Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
Under West Bengal University of Technology (U. Tech.)
Year : 2005-2006
Abhra Ray
12716021007
Amit Nag
12716021008
12716021047 12716021011
Saurav Paul
12716021048 12716021051
12043 12050
Acknowledgement
We, the student of Electrical Engineering, Narula Institute of Technology, 81 Nilgunj Road, Kolkata 700109, have completed our project successfully under the guidance of Mrs. Shilpi Bhattacharya, Lecturer, Department of Electrical Engineering, Narula Institute of Technology, Agarpara, without whose guidance, advice, interest, encouragement and also disbursement of money for purchasing the components at proper time, our project could not have achieved its grand success. We also express our respect and profound sense of gratitude to Prof. Amlan Chakrabarti, Head of the Department, Electrical Engineering, Narula Institute of Technology, Agarpara for his moral encouragement and advisement at different stages to build up our project. At last, we will thankful endlessly to the respective personality, Prof. Biswarup Basak, Department of Electrical Engineering, Bengal Engineering & Science University, Shibpur, who spent his expensive time to illustrate how the project circuitry can be developed. NAME Abhra Ray Amit Nag Arijit De Arijit Dey ROLL 12003 12004 12007 12008 UNIVERSITY ROLL NO. 12716021007 12716021008 12716021004 12716021047
Arkendu Mitra 12010 Ayanava Chatterjee 12012 Kunal Pahari 12022 Mainak Dey 12024 Soumya Subhra Neyogi 12042 Saurav Paul 12043 Subrata Sinha Roy 12050
Contents
Topic 1. 2. Introduction to Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) Objective Speed Control of Induction Motors 2.1 Pole Changing 2.2 Stator Voltage Control 2.3 Supply Frequency Control Advantages of Frequency Control Advantage and Disadvantage of PWM 4.1 Advantage 4.2 Disadvantage Industrial Applications of PWM Overview of the Project 6.1 Controlling Part 6.2 Power Part 6.3 Loading Part Components Tools and Instruments 8.1 For Testing Purpose 8.2 For Final Project Circuitry Bolck Diagram of the Whole Project Total Project Circuitry Project Details 11.1 Controlling Part Page No. 1 2 2 2 4 4 5 6 6 6 6 7 7 7 7 8 9 9 9 10 11 12 12
3. 4. 5. 6.
7. 8. 9. 10. 11.
11.2
Power Part 11.2.1 Supply Part 11.2.2 Inverter Bridge Part 11.3 Loading Part Test Tools Test Procedure Test Results Precautions Inference
24 24 24 25 27 27 27 28 28
G1
M1
G3
M3
Vs
Load
G4
M4
G2
M2
(a)
(b)
(c) Fig. 1 Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation (a) Single Phase bridge inverter (b) Gate signal voltage and (c) Output Voltage
1. Objective :
To vary the speed of a single phase squirrel-cage induction motor by varying supple frequency with the help of Pulse Width Modulator (PWM) based Inverter. (Note: to change the frequency we change the resistance of controlling circuit.)
(v) Rotor Resistance Control, (vi) Slip Power Recovery. (i) is applicable for squirrel-cage motor, (ii) to (iv) is applicable for both wound-rotor and squirrel-cage motor and (v) and (vi) is applicable for wound-rotor. For squirrel-cage type motor, here pole changing, stator voltage control and supply frequency control methods are discussed.
Fig. 2 Stator phase connection for 6-poles Figure 2(a) above shows a phase winding consisting of six coils divided into two groups a-b consisting of odd number coils (1, 3,5) connected in series and c-d consisting even numbered coils (2,4,6)
3
connected in series. The coils can be made to carry currents in the given directions by connecting coil groups either in series or parallel as shown in figure B and C. With this connection machine has six poles. If the current through the coil group a-b is reversed [Fig. 3(a)], then all coils will produce north poles. Fluxes coming out of the north poles will now find paths through Interpol spaces for going out consequently producing south poles in Interpol spaces. The machine will now have 12 poles. Here again the direction of current through coils can be obtained by connecting two sections a-b and c-d either in series or parallel for both pole numbers 6 and 12.
Fig. 3 Stator phase connection for 12-poles Further three phases of the machine can be connected to form delta or star connection by choosing a suitable combination of series and parallel connection between coil groups of each phase, and star and delta connection in each phase, speed change can be obtained with constant power or variable torque operation. Connections and speed-torque curves for these operations are shown in Figs. 4 to 6.
4.2 Disadvantage :
The main disadvantages of PWM circuits are the added complexity and the possibility of generating radio frequency interference (RFI). Locating the controller near the load, using short leads, and in some cases, using additional filtering on the power supply leads, may minimize RFI.
7. Components :
Sl. No. 1. 2. Name OPAMP (741) GATE (7405, 7408) Components Character in Project It is the heart of the project. By using this we produce controlling pulses (comparing sinusoidal & triangular). It is used to design the comparator circuit. 75LS05N known as Logic inverter is used to invert the square pulse of 50 Hz. Then 75LS08N known as Logic AND Gate is used to ANDing the square pulse with the output of the OPAMP in which sine wave and triangular carrier pulse is compared. To isolate the triggering pulses for buffering and then for sending to the inverter circuit. We use to build inverter bridge by which we invert the DC voltage into AC voltage by using gate pulse. To build controlling circuit we use external resistor of different specification, sometimes for getting desired time constant and sometimes for getting different gain for opamp output. It is variable resistance which is used to change frequency & leveling the pulses over a base line. To generate sinusoidal and triangular pulse using opamp, capacitor charging and discharging phenomena is used from which we get square wave and then by using second order low-pass filter and integrator we get sinusoidal and triangular wave. Industrial Specification Given in data sheet. Given in data sheet.
3. 4. 5.
5. 6.
POT CAPACITOR
2. 3. 4.
10
Integrator
Comparator
Comparator
Logic AND
B L O C K D I A G R A M
Pulse
Pulse
OptoIsolator
OptoIsolator
1 2 3 4 Inverter
D.C.
Motor
11
12
4 2
U1
V3 12V
(a)
(b)
Fig. 7 Square Wave Generator (a) Required Circuitry and (b) Output Waveform
13
Then the square wave is filtered through a second-order low pass filter made by another OP-AMP to generate the required sine wave of 50 Hz. To vary the frequency of sine wave, just vary the frequency of square wave through the POT. The function of the second-order low pass filter with an OP-AMP is describe below The schematic diagram of a second order low-pass filter is shown below -V R Square wave of variable frequency R C R1 C
2 3 7 1 5 4
741
+V
Fig. 8 Second order Low-pass Filter The transfer function will be given by H ( s) = vo v
in
( RC ) 2
1 1 s + s + RC RC
2 2 K0
2 s 2 + 0 s + 0 Q K
2
s 1 s + +1 Q 0 0
where K = 2, 0 =
1 , Q = 1. RC
The second-order low pass filter with specified components and its output is given in Fig.
14
R2 C2 100nF 200kOhm_5% 49.9kOhm_1% 2 6 3 C1 100nF 7 1 5 741 R3 1kohm 4 U1 R1 1kohm 2 6 3 7 1 5 741 4 U3
R6 200kOhm_5%
R7
R5
sine wave
V2 12V
V1 12V
R4 1kohm
(a)
(b) Fig. 9 Second order Low-pass Filter (a) Circuitry with specified components and (b) Output Waveform
Now with the help of another OP-AMP, an inverting amplifier (described below) is made, which inverts the sine wave at a phase shift 180. Here another POT of value 50 k is used to maintain the same level of two sine waves (actual and inverted). The connection method for producing the inverted gain using OP-AMP is called inverting amplifier. The OP-AMP makes use of single resistor (r1) and a single feedback resistor (r2). The inverting amplifier produces a phase shift of 180 in voltage from input to output. Thus the input and output signals of the inverting amplifier are not in phase with each other. We know that OP-AMP gain without any feedback is very high. This means that the voltage at the inverting terminal must be small. As a matter of fact, the input voltage at the inverting terminal will be very nearly at the same potential as the non-inverting terminal. Now since the noninverting input is
15
grounded, the inverting input of an OP-AMP is also at the ground potential and is referred to as virtual ground.
r2 -V
741
7 1 5
+V
Fig. 10 Inverting Amplifier Now recall that voltage gain (Av) of an amplifier is defined as the ratio of output voltage to the input voltage. Mathematically, voltage gain output voltage vo r Av = = = 2 input voltage vin r1
The inverting amplifier circuit with specified components and its output is given in Fig.
R1
1kohm
V2 12V
(a)
16
(b) Fig. 11 Inverting Amplifier (a) Required Circuitry and (b) Output Waveform (inverted sine wave) After adjusting the level of two sine waves by the POT 50 k, the obtained output is as below
Fig. 12 Two variable Sine Waves (actual and inverted) in a same oscilloscope Thereafter another square wave of fixed frequency (about 5 kHz) is generated. The necessary circuit arrangement and its output are given below
17
R3 10kOhm_5% U1
4 2
C1 10nF
V2 12V
(a)
(b) Fig. 13 High Frequency Square Wave Generator (a) Required Circuitry and (b) Output Waveform Integrating this high frequency square wave, the triangular wave (also called carrier signal) is generated. The description of integrator circuit with an OP-AMP is as follows Integrator is a circuit whose output is proportional to the area of its input waveform. The RC circuit itself acts as a simple integrator. But the problem with such a simple circuit is that the output voltage is not a linear triangular output as it should be. The function of the OP-AMP is to linearize the output. It may be noted from the diagram that the inverting input to the OP-AMP is held at virtual ground by the differential amplifier in the OP-AMP input circuit.
18
-V
4
R2 C
2 3
741
7 1 5
+V
Fig. 14 Integrator The second-order low pass filter with specified components and its output is given in Fig.
R1
1kohm
V2 12V
(a)
(b) Fig. 15 Integrator circuit with specified components (a) Required Circuitry and (b) Output Waveform
19
Now two sine waves (actual and inverted) and the triangular wave (carrier signal) are compared using two OP-AMPs. The comparator circuit using OP-AMP is as follows The comparator is a circuit that is used to compare two voltages and provide an output indicating the relationship between two voltages. Generally speaking, comparators are used to compare either, (i) Two changing voltages to each other, as comparing two sine waves. (ii) A changing voltage to a set D.C. reference voltage. Figure shows the circuit of an OP-AMP comparator. It may be noted that there is no feedback path in the circuit. In this circuit the sine wave (actual and inverted) is applied to the inverting input terminal and high frequency triangular carrier signal is applied to the inverting terminal of the OPAMP.
-V
4 2 3 7 1 5
741
+V
Fig. 16 Comparator The simulation circuit and its outputs are given below
R1 4 2 6 3 7 1 5 741 U1
1kohm R3 1kohm
output of comparator I
triangular wave
R2 4 2 6 3 7 1 5 741 U2
1kohm R4 1kohm
output of comparator II
V1 12V
V2 12V
(a)
20
(b)
(c) Fig. 17 Comparator circuit with specified component (a) Required Circuitry, (b) Output Waveform of Comparator I and (c) Output Waveform of Comparator II At last the output of the first comparator is ANDed with the square wave of variable frequency by using chip 7408 and the output of the second comparator is ANDed with the inverted square wave of variable frequency (inverted by using logic inverter 7404) to generate the triggering pulse for triggering the POWER MOSFETs. The simulation circuit of ANDing and its outputs are given in the figure below
21
comparator output I
output pulse
74LS08N
1 2
U2A 74LS04N
comparator output II
U1B 4 5 74LS08N 6
output pulse
(a)
(b) Fig. 18 ANDing the output of Comparator I and II with Variable Square Wave (a) Required Circuitry and (b) Output Pulses The pulses are isolated trough four opto-couplers, so that each POWER MOSFET of the inverter bridge is being triggered separately. The opto-couplers connections and the outputs of four opto couplers, i.e., individual triggering pulses for each MOEFET are shown in Figs. below
22
U4
V1 12V R4 1.0kOhm_5%
To MOSFET M1
U1 V2 12V R3 1.0kOhm_5%
To MOSFET M2
U2
To MOSFET M3
V3 12V R2 1.0kOhm_5%
U3
To MOSFET M4
V4 12V R1 1.0kOhm_5%
(a)
(b)
23
(c)
(d)
(e) Fig. 19 Separation of Pulses with Opto-isolators (a) Opto-isolator connection and (b) (e) Four separate Pulses to trigger the MOSFET 1 MOSFET 4
24
where, Vac = supply voltage for the induction motor. Vsin ma = modulation index = Vtri Vdc = supply D.C. voltage for inverter Vac 230 Vdc = = = 537 V 0.612ma 0.612 0.7 But 270 V D.C. source is available in the laboratory, so the maximum voltage can be applied to the motor terminal is Vac = 0.612 0.7 270 = 116 V
lower part of the sinusoidal supply appears across the load. The Inverter circuit and its output is given in the following Figs.
M3
R1 L1
270V
1.0uH 1.0kOhm_5%
C1 2.0nF
C2 2.0nF
M2
(a)
(b) Fig. 20 Circuitry of the total Power Part (a) Inverter Bridge and (b) Output of the Inverter, fed to the motor Now we get the desired A.C. supply for motor. Here every MOSFET is become ON when the amplitude of the gate pulse is 3.8V 4V.
hp; 12 Current = 0.85 A; Voltage = 230 V; Speed = 6500 r.p.m.; Power factor = 0.8 (a) (b) Fig. 21 Loading Part (a) The Single Phase Induction Motor and (b) Rating of the Motor As we know that in single phase the alternating phases are absent due to which the rotating flux is not generated; so rotation of the rotor is not possible. For that reason permanent split capacitor is used to generate two balanced phases, due to which a rotating flux generated. There are several types of single-phase motors in market but permanent capacitor type motors are used because here two balanced phases generate rotating flux for which the backward rotating flux is absent. Due to which motor become more efficient and operated in better power factor. This type of load is used in ceiling fans and table fans now a day. In our project, the two phases coming from Inverter Bridge is fed to the load where any one phase is earthed; so that it acts as neutral in singlephase supply. By this supply starting torque is generated and the motor starts to rotate.
Power =
27
28
15. Precautions :
To do this project various types of problems appear in front of us those are as follows with solve, (i) First of all things, connection should be correct and perfect. (ii) During soldering careful about burning hazards. (iii) Use chip base to prevent the burning of chip due to direct soldering. (iv) Soldering should be done in right process otherwise there may appear short-circuit among pins and connecting wires. (v) Use Multi-Striped wire to prevent loose connection after soldering. (vi) All the open contacts should be closed to prevent shock hazards. (vii) Take measures to minimize the noise in the signal; like using capacitor to block the noise.
16. Inference :
After finishing the simulation of the circuit by using Multisim software, we get the specific results and wave forms when we design the circuit part by part like square wave generator, then second order filter, then we get sinusoidal pulse. Again square wave generator of high frequency pulse, then integrator and we get carrier signal triangular pulse. But in the case of hardware design, many difficulties will occur such as frequency is not in the proper range, many noises in the required wave form etc. and so we use capacitors and resistors in much more quantity than that used in software. From all the above analysis and waveforms, we conclude that if we vary the POT of Fig. 7(a), the frequency of the Square wave of Fig. 7(b) changed as the time constant RC will be changed. So the frequency of the sine wave will also vary and as well as comparison of Sine wave with the triangular wave will vary and the frequency of the pulses which trigger the MOSFETs will also vary and at last we will get the variable inverter output. But, we know that, frequency control below base speed can carry out by keeping
voltage with its frequency, so the frequency as well as the speed of the motor is varied above the base speed.
2)
August 2000
If Military/Aerospace specified devices are required, please contact the National Semiconductor Sales Office/ Distributors for availability and specifications. (Note 7) LM741 Operational Voltage Supply Amplifier
LM741A
LM741
LM741C
18V output, when the 500 mW no latch-up 500 mW common mode mW 500 range is exceeded, as well as freedom from oscillations. 30V 30V Differential Input Voltage The LM741 series are general purpose operational 30V The LM741C is identical to the LM741/LM741A except that amplifi- ers which feature improved performance over 15V 15V 15V Input Voltage (Note 4) the LM741C has their performance guaranteed over a 0C to industry stan- dards like the LM709. They are direct, plug-in Output Short Circuit Duration Continuous Continuous Continuous +70C temperature range, instead of 55C to +125C. replacements for the 709C, LM201, MC1439 and 748 in 55C to +125C 55C to +125C 0C to +70C most applications. Operating Temperature Range
22V
22V
General Description
Storage features which make their appli65C to +150C The amplifiers offer manyTemperature Range cation nearly foolproof: overload protection on the input and Junction Temperature 150C
Soldering Information
See AN-450 Surface Mounting Methods and Their Effect on Product Reliability for other methods of soldering surface mount devices. ESD Tolerance (Note 8)
Note 1: LM741H is available per JM38510/10101
400V
00934102
400V
400V
00934103
Electrical Characteristics
(Note 5)
Order Number LM741H, LM741H/883 (Note 1), Parameter Conditions LM741AH/883 or LM741CH See NS Package Number H08C Input Offset Voltage TA = 25C Ceramic Flatpak RS 10 k RS 50 TAMIN TA TAMAX RS 50 RS 10 k Average Input Offset Order Number LM741W/883 Voltage Drift NS Package Number W10A See Input Offset Voltage TA = 25C, VS = 20V
00934106
Order Number LM741J, LM741J/883, LM741CN See NS Package Number J08A, M08A or N08E LM741A LM741 LM741C Min Typ Max Min Typ 1.0 0.8 3.0 Max 5.0 Min Typ 2.0 Max 6.0
Units
mV mV
mV mV V/C
10
3.0 30 70 0.5
15
20 85 200 500
15
20 200 300
mV nA nA nA/C
Adjustment Range
TA = 25C
TA = 25C TAMIN TA TAMAX TA = 25C, VS = 20V TAMIN TA TAMAX, VS = 20V 1.0 0.5
30 6.0
80 0.210 0.3
80 2.0
80 2.0
500 0.8
nA A M M
00934107
12 12 13
13
V V
DS009341
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Electrical Characteristics
Parameter Large Signal Voltage Gain
(Note 5)
(Continued) LM741A Min Typ Max Min LM741 Typ Max Min LM741C Typ Max V/mV 50 200 20 200 V/mV Units
Conditions TA = 25C, RL 2 k VS = 20V, VO = 15V VS = 15V, VO = 10V TAMIN TA TAMAX, RL 2 k, VS = 20V, VO = 15V VS = 15V, VO = 10V VS = 5V, VO = 2V VS = 20V RL 10 k RL 2 k VS = 15V RL 10 k RL 2 k 32 50
10
16 15 12 10
10 10 25 35 40 70 80 95 90 70 90
14 13
25
12 10
14 13
25
V V mA mA dB dB
Output Short Circuit Current Common-Mode Rejection Ratio Supply Voltage Rejection Ratio
TA = 25C TAMIN TA TAMAX TAMIN TA TAMAX RS 10 k, VCM = 12V RS 50, VCM = 12V TAMIN TA TAMAX, VS = 20V to VS = 5V RS 50 RS 10 k
86
96 77 0.25 6.0 0.8 20 96 0.3 5 0.5 1.7 80 150 50 165 135 60 100 85 50 85 2.8 77 96 0.3 5 0.5 1.7 2.8
dB dB s % MHz V/s mA mW mW mW mW mW
Transient Response Rise Time Overshoot Bandwidth (Note 6) Slew Rate Supply Current Power Consumption
0.437 0.3
1.5 0.7
LM741A
LM741
VS = 15V TA = TAMIN
Note 2: Absolute Maximum Ratings indicate limits beyond which damage to the device may occur. Operating Ratings indicate conditions for which the device is functional, but do not guarantee specific performance limits.
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Electrical Characteristics
(Note 5)
(Continued)
Note 3: For operation at elevated temperatures, these devices must be derated based on thermal resistance, and Tj max. (listed under Absolute Maximum Ratings). Tj = TA + (jA PD).
Note 4: For supply voltages less than 15V, the absolute maximum input voltage is equal to the supply voltage. Note 5: Unless otherwise specified, these specifications apply for VS = 15V, 55C TA +125C (LM741/LM741A). For the LM741C/LM741E, these specifications are limited to 0C TA +70C. Note 6: Calculated value from: BW (MHz) = 0.35/Rise Time(s). Note 7: For military specifications see RETS741X for LM741 and RETS741AX for LM741A. Note 8: Human body model, 1.5 k in series with 100 pF.
Schematic Diagram
00934101
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Features
ICC reduced by 50% on 74AC only Outputs source/sink 24 mA
Ordering Code:
Order Number 74AC08SC 74AC08SJ 74AC08MTC 74AC08MTCX_NL (Note 1) 74AC08PC 74AC08PC_NL (Note 1) 74ACT08SC 74ACT08SCX_NL (Note 1) 74ACT08MTC 74ACT08MTCX_NL (Note 1) 74ACT08PC 74ACT08PC_NL (Note 1)
Device also available in Tape and Reel. Specify by appending suffix letter X to the ordering code. (PC not available in Tape and Reel.) Pb-Free package per JEDEC J-STD-020B. Note 1: _NL indicates Pb-Free package (per JEDEC J-STD-020B). Use this number to order device.
Logic Symbol
IEEE/IEC
Connection Diagram
Pin Descriptions
Pin Names An , Bn On
FACT is a trademark of Fairchild Semiconductor Corporation.
DS009914
www.fairchildsemi.com
DC Input Voltage (VI) DC Output Diode Current (IOK) VO VO 0.5V VCC 0.5V
DC Output Voltage (VO) DC Output Source or Sink Current (IO ) DC VCC or Ground Current per Output Pin (ICC or IGND) Storage Temperature (TSTG) Junction Temperature (TJ) PDIP
125 mV/ns
Note 3: All outputs loaded; thresholds on input associated with output under test. Note 4: Maximum test duration 2.0 ms, one output loaded at a time. Note 5: IIN and ICC @ 3.0V are guaranteed to be less than or equal to the respective limit @ 5.5V VCC.
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Note 6: All outputs loaded; thresholds on input associated with output under test. Note 7: Maximum test duration 2.0 ms, one output loaded at a time.
25qC 50 pF Typ 7.5 5.5 7.0 5.5 Max 9.5 7.5 8.5 7.0
Capacitance
Symbol CIN CPD Parameter Input Capacitance Power Dissipation Capacitance Typ 4.5 20.0 Units pF pF VCC VCC OPEN 5.0V Conditions
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. 2. Alok Jain Power Electronics and Its Applications, Second Edition, Penram International Publishing (India) Pvt. Ltd. William H. Hayt, Jr., Jack E. Kemmerly, Steven M. Durbin Engineering Circuit Analysis, Sixth Edition, Tata McGrawHill Publishing Company Limited, New Delhi. A. Chakrabarti Circuit Theory (Analysis and Synthesis), Dhanpat Rai & Co. (Pvt.) Ltd. Muhammad H. Rashid Power Electronics Circuits, Devices, and Applications, Third Edition, Prentice-Hall of India Private Limited. D. Roy Choudhury, Shalil B. Jain Linear Integrated Circuits, Second Edition, New Age International (P) Limited, Publishers.
3. 4.
5.
6. Nisit K. De, Prasanta K. Sen Electric Drives, Prentice-Hall of India Private Limited. 7. M. Morris Mano Digital Logic and Computer Design, Prentice-Hall of India Private Limited.
8. Dr. P. S. Bimbhra Generalized Theory of Electrical Machines, Khanna Publishers. 9. Gopal K. Dubey Fundamentals of Electrical Drives, Second Edition, Narosa Publishing House. 41 Projects Using 741 I.C., BPB