PSZ 19:16 (Pind.

1/07)

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA

DECLARATION OF THESIS / UNDERGRADUATE PROJECT PAPER AND COPYRIGHT

Authors full name : Date of birth Title : :

ABDUL RAHIM BIN JUSOH JULY 31ST 1989 CHARGE CONTROLLER DESIGN FOR MAXIMUM POWER POINT TRACKING APPLICATION

Academic Session :

2010/2011

I declare that this thesis is classified as : CONFIDENTIAL RESTRICTED OPEN ACCESS (Contains confidential information under the Official Secret Act 1972)* (Contains restricted information as specified by the organisation where research was done)* I agree that my thesis to be published as online open access (full text)

I acknowledged that Universiti Teknologi Malaysia reserves the right as follows : 1. The thesis is the property of Universiti Teknologi Malaysia. 2. The Library of Universiti Teknologi Malaysia has the right to make copies for the purpose of research only. 3. The Library has the right to make copies of the thesis for academic exchange. Certified by:

SIGNATURE 890731-11-5467 (NEW IC NO. /PASSPORT NO.)

SIGNATURE OF SUPERVISOR PROF DR ZAINAL BIN SALAM NAME OF SUPERVISOR

Date : 15th MAY 2011

Date : 15th MAY 2011

NOTES :

If the thesis is CONFIDENTIAL or RESTRICTED, please attach with the letter from the organisation with period and reasons for confidentiality or restriction.

I hereby declare that I have read this thesis and in my opinion this thesis is sufficient in terms of scope and quality for the award of the degree of Bachelor of Engineering (Electrical)

Signature Name of Supervisor Date

: : :

.................................................... Prof Dr Zainal bin Salam 15th May 2011

CHARGE CONTROLLER DESIGN FOR MAXIMUM POWER POINT TRACKING APPLICATION

ABDUL RAHIM BIN JUSOH

A report submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the degree of Bachelor of Engineering (Electrical)

Faculty of Electrical Engineering Universiti Teknologi Malaysia

MAY 2011

ii

I declare that this thesis entitled Charge controller design for maximum power point tracking application is the result of my own research except as cited in the references. The thesis has not been accepted for any degree and is not concurrently submitted in candidature of any other degree.

Signature Name Date

: : :

.................................................... Prof Dr Zainal bin Salam 15th May 2011

iii

Dedicated, in thankful appreciation for support, encouragement and understanding to my beloved mother, father, brothers and sisters, lecturers and friends.

iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

In preparing this thesis, I was in contact with many people, researchers, academicians, and practitioners. They have contributed towards my understanding and thoughts. First and foremost, I would like to express my heartily gratitude to my supervisor, Prof. Dr Zainal bin Salam for his proposal, guidance and enthusiasm given throughout the progress of this project. I also very thankful to Dr David C. Hamill for spare his time replying my email, giving comments and motivations for me to complete this study. Without their continued support and interest, this thesis would not have been the same as presented here.

My appreciation also goes to my family who has been so tolerant and supports me all these years. Thanks for their encouragement, love and emotional support that they had given to me.

My fellow postgraduate students should also be recognised for their support. My sincere appreciation also extends to all my colleagues and others who have provided assistance at various occasions. Their views and tips are useful indeed. Unfortunately, it is not possible to list all of them in this limited space. I am grateful to all my family members.

ABSTRACT

Photovoltaic (PV) power generation has raise attention around the world as the best electric source to replace the conventional energy source. It has growing fast due to green energy demand as people now are become more concern about environment especially on global warming issue. Because of this, manufacturers, scientists and engineers are working hard to make the use of photovoltaic system to become more efficient. One of big initiative is the introduction to maximum power point tracking (MPPT) circuit to enhance the operating power used on photovoltaic circuit. There were various inventions and designs for maximum power point tracking circuit being introduced to make the MPPT to be simpler, faster and cheaper. One of the MPPT circuit is the circuit proposed by David C. Hamill and Yan Hong Lim in their article Simple maximum power point tracker for photovoltaic arrays. The maximum power point tracker used is simple fast and has been proving efficient to track the maximum power point. The components used in the circuit is just simple analogue and digital device connecting with logic gate which make it cheaper compared to other maximum power point tracker circuit. The purpose of this study is analyse and simulate the MPPT circuit to prove the ability of the referred circuit. The analyzing process will cover the MPPT parameters, mathematical algorithm involved and the components used in the design. The simulation then will be done using Casdence Orcad Capture. From the simulation, several waveforms can be observed and compared to result in the article. The discussion on waveforms obtained is done next to prove the design and the recommendation to improve this study was proposed.

vi

ABSTRAK

Penjanaan tenaga elektrik menggunakan melalui photovoltaik sebagai sumber tenaga baru bagi menggantikan sumber tenga konvensional telah menarik perhatian dunia. Ia berkembang pantas berikutan permintaan terhadap sumber bersih kerana masyarakat mula mengambil berat terhadap alam sekitar terutama terhadap isu pemanasan global. Oleh sebab itu juga, para saintis, jurutera dan pengeluar berusaha untuk membolehkan penggunaan system photovoltaic yang lebih efisien. Salah satu dari usaha adalah penggunaan litar pengesan titik kuasa maksimum (MPPT). Terdapat pelbagai rekaan dan ciptaan telah diperkenalkan untuk menjadikan litar MPPT ini berfungsi dengan lebih senang, pantas dan murah. Salah satunya ialah litar yang diperkenalkan oleh David C. Hamill dan Yan Hong Lim dalam artikel mereka Simple maximum power point tracker for photovoltaic arrays. Komponen yang digunakan dalam litar ini adalah peranti asas analog dan digital yang disambung dengan get logik. Kajian ini dilakukan adalah untuk menganalisa dan menjalankan simulasi terhadap litar tersebut. Proses analisa melibatkan persamaan matematik yang terlibat dan komponenkomponen yang digunakan dalam litar. Proses pula dijalankan dengan dengan menggunakan Casdence Orcad Capture. Daripada proses simulasi itu, beberapa bentuk gelombang akan dapat dilihat dan dibandingkan dengan hasil simulasi dari artikel. Perbincangan terhadap gelombang yang diperoleh kemudiannya dijalankan dan beberapa cadangan untuk menjadikan kajian ini lebih baik juga diusulkan.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER TITLE

PAGE

DECLARATION DEDICATION ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ABSTRACT ABSTRAK TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES LIST OF FIGURES LIST OF ABBREVATIONS

ii iii iv v vi vii x xi xiii

INTRODUCTION 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 OVERVIEW OBJECTIVES SCOPE OF STUDY METHODOLOGY 1 2 2 3

LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 PHOTOVOLTAIC 2.1.1 2.1.2 2.1.3 2.2 INTRODUCTION PHOTOVOLTAIC GENERATION PV CELL EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT 5 6 9

MAXIMUM POWER POINT TRACKING 2.2.1 INTRODUCTION 11

2.2.2 2.2.3

MPPT CHARGE CONTROLLER PARAMETERS IN MPPT

11 13

MPPT CHARGE CONTROLLER CIRCUIT 3.1 3.2 3.3 INTRODUCTION CONTROL EQUATION CIRCUITS COMPONENT AND FUNCTION 3.3.1 INTRODUCTION 3.3.2 SOLAR ARRAY 3.3.3 CONTROLLER 3.3.3.1 VOLTAGE FOLLOWER 3.3.3.2 VOLTAGE INVERTER 3.3.3.3 ANALOG MULTIPLIER 3.3.3.4 DIFFERENTIATIORS 3.3.3.5 VOLTAGE COMPARATORS 3.3.3.6 XOR GATE 3.3.3.7 D FLIP-FLOP 3.3.4 POWER STAGE 3.3.4.1 INTRODUCTION 3.3.4.2 BLOCKING DIODE 3.3.4.3 CHARGING/DISCHARGING CAPACITOR 3.3.4.4 BUCK CONVERTER 3.4 CIRCUIT OPERATION 36 38 35 35 36 22 25 27 29 31 32 33 20 21 15 15

SIMULATION RESULT AND DISCUSSION 4.1 4.2 4.3 INTRODUCTION ORCAD CAPTURE ORCAD CAPTURE SIMULATION 4.3.1 SCHEMATIC CIRCUIT 4.3.2 SIMULATION RESULT 41 41 42 42 43

4.3.3 SIMULATION RESULT ANALYSIS

45

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 5.1 5.2 CONCLUSION RECOMMENDATION 48 49

REFERRENCES

50

APPENDICES

52

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE NUMBER

TITLE

PAGE

CONTROL EQUATION

19

XOR TRUTH TABLE

33

D FLIP-FLOP TRUTH TABLE

33

PRE AND CLEAR FUNCTION TABLE

35

SIMPLIFIED CIRCUIT OPERATION

40

xi

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE NUMBER

TITLE

PAGE

METHODOLOGY FLOWCHART

SOLAR ARRAY CURRENT VOLTAGE CURVE AND POWER VOLTAGE CURVE FOR A TYPICAL SOLAR ARRAY

SOLAR CELL IV CURVE VARYING SUNLIGHT

PV ARRAY EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

P-V CURVE AND I-V CURVE FOR A TYPICAL 75W PV MODULE 12

SOLAR CELL I-V CURVE

13

SOLAR ARRAY P-V CURVE

14

SIGNUM FUNCTION GRAPH

17

10

MPPT CHARGE CONTROLLER CIRCUIT

21

11

OP-AMP EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

22

xii

12

VOLTAGE FOLLOWER CONNECTION

24

13

INVERTING OP-AMP CONNECTION

26

14

AD633 SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM

28

15

AD633 ANALOG MULTIPLIER CONNECTION

28

16

VOLTAGE AND POWER DIFFERENTIATOR CONNECTION

30

17

POWER AND VOLTAGE COMPARATORS

31

18

XOR CONNECTION

32

19

74HC74 D-FLIP FLOP CONNECTION

34

20

BUCK CONVERTER CIRCUIT

36

21

BUCK CONVERTER CIRCUIT WHEN SWITCH CLOSED 37

22

BUCK CONVERTER CIRCUIT WHEN SWITCH OPENED 37

23

CIRCUIT OPERATION FLOWCHART

39

24

CIRCUIT OPERATION GRAPH

39

25

SIMULATION SCHEMATIC CIRCUIT

43

xiii

26

SIMULATION ARRAY VOLTAGE WAVEFORM

44

27

ARRAY POWER WAVEFORM SIMULATION POWER VOLTAGE CURVE

44

28

45

29

THEORETICAL WAVEFORM

ARRAY

VOLTAGE

46

30

THEORETICAL ARRAY POWER WAVEFORM

46

31

THEORETICAL P-V CURVE

47

xiv

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

MPP

MAXIMUM POWER POINT

MPPT

MAXIMUM POWER POINT TRACKING

P &O

PERTURB AND ORDER

PV

PHOTOVOLTAIC

ISC I-V CURVE

SHORT CIRCUIT CURRENT CURRENT VOLTAGE CURVE

P-V CURVE

POWER - VOLTAGE CURVE

VMPP VOC

VOLTAGE AT MAXIMUM POWER POINT

OPEN CIRCUIT VOLTAGE

DERIVATIVES OF VOLTAGE OVER TIME

DERIVATIVES OF POWER OVER TIME

sign

SIGNUM FUNCTION

VARRAY

ARRAY VOLTAGE

xv

IARRAY PARRAY XOR

ARRAY CURRENT

ARRAY POWER

EXCLUSIVE OR

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1

Overview

The power output of a solar panel varies significantly with varying load conditions given constant illumination on the panels surface. Under full sunlight, a 75W solar panel can deliver the 75W power to an ideal load. An ideal load is a load that will not push or pull the solar panel below or above the voltage at maximum power point (MPP). For example, solar panels are connected to a battery load to charging or discharging the battery. The solar panels will be forced to operate at the battery voltage, which is not the ideal voltage to produce their maximum power. However, this problem can be avoided by connecting the solar panels to a maximum power point tracker (MPPT) charge controller rather than simply connecting the module to the battery. By using the MPPT charge controller, the power at the loads, will be the same to the solar panels power.

Basically, there were two kinds of maximum power point tracker, which mechanical where the solar panels move tracking the sunlight (beyond the scope of this thesis) and electrical that varies the electrical operating point of the modules are able to deliver maximum power available. Most of electrical MPPT are based on perturb and order approach (P&O), implemented by a hill climbing algorithm on a microcontroller [1]. This approach is complex and can be slow, when MPP varied rapidly, because a microcontroller used sequential approach. Then new approach was introduced by replacing the microcontroller with analog component and basic logic circuit. This approach was extremely simple and robust and efficiently proved by many articles. This approach concept will be deeply discussed later in the other part of this thesis.

1.2

Objectives The objective of this project is to analyse and simulate a charge controller circuit

for Maximum Power Point Tracker (MPPT) application based on Simple maximum power point tracker for photovoltaic arrays article in IEEE electronic letter. The article was written by David C. Hamill and Yan Hong Lim focusing on new technique for tracking MPP of photovoltaic (PV) array using basic analog components and logic gate.

1.3

Scope of study The study will be limited to photovoltaic and the maximum power point tracking

application. It will fully focus on charge controller for maximum power point tracking based on referred electronic letter. It will cover the control equations, circuit algorithms, circuit operations and the circuit simulations that will be discussed and analysed later in other chapter. The simulation work will be done using Casdence Orcad Capture Family Release 9.2.

1.4

Methodology This subtopic discussed the design methodology adopted for this study. The

design methodology is important because it determines the quality of end product (study). In this study there were some particulars phase being followed begins with study the basic of photovoltaic system. Next it follows with research on the fundamental of maximum power point tracking and its operation. After that, it was continued with analyzing the circuit which covers the the circuit algorithm, every component of the circuit and its operation. Finally the circuit was simulated using Orcad Capture Family Release version 9.2 to verify the circuit. The simulation result then was compared to the result in electronic letter which referred as theoretical results.

The methodology process is simplified in the flowchart below;

Study the basic of photovoltaic system

Study the fundamental of maximum power point tracking and its' operation

Study the circuit algorithm

Study the circuit operation

Simulation using Orcad capture

Figure 1: Methodology flowchart

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1

Photovoltaic

2.1.1

Introduction

Photovoltaic is known as a method of converting energy from the sun into electrical energy [13]. Photovoltaic has been discussed all around the world as a new energy source to replace current energy source. This method of electricity generation is growing fast due to free energy source and contributes less effect to the environment. This is because people are now become more concern about the environment and want a clean energy source or widely known as Green Energy. Due to high energy demand, manufacturers and engineers are working to make the PV used to become more efficient. A simple, fast and cheap MPPT is one of initiative to improve PV energy used.

2.1.2

Photovoltaic Generation

Photovoltaic (PV) is a method of generating electrical power by converting solar radiation into direct current electricity using semiconductors that exhibit the photovoltaic effect[13]. Those materials that exhibit photovoltaic effect cause them to absorb photons of light and release electrons. The free electrons are captured, an electric current result that can be used as electricity. Those material that exhibit photovoltaic was called solar cell is reserved for devices designed specifically to capture energy from sunlight while the term photovoltaic cell is used when the light source is unspecified. Modules are then interconnected, in series or parallel, or both, to create an array with the desired peak DC voltage and current. Typically, a solar array is designed to operate at specified power.

In the PV cells, a thin semiconductor layer is specially treated to form an electric field, positive terminal on one side and negative terminal on the other side. When the light strikes the PV array, electrons are knocked loose from the atoms in the semiconductor material. If an electrical conductor is attached to both positive and negative side, forming an electrical circuit, the electrons can be captured in form of electric current [14]. In order to generate useful power, it is necessary to connect a number of cells together to form a solar panel (PV arrays). The electrical output of a cell is proportional to the amount of solar radiation on it and it is highest in condition of direct sun. Below is the diagram of typical solar array;

Figure 2: Solar Array

The graph below showed the current-voltage curve and power-voltage curve for a typical PV array.

Figure 3: Current-Voltage and power-voltage curves for a typical solar array

The current of the array depends on three parameters [5], a) Quantity of light falling on the solar array. The graph of solar cell I-V curve in varying sunlight is shown below;

Figure 4: Solar cell I-V curve for varying sunlight

From the graph above, when more sunlight falling on the array, higher ISC produced by the solar array. The orange line was current-voltage curve for the highest sunlight falling on the array, while the red line was current-voltage curve for lowest sunlight falling on the array.

b) The size of array surface area; The bigger surface array surface area use, the array will receive more sunlight.

c) The voltage that the array is operating; The operating voltage for the solar array was depended the load of the solar array and types semiconductor used and its connection.

2.1.3

PV Cell Equivalent Circuit

Ideally a PV cell can model with a dc current source connected parallel with a diode [17]. Then the total current produced is current generated by PV effect, IL minus the current through the diode. However to make it more practical the diode is connected to a shunt resistor, RSH and a series resistor, RS. The equivalent circuit for a PV array is shown below;

Figure 5: PV array equivalent circuit = (1)

= 1

+ (2)

IL is the current generated by PV effect ID is the current through the diode

10

ISH is current through shunt resistor RSH is shunt resistor RS is series resistor I is the PV output current V is the PV output voltage IO is saturation current of the diode Q is elementary charge 1.6x10-19 K is constant value 1.38x10-23J/K T is the cell temperature in Kelvin n is diode ideality factor (typically between 1 and 2)

11

2.2

Maximum Power Point Tracking

2.2.1

Introduction

Maximum power point tracking are operations to track the point at which current and voltage of the PV array operate at maximum power it capable. There were two basic ways to track the maximum power point. First one is the mechanical ways where solar arrays moving in the direction of sunlight that may led the array to operate at maximum power point. Next, the electrical approach which will be discussed in this study. There were various method proposed to track the maximum power point electrically. It can be divided to two methods which is using microcontroller and not using microcontroller. Only the method not using the microcontroller approach will be discussed in this study which the controller circuit is based on an electronic letter written by David C. Hamill and Yan Hong Lim entitled Simple maximum power point tracking for PV arrays. The approach used by David C. Hamill and Yan Hong Lim enable tracking process used is to be simpler, faster and cheaper.

2.2.2

MPPT Charge Controller

To understand the operation of MPPT, let consider the operation of charge controller without MPPT (conventional) and then compared it with the charge controller with MPPT. The graphs below show I-V curve and P-V curve for a typical 75W PV module at standard test condition.

12

Figure 6: P-V Curve and I-V curve for a typical 75W PV Module

When a conventional charge controller was used to charge a battery, the charge controller is simply connected directly to the battery. This forces the PV module to operate at the battery voltage. In the graph above, a conventional charge controller was used to charge a 12V battery and then forces to the 75W PV modules to operate at 12V. The PV module was limited the power production to around 53W.

Rather than simply connecting directly the charge controller and the battery, the charge controller is connected to a MPPT system to allow the PV module operates at maximum power available. In the graph above, Solar Boost MPPT (a MPP Tracking Device) allow the PV module to operate at maximum power which is 75W. The module now operates at 17V which is the VMPP of the PV module. The operating current at this point is 4.45A and the battery charge current is;

(3)

13

I =

17 4.45 12

= 6.3 An increased of 1.85A of charge current was obtained by using the MPPT charge controller.

2.2.3

Parameters in MPPT

Maximum Power Point (MPP) is a point at which the arrays operate under voltage and current at maximum power it capable of. Figure below show the current and voltage curve (I-V curve) o f a PV cells.

Figure 7: Solar cell I-V curve In the current-voltage curve (IV curve), MPP is the point which current and voltage of the array produce maximum array power. The value of the power (P) PV cells

14

is obtain by multiplying the current (I) and voltage (V). The current-voltage curve (I-V curve) shows that current has exponential relationship with the voltage. The maximum power point (MPP) of the cell occurs at the knee point the exponential curve. At this point the differentiation of voltage over time (dv/dt) is zero. The enable the solar cells operate at maximum power point, the solar cells must operate at VMPP which is the voltage at maximum power point. The current passing through at this point is labeled as IMPP in the curve. Resultant of multiplying both VMPP and IMPP is MPP. VOC is the open circuit voltage which occurs when there is no load attach to the solar cells. It can be seen VOC is the maximum value of voltage in the I-V curve. At this point, there is no current flow through the cell. ISC is the short circuit current correspond to short circuit condition when the impedance is low and is calculated when voltage equals to zero. Isc is the maximum value for solar cells current in the I-V curve. In the Power-Voltage curve (PV curve), MPP is the peak point of the curve where at that point the power is maximum. PV curve labeled with MPP is shown below;

Figure 8: Solar array P-V Curve

CHAPTER 3

MPPT CHARGE CONTROLLER CIRCUIT

3.1

Introduction

In this chapter, the maximum power point tracking charge controller circuit for photovoltaic array application proposed for the study will be discussed. The circuit will be fully based on electronic letter entitled Simple maximum power point tracker for photovoltaic arrays written by David C. Hamill and Yan Hong Lim. The circuit study will cover the circuit control equation, the component of each component in the circuit, the algorithm for each component in the circuit and the circuit operation.

3.2

Control Equation

This part of study deduces control strategy to obtain a control equation. The main purpose of the control equation is to have a control equation for tracking the maximum

16

power point. Referring back to the PV curve drawn from solar cell in figure 8 Chapter 2 part 2.23, the maximum power point (MPP) is located at dp/dv=0. Through the graph, a general equation for dp/dv, also been deduced [2]; = > 0 < = 0 = (4) < 0 >

The control strategy that will be followed is, if V<VMPP it can be deduce dp/dv>0. So the V (array voltage) will be increased so that P moving towards MPP. If V>VMPP it can be deduce dp/dv<0. So the V will be decreased so that P moving towards MPP. If V=VMPP, we deduce dp/dv=0, then hold constant V as we at the MPP. In differential form,

= =

> 0 < = 0 = (5) < 0 >

From equation (4) and (5), we can deduce an equation (7);

=k

dp dv

dp = (6) dv k

dp dp dt = = = dv dt dv k

=k

(7)

17

But based on the electronic letter by D.C Hamill and Yan Hong Lim, there were problems with the equation, first appears on both side of the equation and this would manifest itself in practice as a high frequency oscillation. Second, the referred circuit used many analog component and analog dividers are undesirable components since they have many imperfections. Lastly, when V=Vmpp, =0, then there would be division by 0. This whole issued can be solved using signum function [21].

The graph for signum function is shown below;

-1

Figure 9: Signum function graph

The general equation for signum function is;

1 0 1

< 0 = 0 (8) > 0

Where denotes the assignment of information held by RHS to LHS of the equation

18

The equation is still not satisfactory since RHS can be zero and there is still used of analog divider. The problems were solved by modified the signum function which never have zero value and introducing new control equation that not used division [2]. The signum modified to, if <0, signum = -1 and if 0, signum =1.

The modified signum function

1 < 0 (9) 1 0

The final control equation

sgn (10)

The RHS of the equation contains information on whether the voltage needs to be increase or decrease. Because of the modified signum function will not reach zero, the equation will have discontinuity on MPP. Then the system will just oscillate around the MPP.

Based on the control equation, there are four conditions will be met and 4 operations for the circuit have been deduced. All the four conditions and operations based on control equation were concluded in table 1.

19

<0 0 0 <0

<0 0 <0 0

Sgn() Sgn() Sgn()Sgn() Sgn() -1 1 1 -1 -1 1 -1 1 1 1 -1 -1 1 1 -1 -1

0 0 <0 <0

v <Vmpp <Vmpp >Vmpp >Vmpp

action Increase v Increase v Decrease v Decrease v

Table 1: Control equation

Referring to table 1, it can be see that there are four conditions need to be accomplished by the control circuit in order to track the MPP. First condition is the first row of the table, when V <VMPP, <0, power is retreating from MPP, <0, resulting in Sgn()= -1 and Sgn(). Multiplying Sgn() and Sgn() resulting in 1. The information of RHS then transferred to LHS causing Sgn() =1 meaning 0. According to equation (5), V <VMPP, and the control strategy is to increase VARRAY towards VMPP.

For the second row in Table 1, V is still not reach VMPP

but moving towards

it, hence 0 and 0 resulting in Sgn() =1 and Sgn()=1. The information of RHS then transferred to LHS causing Sgn() =1 meaning 0. According to equation (5), V <VMPP, and the control strategy is to increase VARRAY towards VMPP.

Next condition is the third row in Table 1 where V >VMPP retreating from MPP and <0. This condition resulting in Sgn() =1 and Sgn() = -1 and the resultant product of Sgn() and Sgn() is -1. The RHS of the equation send information to LHS that Sgn() = -1 which means <0. According to equation (5), it means V >VMPP and the control strategy is decrease VARRAY towards VMPP.

20

The last condition is the point at V is still V >VMPP but now moving towards the MPP. It means 0 and <0 and causing Sgn() = -1 and Sgn() = 1. The product of multiplying Sgn() with Sgn() is -1. The RHS of the equation send information to LHS that Sgn() = -1 which means <0. According to equation (5), it means V >VMPP and the control strategy is decrease VARRAY towards VMPP.

3.3

Circuit Components and function

3.3.1

Introduction

This part of study will cover all components used in the MPPT charge controller circuit and its operation. There will be details of the function of each components used and its operations. The circuit is based on MPPT charge controller circuit proposed by David C. Hamill and Yan Hong Lim. The circuit was divided into 3 parts which are solar array, control circuit and lastly the power stage. The MPPT charge controller referred is shows below;

21

Figure 10: MPPT Charge Controller Circuit

3.3.2

Solar Array

As been discussed in Chapter 2, a solar array equivalent circuit can be drawn by connecting a DC current source, ISC parallel with diode string, nS. The parameter setting for both DC current source and the number of diodes, n will be used for the diode string. The type of diodes that will be used for Orcad Capture simulation is 120NQ045.

22

3.3.3

Controller

The controller circuit consists of a voltage follower, an analog inverter, a multiplier, two differentiators, two comparators, a XOR gate and a flip-flop.

3.3.3.1 Voltage Follower

The voltage follower was achieved by using op-amp as shown in the figure10. Op-amp is a DC-coupled high gain electronic voltages amplifier with a differential inputs and usually single-ended output. The function of op-amp is to amplify the input voltages to produce larger output. Equivalent circuit of an op-amp

Figure 11: Op-amp equivalent circuit

V+ = non inverting input V- = inverting input Vs+ and Vs- = positive and negative supply VO = output voltage Resistance Ri was very high, then Ri was assumed opened circuit while resistance RO was very low, so RO assumed closed circuit.

23

+ = = 0 + =

Op-amp Operation = ( + ) (11)

AOL = op-amp open loop gain. Then value usually very high hence the output voltage was very high.

In the referred circuit, the array was connected to a voltage divider before fed to the voltage follower. LM318 op-amp was used as the op-amp for voltage follower. The significant used of 51 ohm and 200ohm voltage divider in this circuit is have high impedances input at multiplier as the voltage follower is then connected as input of the multiplier. The supply voltages to the op-amp were set to V+ = 5V and V = -5V. The figure below shows the connection at the voltage divider.

24

Figure 12: Voltage Follower connection

The output voltage of the voltage follower; + = 2 2 + 3

+ =

200 200 + 251

25

+ = 0.7968

= = + = 0.7968 (12)

3.3.3.2 Voltage Inverter

Another application of op-amp was inverting the voltage of fed into the op-amp. The current array of was measured in term of voltage connecting the array with small resistor (0.47). The input into the voltage inverter is negative of array current multiply, -IARRAY with the value sensing resistor, Rs. The output voltage, VOUT of will be to positive value multiplying with resistance R4 and R6 connecting the op-amp. Then output voltage waveform of the will be the same as the input waveform shape but the value is invert from negative to positive and also based on value of R4 and R6. The opamp being used in the circuit is LM318. The connection of voltage inverter op-amp is shown below in figure 13.

26

Figure 13: Inverting Op-amp connection

The output voltage of LM318 voltage inverter is; = 4 6

= 0

6 4

27

36 0.47 1

= 2.868 (13)

The output voltage of inverting op-amp is then fed into the multiplier. The current of the op-amp was inverted for reason to have positive value of Power at the multiplier.

3.3.3.3 Analog Multiplier

Analog multiplier is an electronic device that evaluates the product of two analog signals which its output [20]. In this circuit, the analog multiplier is use to calculate the power of the array by multiplying the array voltage and array current. The analog multiplier being used in circuit proposed by David C. Hamill and Yan Hong Lim was AD633. The AD633 is a functionally complete, four-quadrant, analog multiplier. It includes high impedance, differential X and Y inputs, and a high impedance summing input (Z) [12]. The output of AD633 is pin7 (W). This analog multiplier was built using 2 differential op-amps, a multiplier and a voltage follower. Figure 14 shows the schematic diagram AD633.

28

Figure 14: AD633 Schematic diagram

In the referred circuit, pin 1(X1) of AD633 analog multiplier was fed with array voltage while pin 3(Y1) was fed with the array current. Pin 2(X2), pin 4(Y2) and 6(Z2) was connected to ground. The voltage source to for AD633 was set to V+ = 5V and V- = -5V. The product of multiplication which is the array power is measure at pin 7(W). The connection to AD633 analog multiplier is shows below.

Figure 15: AD633 Analog Multiplier Connection

29

The output of the AD633 is; = 1 2 1 2 + 10

0.7968 0 (2.868 0) +0 10

= 0.2285

= 0.2285 (14)

3.3.3.4 Differentiators

Another application of op-amp is to differentiate the voltage fed into the op-amp. This application was achieve connect a capacitor in series with the op-amp and a resistor at the feedback. In the MPPT circuit referred, the measured power and voltage of the array is approximately differentiated using high pass filter. A first order high pass filters with true time constant T yields an approximation T to its true derivative for the array power while it yields an approximation T to its derivative for the array voltage [1]. The op-amp used as in differentiator circuit is LM318. The connection for power and voltage differentiator is shown below. It can be seen that the parameter of capacitors, and resistors used in the differentiator circuit is same. The differentiated value power and voltage of array is measured as the value is needed to evaluate to track the MPP.

30

(15)

T =

(16)

Figure 16: Voltage and Power Differentiator Connection

31

3.3.3.5 Voltage Comparators

An electronic device that compares two voltages or currents, and switches its output to indicate which one is larger [19]. In the referred circuit, the output of differentiators, dV/dt and dP/dt was fed into comparator. At the comparators both the differentiated voltage and array was compared to ground. The op-amp being used as the comparators were LM311. Although an ordinary op-amp can be used as comparator, theres special integrated circuit intended for use as comparators. LM311 chips are designed for very fast response and arent in the same league as other op-amp [7]. The connection at the comparators is shows below in figure 17.

-5V

R11 1G

V-

dV/dt

U7 3

0
G 1 7 6 Xv

OUT +
V+ B

2 LM311

B/S

0
5V -5V R12 1G

8 5

V-

dP/dt

U6 3

0
G 1 7 6 Xp

OUT +
V+ B

2 LM311

B/S

0
5V

Figure 17: Power and Voltage Comparators

8 5

32

The comparators will produce output 1 if the input value is greater than zero while it produce zero if the input value is lower than zero.

1 0

> 0 (17) 0

1 > 0 0 0

. . (18)

3.3.3.6 XOR gate

In the referred MPPT charge controller circuit, both output of comparators to the XOR gate. There is pull-out resistors connected parallel in between the comparators and XOR gates. This connection is to provide additional power to drive the XOR gate. In the pull-out resistor, 4.7k ohm resistor connected in series with 5V voltage source and shunted in between comparators and XOR gate. The XOR being used in the circuit was CD4030. The connection at XOR gate is shown below.
5V

R13 4.7k Xv U8A 1 2 Xc CD4030A 3 Switch

R14 4.7k

5V

Figure 18: XOR connection

33

Since there were two inputs to the XOR gate, then there will be 4 conditions. The truth table of the XOR gate showing the output of each condition is shown below in Table 2.

Xv 0 0 1 1

Xp 0 1 0 1

Output 0 1 1 0

Table 2: XOR truth table

3.3.3.7 D flip-flop

Flip-flop is an electronic circuit that has two stable states and thereby is capable of serving one bit of memory [9]. It usually controlled by one or two signals and/or a gate or clock signal. The output of D-flip-flop, Q looks a delay of input D. The output of D flip-flop takes on the state of the input, D at the moment of positive edge at clock pin. The truth table of D flip-flop is shown below in table Table 3. Clock D X Qn+1 Qn

Table 3: D flip-flop truth table

34

In the referred circuit, the D flip flop that being used is 74HC74 D flip-flop. The connection to flip-flop is shown below in figure19

Figure 19: 74HC74 D-Flip Flop connection PRE and CLR must be connected high logic (1) to enable the flip-flop to operate where output was determined by input, D [9]. According to table 4, flip-flop will operate if PRE and CLR are set to high logic. The XOR output was sampled by D flip-flop latch clocked at constant frequency 1/TS. (In referred circuit Ts = 50s).

35

PRE CLR 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1

Operation Block Set Clear Flip-flop operate

Table 4: PRE and CLR functions table According to electronic paper written by David C. Hamill and Yan Hong Lim, the output of XOR is connected to flip-flop before fed to switch because to prevent high frequency switching chattering and to minimize the unavoidable interference generate by the buck converters switching action. This interference occurs immediately after the clock transition and is over before the next, so latch never samples it.

3.3.4

Power stage

3.3.4.1 Introduction

The power stage components can be divided into three parts which is the blocking diode, charging/discharging and buck converter.

3.3.4.2 Blocking Diode

Diode, DB is blocking diode which is connected in series with the solar array to prevent reverse terminal current [1]. In the referred circuit, the diode was assumed ideal. The type of diode that will be used in the simulation is the same as the diodes used in

36

solar array which is 120NQ045. The cathode pin of the diode was connected to the voltage follower.

3.3.4.3 Charging /Discharging Capacitor

The capacitor, C was used to control the voltage of the array [1]. When the operating voltage was smaller than voltage at the maximum power point, VMPP (V<VMPP), the capacitor charging to increase the voltage. The capacitor then work viceversa when the operating voltage was larger than VMPP (V>VMPP), by discharging to decrease the array voltage. The capacitor actions, was controlled by the switch by opening and closing the switch. The value that was set to the capacitor is 470F.

3.3.4.4 Buck Converter

Buck converter is a step down DC-DC converter [10]. The DC input voltage or current can be regulated to desired DC output. The output of buck converter was smaller than the input voltage.

Circuit of a buck converter

Figure 20: Buck converter circuit

37

Circuit of a buck converter when switch is closed

Figure 21: Buck converter circuit when switch closed

(19)

Figure 22: Buck Converter circuit when switch opened

38

(20)

By the controlling the switches, we can control the voltage of output load. In the referred circuit, load was a 4V battery while the voltage produced by the array was bigger; buck converter was used to control the voltage by controlling the switch, S. The inductor use in buck converter is large enough (1.5mH) to enable it to operate in continuous current mode. The state equations of the conductor were;

= (21)

= (22)

Where S = 0 or 1 indicate switch open or closed, respectively.

3.4 Circuit Operation This part of study will discuss how the circuit operates to track the MPP. The circuit operation is based on the array voltage and the circuit operates by changing the array voltage to track voltage at MPP. The circuit operation was simplified using flowchart below in figure 23.

39

Figure 23: Circuit Operation flowchart

Figure 24: Circuit Operation graph

Point A, V<VMPPT

a) dv/dt is negative and dp/dt is also negative, while p retreating from MPP. Switch open, and capacitor charging, resulting V increasing towards VMPP.

40

b) V now increases towards VMPP, dv/dt is positive and dp/dt is also positive while p is increasing toward MPP. Switch opens and capacitor charging to increase V toward VMPP.

Point B, V>VMPPT

a) dv/dt is positive and dp/dt is negative while p retreating from MPP. Switch was closed and capacitor discharging resulting V decreasing towards VMPP.

b) V now decreases towards VMPP, dv/dt is negative, dp/dt is positive while p is increasing toward MPP. Switch was closed and capacitor discharging resulting in V decreasing towards VMPP.

All the operations were simplified to table 5 below. Comparator output Condition vVmpp vVmpp v>Vmpp v>Vmpp >0 0 0 >0 >0 0 >0 0 Xv 1 0 0 1 Xp 1 0 1 0 S 0 0 1 1 Switch opens opens closes closes Voltage increases increases decreases decreases

Table 5: Simplified Circuit Operation

CHAPTER 4

SIMULATION RESULT AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Introduction

This chapter will cover Orcad Simulation setting used, simulation result and analysis of the result obtained from the result.

4.2 Orcad Capture

OrCAD Capture provides fast and intuitive schematic design entry for PCB development or analog simulation using PSpice. The component information system (CIS) integrates with it to automatically synchronize and validate externally sourced part data [16].

42

Orcad Capture provides various libraries which many components like LM311, LM318, AD633 and many more were set up in the library. Each component was set up their parameters and setting the same as practical component. Orcad Capture provides simulation application as the waveform at any part of the circuit can be obtained. Besides that provides voltage, current and power dissipation bias value display of each component.

4.3 Orcad Capture Simulations

4.3.1 Schematic circuit

After the all components of the have connected, the simulation test is done. Figure below shows schematic circuit in Orcad Capture Simulation. This circuit was fully based on circuit proposed by David C Hamill and Yan Hong Lim.

43
D13 2 J2 DSTM1 2 1.5mH
HI CLK

1 D12

L1 1

D1

C5 D11

BC264A

D2

U9A

470u 6 5

OFFTIME = 25uS ONTIME = 25uS DELAY = 100uS STARTVAL = 1 OPPVAL = 0

1 2

2 1

1 2

2 1

74HC74

CLR PRE

I1

V1 D10 4Vdc

Q CLK Q D

3 2

0.25Adc

D3

1 2

2 1

2
D14 D9

D4

120NQ045

HI

1 2

D5

2 1

D8

1 2

D6

2 1

D7 R1 R9 0.47 R11 1G 5V

0
R2 51k U1 2 -5V 12V C6 R7 2 100n 8 6 1 U3 1 2 X1 3 X2 4 Y1 W 6 Y2 Z 1k 3 7 U4 -

U7 3 8 6 1

100k -5V

0 0
G 1 7 6

C3

V-

V-

C3

V-

C2 OUT

V+

V+

C1

LM311 U8A 1 5V R12 1G 3 2 CD4030A U6

V+

C1

R3 200k

0
R6

V-

LM318

5V R10 100k -5V

AD633/AD

LM318

5V

C7

R8 2 1k 3

U5 -

V-

3 8 6 1

0
C3

8 5

V+ B

C2 OUT

OUT 2 B/S

R13 4.7k

0
G 1 7 6 R14 4.7k

0
R4 2 1k 3 + LM318 R5 1k U2 -

-5V

36k

-12V 100n

V-

C3

C2 OUT

8 6 1

V+

V-

C1

LM311

LM318

0
5V

8 5

V+ B

C2 OUT

OUT 2 B/S

5V

V+

C1

0
5V

5V

Figure 25: Simulation schematic circuit 4.3.2 Simulation Result

For the simulation, the DC current source was set to 25A while the number of diodes used is 12. The simulation was run for 0.1s. Three parameters were taken to be compared with theoretical result obtained from electronic letter written by David C Hamill and Yan Hong Lim. The first parameter is array voltage waveform. Figure 26 below shows array voltage waveform obtained from the simulation.

44

Figure 26: Simulation Array Voltage Waveform

The second parameter was the array power waveform. This waveform was obtained by multiplying array voltage and array current which also is 0.2285 of array power.

Figure 27: Array Power waveform

45

The last parameter that will be discussed is the Power-Voltage Curve which is obtained by setting the array power as Y-axis and array voltage as X-axis.

Figure 28: Simulation Power Voltage Curve

4.3.3 Simulation result analysis

The array voltage waveform obtained from the simulation is obviously different compared to the theoretical array voltage waveform obtained from the electronic letter. The theoretical array voltage waveform is shown in figure 29 below.

46

Figure 29: Theoretical array voltage waveform

Since the array voltage was totally wrong from the theoretical (figure 30), the array power waveform obtained was totally wrong too. It is because the array power is based on array voltage, P=IV.

Figure 30: Theoretical array power waveform

The P-V curve obtained from simulation was wrong too because it is also based on the array voltage waveform obtained. The theoretical P-V curve is shows below in figure 31.

47

Figure 31: Theoretical P-V curve Some problems were from simulation were found. The array voltage obtained from is gradually decreasing because the act of capacitor discharging it. From the simulation, it is also been found that the switch is always open since the signal from pin Q of the flip-flop is always low. These problems occur because both of input to XOR gate is always high. The inputs into XOR gate are always high because the input to comparators is always greater than 0. All this chain problem was rooted from array voltage and array power fed into the differentiator. From the simulation, it has been found that, the array voltage and array power into the differentiator is same. This situation shouldnt be happen because array power is result of multiplying array voltage with array current unless the array value is one. In the simulation, the output of the multiplier does not provide the value of array power obtained by multiplying the array current and array voltage. The effort to use ABM mult (another multiplier in Orcad library) manage to multiply its inputs but it give another effect on the voltage follower output as the output become negative even the input is positive.

CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 Conclusion

From analysation done on reffered MPP circuit, theoretically the circuit will successfully work in tracking the maximum power point. This was proved by algorithm of the circuit which the operating voltage will oscillate around the VMPP. Hence, the operating power is oscillate around the maximum power point within narrow margin.

The analysation on each components used and its connection also provide the prove that the circuit is able to work as maximum power point controller circuit. It was verify by the operation of controller circuit providing signal to switch to varies the

49

Unfortunately, the simulation result fail to provide desired result that been proven in the article that the circuit was successfully simulated and verify the theoretical approach proposed. The array voltage, array power and P-V curve obtain from the simulation were obviously differ from the theoretical waveform as several problems occurred to the circuit.

5.2 Recommendation

The first thing of progress that should make this study better to obtain desired result which the theoretical result from the electronic letter referred either using simulation or experimental. After all these problems have been encountered, the next progress is the analysation of the dynamic effectiveness of the MPPT charge controller circuit by changing the parameters used in the circuit. The parameters like illumination of the arrays can be varied by changing the DC current sources parameter and the temperatures affecting the array voltages also can be varied by changing the numbers of diodes used in the diode string. The dynamic effectiveness analysis can be made by looking into the time taken by the circuit to adapt when there were changes in parameters.

50

REFERRENCES

1. Y. H. Lim and D. Hamill,Simple maximum power point tracker for photovoltaic arrays, Electronics Letters, vol. 36, pp. 997999, May 2000. 2. Y. H. Lim and D. C. Hamill,Synthesis, simulation and experimental verification of a maximum power point tracker from nonlinear dynamics, Power Electronics Specialists Conference, 2001. PESC. 2001 IEEE 32nd Annual, vol. 1, pp. 199 204, 2001. 3. M. Savenkov and R. Gobey,A Simple Power Point Tracker Utilizing the Ripple Correlation Control Technique, International Solar Energy Society ConferenceAsia pacific region, November 2008. 4. R. A. Cullen, What is maximum power point tracking (MPPT) and How does it work, Solar Boost Blue Sky Energy article.

5. F. Antony, C. Durschner and K. Remmers, Photovoltaics for Professionals: Solar Electric Systems Marketing, Design and Installation, SolarPraxis, 2007. 6. D. W. Hart, Introduction to power electronics, Prentic-Hall International Inc, 1997. 7. Paul Horowitz, The art of electronics, second edition, Cambridge University Press, 1989.

8. Siti Hawa Ruslan, Puspa Inayat Khalid and Ismawati Abd Ghani, Modul Pengajaran Elektronik 2 Edisi 3, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 2004.

51

9. En. Zulkifli, Modul Pengajaran Elektronik Digit, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 2007. 10. Dr Zainal Salam and Dr Awang Jusoh Chopper Lecture Note, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia. 11. T. Bazouni, Competition Electronic - Easymax solar power enhancer, Competition Electronics article.

12. LM318, AD633, LM311, CD4030 and 74HC74 datasheet.

13. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photovoltaics

14. http://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2002/solarcells/

15. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maximum_power_point_tracking/

16. http://www.cadence.com/products/orcad/orcad_capture

17. http://zone.ni.com/devzone/cda/tut/p/id/7229 solartutor2/

18. http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/filter/filter_6.html/

19. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparator/

20. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analog_multiplier/

21. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sign_function/

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APPENDIX

APPENDIX A

53

APPENDIX B