C H A P T E R 1

INTRODUCTION

Assignment 1: Problems 2.1-9, 2.4-3, 2.8-2, 2.8-5



Figure 1.1 Some examples of communications systems.
Figure 1.2 Communication system.
The channel adds distortion and noise.

Messages are digital or analog.

A digital message constructed with two symbols is a binary message.
A digital message constructed with M symbols is called an M-ary
message.
Figure 1.3 (a) Transmitted signal. (b) Received distorted signal (without noise).
(c) Received distorted signal (with noise). (d) Regenerated signal (delayed).
Figure 1.4 Analog-to-digital conversion of a signal.
Sampling Theorem: Highest frequency in the signal = B Hz. Signal can
be reconstructed with samples taken with sampling rate > 2B Hz.

To have a low quantization error, the number of levels needs to be
adequate.


Figure 1.5 Example of PCM encoding.



Sampling Theorem: Highest frequency in the signal = B Hz. Signal can
be reconstructed with samples taken with sampling rate > 2B Hz.

To have a low quantization error, the number of levels needs to be
adequate.

The channel bandwidth B, the signal-to-noise ratio SNR, and the channel
capacity C are related by Shannons equation



In AM, the carrier amplitude varies in proportion to the baseband signal
m(t). In FM, the carrier frequency varies in proportion to m(t).

To reconstruct the baseband signal, the modulated signal must pass
through a reversal process called demodulation.

Figure 1.6 Modulation: (a) carrier; (b) modulating (base band) signal; (c) amplitude-modulated wave;
(d) frequency-modulated wave.
A Brief Historical Review of Modern Telecommunications
Early age
1820 First experiment of electric current causing magnetism (Oersted)
1830s
Discovery of induced current from EM radiation (Faraday)
Birth of telegraph (Henry and Schilling)
Morse code (Morse)
Theory of EM waves (Maxwell)
1860s
Theory of EM waves (Maxwell)
First transatlantic telegraph cable,
1876 Invention of Telephone (Bell)
1987 Detection of EM waves (Hertz)
1896 Wireless telegraphy (Marconi)
Modern Digital and Analog Communication Systems Lathi Copyright 2009 by Oxford University Press, Inc.
A Brief Historical Review of Modern Telecommunications
Early Boom
1906 First AM radio broadcasting (Fessenden)
1921 Mobile radio adopted by Detroit Police department
1925 First TV demonstration (Jenkins)
1935 First FM radio demonstration (Armstrong)
1948 Shannon Information theory and intention of transistor (Schockley, Brattain,
and Bardeen).
70s-80s Boom
First portable cellular phone demonstration (Motorola)
First Wireless Computer Network (AlohaNet)
First generation mobile phone (AMPS) (Motorola)
90s-2000s Boom
GSM, DSL, WLAN, Qualcomm IS 95, WiMAX, etc

Modern Digital and Analog Communication Systems Lathi Copyright 2009 by Oxford University Press, Inc.
Figure 1.7 Illustration from Bell's U.S. Patent No.174,465 issued March 7, 1876.
(From the U.S. Patent and Trade mark Office.)
C H A P T E R 2
SIGNALS AND SIGNAL
SPACE


Figure 2.1 Examples of signals: (a) signal with finite energy;
(b) signal with finite power.
The energy of a real signal g(t) is defined as

For a complex signal, it can be generalized as

The average power of a real signal is defined as

For a complex signal, it can be generalized as
Figure 2.2 Signal for Example 2.1.
The signal energy is given by



The average power is

The rms value is
2.2 Classification of Signals


Continuous time and discrete time signals

A signal is continuous in time if it is specified for every value of time t.

A signal is discrete in time if it is specified only at discrete points of
time t.
Figure 2.3 (a) Continuous time and (b) discrete time signals.
Analog and Digital signals

A signal is analog if its amplitude is specified for every value in a
continuous range.

A signal is digital if its amplitude is specified only at discrete points of
values.
Figure 2.4 Examples of signals: (a) analog and continuous time; (b) digital and continuous time;
(c) analog and discrete time; (d) digital and discrete time.
Periodic and aperiodic signals

A signal is periodic if there exists a positive constant T0 such that



Otherwise, it is aperiodic.

The smallest value of is called period.

Periodic signals must start from and end at
t all for T t g t g ) ( ) (
0
+ =
0
T
= t = t
Figure 2.5 Periodic signal of period T
0
.
2.3 Some useful signal operations
Time shift

Time scaling

Time inversion
) ( ) ( ) ( T t g or T t g t g +
) ( ) ( ) (
a
t
g or at g t g
) ( ) ( t g t g
Energy and Power signals

A signal with finite energy is an energy signal.
Periodic signals are not a energy signal.

A signal with finite power is a power signal
Periodic signals with finite energy in one period are power signals
Figure 2.6 Time shifting a signal.
Figure 2.7 Time scaling a signal.
Figure 2.8 Examples of time compression and time expansion of signals.
Figure 2.9 Time inversion (reflection) of a signal.
Figure 2.10 Example of time inversion.
2.4 Unit impulse signal
Definition

=

=
=

1 ) (
0 0
0
) (
dt t
t
t
t

Multiplication property
) ( ) 0 ( ) ( ) ( t t t = ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( T t T T t t =
Sampling property
) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( T dt T t T dt T t t = =

Figure 2.11 (a) Unit impulse and (b) its approximation.
Figure 2.12 (a) Unit step function u(t). (b) Causal exponential e
at
u(t).
Unit Step Function

=
<

t
dt t t u
t
t
t u
) ( ) (
0 0
0 1
) (

) (
) (
t
dt
t du
=
A signal that starts after t=0 is called a Causal signal
2.5 Signals versus vectors
Take N samples, we can represent as a vector of N samples
)] ( ),..., ( ), ( [ ) (
2 1 N
t g t g t g t g = g
||x|| denotes the amplitude, or magnitude or
length of the vector x
denotes the angle between and
( ) cos , x g x g =
Dot product (or inner product or scale product)
) (t g
g x
Figure 2.14 Approximations of a vector in terms of another vector.
One vector can be projected to another.
( ) cos g x = c
( )
2
cos , x x g x g c = =
2
,
x
x g
= c
If c=0, i.e., then we call g and x are orthogonal
0 , = x g
Decomposition of a Signal and Signal Components

Say we want to represent g(t) with x(t), i.e., g(t)=c*x(t)+e(t), how to
minimize e(t)?

= =
2
1
2
1
2 2
)) ( ) ( ( ) (
t
t
t
t
e
dt t cx t g dt t e E
0 )) ( ) ( (
2
1
2
= =

t
t
e
dt t cx t g
dc
d
dc
dE
0 ) ( 2 ) ( ) ( 2
2
1
2
1
2
= +

t
t
t
t
dt t x c dt t x t g

= =
2
1
2
1
2
1
) ( ) (
1
) (
) ( ) (
2
t
t x
t
t
t
t
dt t x t g
E
dt t x
dt t x t g
c
Orthogonal if c=0
Figure 2.15 Approximation of square signal in terms of a single sinusoid.

= =
2
0
2
) ( sin dt t E
x

4
) sin(
1
) sin(
1
) sin( ) (
1
2
0
2
0
= = =

dt t dt t dt t t g
E
c
x
) sin(
4
) ( t t g

Complex signals

= =
2
1
2
1
2
1
) ( ) (
1
) (
) ( ) (
*
2
*
t
t x
t
t
t
t
dt t x t g
E
dt t x
dt t x t g
c
Energy of the sum of orthogonal signals (x(t)+y(t))

If x(t) and y(t) are orthogonal, then

0 ) ( ) (
2
1
*
=

t
t
dt t x t y

+ = + =
+
2
1
2
1
2
1
2 2 2
) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
t
t
t
t
t
t
y x
dt t y dt t x dt t x t y E

+ +
2
1
2
1
) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
* *
t
t
t
t
dt t y t x dt t y t x
2 2 2 2
2
1
2
1
) ( ) ( y x + = + =

+
t
t
t
t
y x
dt t y dt t x E
2.6 Correlation of signals
Definition: correlation coefficient
( )
x g
x g

= =
,
cos

= =
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
) ( ) (
1
) ( ) (
) ( ) (
*
2 2
*
t
t g x
t
t
t
t
t
t
dt t x t g
E E
dt t g dt t x
dt t x t g

1 1
1 =
Best Friends, complete stranger, worst enemy
0 =
1 =
Figure 2.16 Signals for Example 2.6.
Example 2.6
5 1
5
0
2

= = dt E
x
5 1
5
0
2
1

= = dt Eg
25 . 1 5 . 0
5
0
2
2

= = dt Eg
5 ) 1 (
5
0
2
3

= = dt Eg
1617 . 2 ) 1 (
2
5
2
5
) (
2
5
0
5 / 2
5
0
2 5 /
4
= =

= =

=
=

e e dt e Eg
t
t
t t
5 . 0 ) 1 (
2
1
2
1
) (
10
5
0
2
5
0
2
5
= =

= =

=
=

e e dt e Eg
t
t
t t
5 . 2
6
= Eg
Figure 2.16 Signals for Example 2.6.
Example 2.6
1 1
5 5
1
5
0
2
,
1
=

= dt
g x

1 5 . 0
5 25 . 1
1
5
0
,
2
=

= dt
g x

1 1
5 5
1
5
0
,
3
=

=

dt
g x

961 . 0
5 1617 . 2
1
5
0
5 /
,
4
=

=

dt e
t
g x

628 . 0
5 5 . 0
1
5
0
,
5
=

=

dt e
t
g x

0 . 0 ) 2 sin(
5 5 . 2
1
5
0
,
6
=

= dt t
g x

2.6 Correlation functions
Definition: cross correlation function

+ = = dt t x t g dt t x t g
gx
) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
* *

Auto correlation function

+ = = dt t g t g dt t g t g
g
) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
* *

Figure 2.17 Physical explanation of the auto-correlation function.
Orthogonal Signal Set
Figure 2.18 Representation of a vector in three-dimensional space.
2
,
,
,
i
i
i i
i
i
c
x
x g
x x
x g > <
=
> <
> <
=
Orthogonal Signal Space
Replace vector by signals, we have orthogonal signals. If
they are of unit energy, then it is called orthonormal set

m n E
m n
dt t x t x
n
t
t
m n
0
) ( ) (
2
1
*
Given a set of orthogonal signals

,N 1,2 n for t x
n
... ), ( =
We can approximate a signal g(t) as

) ( ..., ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
2 2 1 1
1
t x c t x c t x c t x c t g
N N
N
n
n n
+ + + =

=
n
t
t
n
t
t
n
t
t
n
n
E
dt t x t g
dt t x
dt t x t g
c

= =
2
1
2
1
2
1
) ( ) (
) (
) ( ) (
*
2
*
Complete Orthogonal Signal Space
If any signal g(t) can be represented by the orthogonal set
with zero error energy, then the set is called complete
orthogonal signal basis set.

Error signal

=
=
N
n
n n
t x c t g t e
1
) ( ) ( ) (
Zero error energy

0 ) (
2
1
2
=

dt t e
t
t
In many cases, we have

N
0 ) ( lim
2
1
2
=

dt t e
t
t
N
Zero energy does not mean e(t)=0.

Parsevals Theorem

If is a set of orthogonal signal set,

then the energy g(t) can be computed as

=
= =
N
n
n n
t
t
g
E c dt t g E
1
2 2
2
1
) (
,N 1,2 n for t x
n
... ), ( =
What will happen if zero error energy property does not
hold?

2.8 Trigonometric Fourier Series

Consider the class of (real or complex) periodic signals with
period of T0
A complete orthogonal basis formed by real-valued
trigonometric functions:

} ,...; sin ,... 2 sin , sin ,...; cos ,... 2 cos , cos , 1 {
0 0 0 0 0 0
t n t t t n t t
n0 is called the nth harmonic of the sinusoid of angular
frequency 0

fundamental frequency 0 or f0,

0
0 0
2
2
T
f

= =
Orthogonality of Trigonometric basis signals

( ) ( )

0 2 /
0
cos cos
0
0 0
0
m n T
m n
dt t m t n
T

( ) ( )

0 2 /
0
sin sin
0
0 0
0
m n T
m n
dt t m t n
T

( ) ( ) 0 cos sin
0
0 0
=

T
dt t m t n
0
0 0
2
2
T
f

= =
Trigonometric Fourier Series

... ) cos( ..., ) cos( ) ( ) (
0 0 1 0
1
+ + + + = =


=
t n a t a a t x c t g
n
N
n
n n

A periodic signal g(t) with period can be represented by
trigonometric set as

0
T
... ) sin( ..., ) sin(
0 0 1
+ + + + t n b t b
n

( )

=
+ + =
1
0 0 0
) sin( ) cos( ) (
n
n n
t n b t n a a t g
Trigonometric Fourier Series

( )
( )
( )

= =
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
0
cos ) (
2
cos
cos ) (
T
T
T
n
dt t n t g
T
dt t n
dt t n t g
a

= =
0
0
0
) (
1
1
) (
0 2
0
T
T
T
dt t g
T
dt
dt t g
a
coefficients

( )
( )
( )

= =
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
0
sin ) (
2
sin
sin ) (
T
T
T
n
dt t n t g
T
dt t n
dt t n t g
b

Trigonometric Fourier Series pair

( )

=
0
0
0
cos ) (
2
T
n
dt t n t g
T
a

=
0
) (
1
0
0
T
dt t g
T
a
Coefficients: Fourier series vs its representation

( )

=
0
0
0
sin ) (
2
T
n
dt t n t g
T
b
( )

=
+ + =
1
0 0 0
) sin( ) cos( ) (
n
n n
t n b t n a a t g
Frequency domain (a, b) vs time domain (g(t))

Trigonometric Fourier Series (compact form)

( )

=
0
0
0
cos ) (
2
T
n
dt t n t g
T
a

= =
0
) (
1
0
0 0
T
dt t g
T
a C
Coefficients

( )

=
0
0
0
sin ) (
2
T
n
dt t n t g
T
b
( )

=
+ + =
1
0 0 0
) sin( ) cos( ) (
n
n n
t n b t n a a t g
Frequency domain (C) vs time domain (g(t))

=
+ + =
1
0 0 0
) cos(
n
n
t n C C
2 2
n n n
b a C + =
|
|
.
|

\
|

=

n
n
n
a
b
1
tan
Example 2.7

( ) ( )

= =

0
0 0
0
cos ) 2 / exp(
2
cos ) (
2
0
dt t n t dt t n t g
T
a
T
n
504 . 0 ) 2 / exp(
1
) (
1
0 0
0 0
0
= = = =

dt t dt t g
T
a C
T
= t for t t g 0 ) 2 / exp( ) ( =
0
T
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
|
.
|

\
|
=
2
0
16 1
2
504 . 0
2
cos ) 2 / exp(
2
n
dt t n t

|
.
|

\
|
+
=
|
.
|

\
|
=
2
0
16 1
8
504 . 0
2
sin ) 2 / exp(
2
n
n
dt t n t b
n

( )|
.
|

\
|
+
+
+ =

=
) 2 sin( 4 ) 2 cos(
16 1
2
1 504 . 0 ) (
2
1
nt n nt
n
t g
n
Example 2.7

504 . 0
0 0
= = a C
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
= + =
2
2 2
16 1
2
504 . 0
n
b a C
n n n
) 4 ( tan ) 4 ( tan tan
1 1 1
n n
a
b
n
n
n

= =
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
|
|
.
|

\
|

+
+ =

)) 4 ( tan 2 cos(
16 1
2
1 504 . 0 ) (
1
2
1
n nt
n
t g
n
) 87 . 82 4 cos( 125 . 0 ) 96 . 75 2 cos( 244 . 0 504 . 0 ) (
o o
t t t g + + =
... ) 42 . 86 8 cos( 063 . 0 ) 24 . 85 6 cos( 084 . 0 + + +
o o
t t
Figure 2.19 (a, b) Periodic signal and (c, d) its Fourier spectra.
2.8.2 Periodicity of Trigonometric Fourier Series

The basis signals of trigonometric Fourier series are
periodic, with period of .


So if g(t) is a periodic signal g(t) with period can be
represented by trigonometric set

If g(t) is not a periodic signal, Fourier series can represent
its value within duration. Outside the duration, it
CANNOT be represented.

0
T
0
T
0
T
2.8.3 Fourier Spectrum

We can plot Cn and n as a function of n, i.e., nf0 . These
two plots are called frequency spectra of g(t).

g(t) represents its time domain description, Cn and qn
represent its frequency domain description.

Discontinuous in time infinite frequency

Discontinuous in frequency infinite time
Existence of the Fourier Series: Dirichlet Conditions

For the series to exist, its coefficients Cn or (a,b) must be
finite.
<

0
) (
1
0 T
dt t g
T
Condition 1:
Condition 2: g(t) can have only a finite number of maxima
and minima in one period and it may have only a finite
number of finite discontinuities in one period.
All physically realizable periodic signals satisfy
Dirichlet condition, so can be represented by Fourier
series.
Example 2.8

( ) ( )

= =

0
0 0
0
cos
1
cos ) (
2
0
dt t n dt t n t g
T
a
T
n
5 . 0 1
2
1
) (
1
0 0
0 0
0
= = = =

dt dt t g
T
a C
T
2 2
1 ) (

= t for t g
2
0
= T

=
= =
,... 11 , 7 , 3
2
... 9 , 5 , 1
2
0
n
n
n
n
even n

0
2
sin
1
0
=
|
.
|

\
|
=

dt t n b
n
|
.
|

\
|
+ + + = ... ) 7 cos(
7
1
) 5 cos(
5
1
) 3 cos(
3
1
) cos(
2
2
1
) ( t t t t t g

Figure 2.20 (a) Square pulse periodic signal and (b) its Fourier spectrum.
Figure 2.21 Bipolar square pulse periodic signal.
|
.
|

\
|
+ + + = ... ) 7 cos(
7
1
) 5 cos(
5
1
) 3 cos(
3
1
) cos(
2
2
1
) ( t t t t t g

|
.
|

\
|
+ + = = ... ) 7 cos(
7
1
) 5 cos(
5
1
) 3 cos(
3
1
) cos(
4
] 5 . 0 ) ( [ 2 ) ( t t t t t g t w

Example 2.9

( )
0
0
0
2
cos ) (
2
0
T
dt t n t
T
a
T
n
= =


0 0
0 0
1
) (
1
0
T
dt t
T
a C
T
= = =

2 2
) ( ) (
0 0
T
t
T
for t t g =
0
2
sin ) (
2
0 0 0
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

dt t
T
n t
T
b
n
|
.
|

\
|
+ =

=1
0
0
) 2 cos( 2 1
1
) (
0
n
T
t f n
T
t
Figure 2.22 (a) Impulse train and (b) its Fourier spectrum.
2.9 The Exponential Fourier Series

Consider the class of (real or complex) periodic signals with
period of T0
A complete orthogonal basis formed by complex-valued
exponential functions:

,...} 2 , 1 , 0 ) {exp(
0
= n where t jn
( ) ( ) ( )

m n T
m n
dt t jm t jn
T
0
*
0 0
0
exp exp
0

Orthogonal

Exponential Fourier Series

=
=
n
n
t jn D t g ) exp( ) (
0

=
0
) exp( ) (
1
0
0 T
n
dt t jn t g
T
D
Exponential Fourier Series vs Trigonometric Fourier Series

) exp(
2
1
n n n
j C D = ) exp(
2
1
n n n
j C D =

0 0
C D =
Split coefficients of Trigonometric Fourier Series into two
equal part, one at positive frequency and another at the
negative frequency (with a phase flip).

Example 2.10 (waveform of Example 2.7)

( )
n j
dt nt j t dt t jn t g
T
D
T
n
4 1
504 . 0
) 2 2 / exp(
1
exp ) (
1
0
0
0
0
+
= = =

504 . 0 ) 2 / exp(
1
) (
1
0 0
0 0 0
0
= = = = =

dt t dt t g
T
a C D
T
= t for t t g 0 ) 2 / exp( ) ( =
0
T
( )|
.
|

\
|
+
+
+ =

=
) 2 sin( 4 ) 2 cos(
16 1
2
1 504 . 0 ) (
2
1
nt n nt
n
t g
n
Figure 2.23 Exponential Fourier spectra for the signal in Fig. 2.19a.
What does negative frequency mean?

The concept of negative frequency is meaningfuly only
when we are considering complex sinusoids

It is for computation simplicity and engineering
convenience.

Example 2.11 (waveform in Example 2.8)

( ) ( )


= =
4 /
4 /
0
0
0
0
0
0 0
2 exp
1
exp ) (
1
T
T T
n
dt t f jn
T
dt t jn t g
T
D
5 . 0 1
2
1
) (
1
0 0
0 0
0
= = = =

dt dt t g
T
a D
T
2 2
1 ) (

= t for t g
2
0
= T
|
.
|

\
|
+ + + = ... ) 7 cos(
7
1
) 5 cos(
5
1
) 3 cos(
3
1
) cos(
2
2
1
) ( t t t t t g

( ) ( ) | | 4 / 2 exp 4 / 2 exp
2
1
0 0 0 0
0 0
T f jn T f jn
T f jn

=
( ) ( ) 2 / sin
1
4 / 2 sin
2
2
0 0
0 0

n
n
T f n
T f n
= =
Figure 2.25 Exponential Fourier spectrum of the square pulse periodic signal.
Example 2.12 (waveform in Example 2.9)

( )
0
0
0
1
exp ) (
1
0
T
dt t jn t
T
D
T
n
= =


0 0
0 0
1
) (
1
0
T
dt t
T
a D
T
= = =

2 2
) ( ) (
0 0
T
t
T
for t t g =
References:

[1] B. P. Lathi and Zhi Ding, Modern Digital
and Analog Communication Systems,
Oxford University Press, 2008.
[2] Wei Lei, Lecture Notes, University of
Central Florida, 2009.