QUESTION 1(a) Slope stability The stability of slopes in dams is formed by excavations in rock or of natural rock slopes altered

by excavation activities. The typical examples of slopes cut in rock include: excavations and development of dam abutments, and spillways. Sliding Failure Modes. While other failure mechanisms are conceptually possible, the seven mechanisms illustrated are representative of those mechanisms most likely to occur. The following provide a brief description of the conditions necessary to initiate each of the sliding mechanisms.

 Single block/single sliding plane. A single block with potential for sliding along a single plane is kinematically possible in cases where at least one joint set strikes approximately parallel to the slope strike and dips toward the excavation slope. Failure is impending if the joint plane intersects the slope plane and the joint dips at an angle greater than the angle of internal friction of the joint surface.

 Single block/stepped sliding planes. Single block sliding along stepped planes is possible in cases where a series of closely spaced parallel joints strike approximately parallel to the excavation slope strike and dip toward the excavation slope. In the case of continuous parallel joints, a second set of joints is necessary. This second joint set must also strike more or less parallel to the slope and the magnitude and direction of the joint dip angle must be such that the joint plane does not intersect the slope plane.  Multiple blocks/multiple sliding planes. Multiple blocks, sliding along multiple planes is the most complicated planar type of sliding. The mechanism is associated with two or more joint sets that strike approximately parallel to the slope strike and dip in the direction of the excavation slope. At least one of the joint planes must intersect the excavated slope plane. For a failure to occur, the dip angle of the joint defining the base of the upper most blocks must be greater than the friction angle of the joint surface.  Single wedge/two intersecting planes.

Single wedge sliding can occur in rock masses with two or more sets of discontinuities whose lines of intersection are approximately perpendicular to the strike of the slope and dip toward the plane of the slope. In addition, this mode of failure requires that the dip angle of at least one joint-intersect is greater than the friction angle of the joint surfaces and that the line of joint intersection intersects the plane of the slope.

Triggering Events A mass movement event can occur any time a slope becomes unstable. Sometimes, as in the case of creep or solifluction, the slope is unstable all of the time and the process is continuous. But other times, triggering events can occur that cause a sudden instability to occur. Here we discuss major triggering events, but it should be noted that it if a slope is very close to instability, only a minor event may be necessary to cause a failure and disaster. This may be something as simple as an ant removing the single grain of sand that holds the slope in place.
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Shocks - A sudden shock, such as an earthquake may trigger slope instability. Minor shocks like heavy trucks rambling down the road, trees blowing in the wind, or human made explosions can also trigger mass movement events. Slope Modification - Modification of a slope either by humans or by natural causes can result in changing the slope angle so that it is no longer at the angle of repose. A mass movement event can then restore the slope to its angle of repose.

Changes in Hydrologic Characteristics - heavy rains can saturate regolith reducing grain to grain contact and reducing the angle of repose, thus triggering a mass movement event. Heavy rains can also saturate rock and increase its weight. Changes in the groundwater system can increase or decrease fluid pressure in rock and also triggers mass movement events.

The rocks are mostly limestone, but some are intricately interbedded with sands and clays. These sand and clay layers form bedding planes that parallel the syncline structure, dipping steeply into the valley from both sides. Fracture systems in the rocks run parallel to the bedding planes and perpendicular to bedding planes. The latter fractures had formed as a result of glacial erosion which had relieved pressure on the rocks that had formed deeper in the Earth. Some of the limestone units have caverns that have been dissolved in the rock due to chemical weathering by groundwater. Furthermore, the dam site was built near an old fault system

Volcanic Eruptions - produce shocks like explosions and earthquakes. They can also cause snow to melt or empty crater lakes, rapidly releasing large amounts of water that can be mixed with regolith to reduce grain to grain contact and result in debris flows, mudflows, and landslides. Changes in Slope Strength. Anything that acts to suddenly or gradually change the slope strength can also be a triggering mechanism. For example, Weathering creates weaker material, and thus leads to slope failure.

Vegetation holds soil in place and slows the influx of water. Trees put down roots that hold the ground together and strengthen the slope. Removal of tress and vegetation either by humans or by a forest fire, often results in slope failures in the next rainy season.

Mass westing in dam embankments. Major mass westing in dam embankments can cause damage to a well constructed dam that can withstand the ground motions caused by the maximum credible earthquake then it has to be expected that the dam and reservoir region are severely damaged and that access to the (remote) dam site and the reservoir may be obstructed due to landslides, rock falls, debris on roads, cracks in the road surface, soil deformations, damaged bridges, local flooding. The growing number of dams, the tendency to make use of less favourable dam sites, and the growing awareness that the hazard of foundation movements is about the most severe influence that could affect the structural integrity of dams. Effects of mass westing on selection of sites and types of dams. The mass movement plays the key role in selecting sites and types of dams. When comparing dam sites, a reduced level of mass wasting should be rated as a significant advantage. Hence,

evaluating the safety of any large dam with respect to fault slip and block movement hazards should be introduced as constant practice. In such a case, concrete dams should be avoided and a conservative embankment dam, designed with ample cohesion less transition zones, on both sides of a rather wide core, displaying self healing properties after the fault displacement. There is considerable confidence that such structure can withstand, without failure, significant fault offsets. Such a dam should be even more effective against fault creep and other foundation displacements. In earthquake regions faults are frequently found to exist in dam foundations. Evaluation of the likelihood that displacement could occur along the fault during the lifetime of the dam, and the selection of the design details to ensure safety against such possible fault displacement, are difficult problems for which there is (still) little guidance in the literature.

Hazards caused by mass wasting storage embankment dam: a) Ground shaking causing vibrations in dams, appurtenant structures and equipment, and their foundations; b) Fault movements in the dam foundation causing structural distortions; c) Fault displacement in the reservoir bottom causing water waves in the reservoir or loss of freeboard; and d) Mass movements into the reservoir causing impulse waves in the reservoir. The main phenomenon which has been a major concern for dam designers since long time is the seismic shaking and related consequences for the safety of dams. Accordingly, the main hazard, which is addressed in codes and regulations, is the earthquake ground shaking. It causes stresses, deformations, cracking, and sliding, overturning, liquefaction.

QUESTION 1(b) Factors Influencing Slope Stability There are several factors which influencing slope stability of the dam embankment. These factors include erosion, ground water, temperature, in-situ stress, and earthquake-induced loading. a) Erosion. Two aspects of erosion need to be considered. The first is large scale erosion, such as river erosion at the base of a cliff. The second is relatively localized erosion caused by groundwater or surface runoff. In the first type, erosion changes the geometry of the potentially unstable rock mass. The removal of material at the toe of a potential slide reduces the restraining force that may be stabilizing the slope. Localized erosion of joint filling material, or zones of weathered rock, can effectively decrease interlocking between adjacent rock blocks. The loss of interlocking can significantly reduce the rock mass shear strength. The resulting decrease in shear strength may allow a previously stable rock mass to move. In addition, localized erosion may also result in increased permeability and ground-water flow. b) Ground water. Ground water occupying the fractures within a rock mass can significantly reduce the stability of a rock slope. Water pressure acting within a discontinuity reduces the effective normal stress acting on the plane, thus reducing the shear strength along that plane. Water pressures within discontinuities that run roughly parallel to a slope face also increase the driving forces acting on the rock mass. c) Temperature. Occasionally, the effects of temperature influence the performance of a rock slope. Large temperature changes can cause rock to spall due to the accompanying contraction and expansion. Water freezing in discontinuities causes more significant damage by loosening the rock mass. Repeated freeze/thaw cycles may result in gradual loss of strength. Except for periodic maintenance requirements, temperature effects are a surface phenomenon and are most likely of little concern for permanent slopes. However, in a few cases, surface deterioration could trigger slope instability on a larger scale.

d) State of stress. In some locations, high in-situ stresses may be present within the rock mass. High horizontal stresses acting roughly perpendicular to a cut slope may cause blocks to move outward due to the stress relief provided by the cut. High horizontal stresses may also cause spalling of the surface of a cut slope. Stored stresses will most likely be relieved to some degree near the ground surface or perpendicular to nearby valley walls. For some deep cuts, it may be necessary to determine the state of stress within the rock mass and what effects these stresses may have on the cut slope.

Reference
1. Brenner. R.P (1992) Effect of potential movements along faults and Discontinuities in dam foundations on dam design, Shih-Kang weirn, India

2. Irrigation Water Power and Water Resources Engineering (in SI Units) by Dr. K.R. Arora 3. Theory and Design of Irrigation Structures (Volume II) by R.S. Varshney, S.C. Gupta and R. Gupta 4. Browning, J.M., 1973, Catastrophic rock slides. Mount Huascaran, north-central Peru, May 31, 1970. Bulletin American Association of Petroleum Geologists. v. 57, p. 13351341. 5. Coch, Nicholas K., 1995, Geohazards, Natural and Human. Prentice Hall, 481 pp. 6. Eagleman, J.,1983, Severe and Unusual Weather. Van Nostrand Reinhold. 7. Francis, Peter, 1993, Volcanoes, A Planetary Perspective. Oxford University Press, 443 pp.