u th p o le h av e o rb its co m p letely b elow th e h o rizo n

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a n d rem a in in v isib le a ll th e tim e. F o r in sta n ce, a t a p la ce o f la titu d e 2 3 N , th ere is a circu la r a rea a ro u n d th e celestia l n o rth p o le o f ra d iu s 2 3 0 co n ta in in g sta rs th a t n ev er set a n d a sim ila r a rea aro u n d th e celestia l so u th p o le co n ta in in g sta rs th a t n ev er co m e in to v iew . T h e rem a in in g b a n d o f th e sk y co n ta in s th e sta rs th a t rise a n d set. T h is b a n d is sy m m etrica l w ith resp ect to th e celestia l eq u a to r a n d ex ten d s 6 7 0 o n eith er sid e o f it. (S ee F igu re 8 .) T h e situ a tio n is ex a ctly rev ersed in th e so u th ern h em isp h ere. A s d escrib ed b y A ry a b h a ta in G o la 1 6 , a n o b serv er a t . th e N o rth P o le sees o n e h a lf o f th e celestia l sp h ere a s rev o lv in g fro m left to rig h t (i.e., clo ck w ise) w h ile a n o b serv er a t th e S o u th P o le sees th e o th er h a lf a s rev o lv in g fro m rig h t to left (i.e., a n ticlo ck w ise). T h u s th e eq u a to r is th e o n ly p a rt o f th e E a rth w h ere ea ch a n d ev ery p o rtio n o f th e en tire sk y is b ro u g h t in to v iew b y th e d a ily ro ta tio n fo r so m e tim e d u rin g 2 4 h o u rs. A t a n y o th er p la ce, so m e p ortio n o f th e sk y rem a in s p erm a n en tly h id d en fro m th e o b serv er. T h e p ro p o rtio n o f th e in v isib le p o rtio n in crea ses a s o n e a p p ro a ch es th e p o les; a t ea ch p o le, o n e h a lf o f th e sk y rem a in s v isib le a ll th e tim e w h ile th e o th er h a lf rem a in s p erm a n en tly in v isib le. T h e v isib ility o f th e w h o le sk y a n d th e v ertica l n a tu re o f th e stella r o rb its m u st h av e b een a m o n g th e rea so n s
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Figure 8. Star-orbits at 3 locations. N: North point S: South point E: East point W: West point Z: Zenith __ : Horizon ___ : Portions of star-orbits above horizon ---- : Portions of star-orbits below horizon __> : Direction of an orbit.

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In Gola 14, Arybhata conveyed a rough idea of the distance of Ujjayini from Lanka (i.e., the latitude of Ujjayini) by mentioning that it is one-sixteenth of the Earths circumference.

fo r A ry a b h a ta sp ecify in g a p o in t o n th e g eo g ra p h ica l . eq u a to r (L a n k ) in th e q u o ted v erse (G o la 9 ). F igu re _ a 8 sh ow s h ow th e o rb its o f th e sta rs a p p ea r b efo re a n o b serv er a t (i) L a n k (o n eq u a to r), (ii) U jjay in (2 3 .0 9 N ) _ a a n d (iii) U tta ra M eru (N o rth P o le). P r im e M e r id ia n in In d ia n A str o n o m y T h e v isu a l im p a ct o f v ertica l o rb its w o u ld b e sa m e a t an y p o in t o n E a rth 's eq u a to r. H ow ev er L a n k w a s situ _ a a ted o n a sp ecia l g eo g ra p h ica l m erid ia n { th e m erid ia n th ro u g h U jjay in T h is m erid ia n w a s ch o sen b y In d ia n . a stro n o m ers a s th e \ P rim e M erid ia n " (ju st a s th e m erid ia n th ro u g h G reen w ich is n ow ta k en to b e th e p rim e m erid ia n ). T h e a ccep ta n ce o f o n e p rim e m erid ia n b y a ll In d ia n a stro n o m ers re ects th e cu ltu ra l u n ity o f a n cien t In d ia . U jjay in w a s a g rea t cen tre o f lea rn in g , esp ecia lly in a stro n o m y. T h e a ca d em ic, cu ltu ra l a n d p o litica l em in en ce o f th e city, a s w ell a s its cen tra l lo ca tio n , m u st h av e in u en ced th e ch o ice o f th e p rim e m erid ia n . It w a s th en n a tu ra l fo r A ry a b h a ta to select L a n k to _ a . rep resen t a n eq u a to ria l p o in t. In fa ct, L a n k u sed to _ a b e a sta n d a rd referen ce p o in t in In d ia n a stro n o m y. F o r in sta n ce, in A ry a b h a ty a (G tik 4 ), th e co m m en cem en t a . o f th e cu rren t \ yu ga" is reck o n ed fro m su n rise a t L a n k . _ a T h e d eterm in a tio n o f g eo g ra p h ica l la titu d e a n d lo n g itu d e o f a p la ce o n E a rth fro m o b serva tio n s o f celestia l b o d ies is o n e o f th e m o st im p o rta n t a p p lica tio n s o f sp h erica l a stro n o m y. In G o la 1 4 , A ry a b h a ta co n v ey ed a . ro u g h id ea o f th e d ista n ce o f U jjay in fro m L a n k (i.e., _ a th e la titu d e o f U jjay in b y m en tio n in g th a t it is o n e) six teen th o f th e E a rth 's circu m feren ce. A s th e rea d er 22 1 2 ca n see, 116 (= 3 6 0 ) is a con ven ien t fra ctio n fa irly clo se to th e a ctu a l ra tio o f th e d ista n ce o f a p la ce a t 2 3 .0 9 N fro m th e eq u a to r to th e len g th o f th e circu m feren ce. G o la -Y a n tr a G ola-Y an tra d en o tes a sp h erica l a p p a ra tu s rep resen tin g

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Excerpts from a

th e bhagola; it is d esig n ed to ro ta te u n ifo rm ly a t th e ra te o f o n e ro ta tio n p er d ay, i.e., a t th e ra te o f E a rth 's ro ta tio n . In a sin g le v erse (G o la 2 2 ), A ry a b h a ta p rescrib ed . th e co n stru ctio n o f th is ro ta tin g sp h ere w ith a cry p tic b rev ity ch a ra cteristic o f A ry a b h a t a : .y

passage of the astronomer Lalla: How can the ignorant, who know neither mathematics nor the fundamental principles

k sth a m ay a m_ sa m av rtta m_ sa m a n ta ta h sa m a .. . . a g u ru m_ la g h u m_ g o la m p ra d a ta ila ja la ista m_ b h ra m ay et sva d h iy ca a a k la sa m a m a

of the celestial sphere, ever detect the motion of the planets? An astronomer without the knowledge of this

(M ake) a w ooden gola (globe) w hich is perfectly sphericalan d u n iform ly den se allarou n d (bu t is) light in w eight. U sin g m ercu ry, oil an d w ater, an d applyin g on e's ow n in tellect, (m ake the globe) rotate (at the requ ired rate) to keep pace w ith tim e.

sphere is like a disputant without the knowledge of grammar, a sacrificer without the light of the Vedas and a physician without the

T h is em p h a sis o n th e crea tiv e u se o f th e in tellect fo r w o rk in g o u t th e d eta ils fro m terse a p h o rism ic in d ica tio n s is a recu rren t fea tu re in th e o rig in a l w o rk s o f th e a n cien t In d ia n M a sters. S o m etim es th e co m m en ta to rs p rov id e m o re ela b o ra te ex p o sitio n s. In h is co m m en ta ry o n A ry a b h a ty a , th e 1 2 th cen tu ry a stro n o m er S u ry a d eva . d escrib ed in d eta il h ow m ercu ry, o il a n d w a ter ca n b e u sed \ in tellig en tly " to ro ta te th e sp h ere a t th e req u ired ra te (see [1 ], p 1 2 9 -1 3 0 o r [5 ], p 8 6 ). Im p o r ta n c e o f th e G o la In d ia n a stro n o m ers la id sp ecia l em p h a sis o n th e im p o rta n ce o f th e sp h ere G o la (referrin g to b o th th e co n cep t a n d th e p h y sica l m o d el o f th e celestia l sp h ere). T o q u o te (tra n sla tio n s o f) ex cerp ts fro m a lo n g p a ssa g e o f th e a stro n o m er L a lla (a ro u n d 8 th cen tu ry C E ) o n th e in d isp en sa b ility a n d p ro fu n d ity o f th is stu d y ([5 ], p 7 4 ): \ N o a stro n o m y trea tise is co m p lete w ith o u t a sectio n o n th e sp h ere o f th e u n iv erse. T h e a stro n o m ers stress th a t th is

experience of an active practitioner.

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sp h ere is sp eci ca lly n eed ed fo r m a th em a tica l co m p u ta tio n s a n d th a t th o se w h o w ish to stu d y th e p la n ets m u st b e ex p erts o n th e sp h ere. T h e m ea n m o tio n s o f th e p la n ets a n d o th er celestia l o b jects a re clea rly p ercep tib le o n th is sp h ere, esp ecia lly to th e sch o la r w h o h a s m a stered th e scien ce o f th eir geo m etrica l rep resen ta tio n . H ow ca n th e ig n o ra n t, w h o k n ow n eith er m a th em a tics n o r th e fu n d a m en ta l p rin cip les o f th e celestia l sp h ere, ev er d etect th e m o tio n o f th e p la n ets? A n a stro n o m er w ith o u t th e k n ow led g e o f th is sp h ere is lik e a d isp u ta n t w ith o u t th e k n ow led g e o f g ram m a r, a sa cri cer w ith o u t th e lig h t o f th e V ed a s a n d a p h y sicia n w ith o u t th e ex p erien ce o f a n a ctiv e p ra ctitio n er. H e w h o a cq u ires a co m p reh en siv e k n ow led g e of th e celestia l sp h ere co n ta in in g th e S u n etc. sees, in fro n t o f h is ey es a s it w ere, th e w h o le u n iv erse; h e b eh o ld s it d eco ra ted b ea u tifu lly w ith a w id e va riety o f ex q u isite p h en o m en a . H e g ets sp iritu a lly en rich ed a n d a tta in s m oksa (L ib era tio n ); h e . b eco m es fa m o u s."
Suggested Reading
[1] K S Shukla and K V Sarma, A rya bh a . ya o f A rya bh a .a , Indian t t National Science Academy, New Delhi , 1976. [2] S Balachandra Rao, Indian Astronomy An Introduction, Universities Press, Hyderabad, 2000.
[3] P R Ray and S N Sen (ed), The Cultural Heritage of India Vol VI : Science and Technology, The Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture, Calcutta, 1986; reprinted, 2002. [4] D M Bose, S N Sen and B V Subbarayappa (ed), A Concise History of Science in India, Indian National Science Academy, New Delhi , 1971; reprinted, 1989. [5] B V Subbarayappa and K V Sarma (ed), Indian Astronomy; A SourceBook, Nehru Centre, Bombay, 1985. [6] W M Smart, Text-Book on Spherical Astronomy, Cambridge University Press, 1956.

Address for Correspondence Amartya Kumar Dutta Stat-Math Unit; Indian Statistical Institute; 203, B.T. Road; Kolkata 700108. Email: amartya@isical.ac.in

[7] D Chattopadhyaya (ed) , Studies in the History of Science in India, Vol.II, Editorial Enterprise, New Delhi , 1982. [8] W E Clark (ed), The A ry a bh a . y a o f A ry a bh a .a , University of t t Chicago, Illinois, 1930. [9] M Monier Williams, Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Clarendon Press, Oxford (1899); reprinted Munshiram Manoharlal, New Delhi , 2002.

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RESONANCE March 2006