Analele Universitii din Oradea

Fascicula de Energetic, Vol. 15

2009

DETERMINATION OF POWER LOSSES IN TRANSFORMERS WORKING IN UNBALANCED AND HARMONIC POLLUTED NETWORKS
Gabriel POP, Mircea CHINDRI, Radu BINDIU, Technical University of Cluj Napoca, Electrical Power Systems Departament, 15 C. Daicoviciu St., RO 400020, Cluj Napoca Gabriel.Pop@eps.utcluj.ro,

Abstract - Normally, the electric networks are considered as linear balanced systems; as a result, their analysis based on positive sequence representations was generally satisfactory. The situation has changed significantly in the recent years, as more and more harmonic-producing equipment connected to the public distribution systems represents three-phase unbalanced loads. On the other hand the effects of single phase non-linear loads are also becoming important. As a consequence, it is necessary to investigate more detailed the effects of these new operation conditions on the components of the power systems, especially for power transformers. Transformers power losses can be divided into two main components: no-load losses (hysteresis and eddy current losses) and load losses (ohmic heat losses and conductor eddy current losses). There are, however, other two types of losses in the above mentioned working conditions, namely extra losses created by harmonic and unbalanced currents, respectively. The paper studies the growth of power losses in electrical transformers that work under nonsinusoidal and unbalanced conditions; the influence of different power quality aspects is also investigated. Keywords: harmonics. transformer, losses, unbalanced,

(direct current) resistance, the value of which is due to the winding conductors and the current at a given load. The stray losses are a term given to the accumulation of the additional losses experienced by the transformer, which includes winding eddy losses and losses due to the effects of leakage flux entering the internal metallic structures. Auxiliary losses refer to the power required to run auxiliary cooling equipment, such as fans and pumps; they are not normally included in the total losses as defined above. As a result, it is necessary to investigate more detailed the effects of these new operation conditions on the components of the power systems, especially for power transformers.

2. TRANSFORMER LOSSES
Transformer losses can be determinate with the following mathematical expression:

PT = P0 + PS
where: PT - total losses in transformer; P0 - no-load losses; PS - load losses.

(1)

2.1. Transformer no-load losses 1. INTRODUCTION

Transformer losses are produced by the electrical current flowing through the coils and the magnetic field alternating in the core. The losses associated with the coils are called load losses, while the losses produced in the core are called no-load losses. The no-load losses are basically the power required to keep the core energized. These are commonly referred to as core losses, and they exist whenever the unit is energized. No-load losses depend primarily upon the voltage and frequency, so under operational conditions they vary only slightly with system variations. Load losses, as the terminology might suggest, result from load currents flowing through the transformer. The two components of the load losses are the I2R losses and the stray losses. I2R losses are based on the measured dc I.S.S.N. 1224 1261 No-load losses (also referred to as excitation losses, core losses, or iron losses) are a very small part of the power rating of the transformer, usually less than 1%. However, these losses are considered constant over the lifetime of the transformer (do not vary with load), and thus they generally represent a sizeable operating expense, especially if energy costs are high. Therefore, accurate measurements are essential in order to evaluate individual transformer performance accurately. No-load losses are the losses in a transformer when it is energized but not supplying load. They include losses due to magnetization of the core, dielectric losses in the insulation, and winding losses due to the flow of the exciting current and any circulating currents in parallel conductors.

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Hysteresis losses are caused by the frictional movement of magnetic domains in the core laminations being magnetized and demagnetized by alternation of the magnetic field. These losses depend on the type of material used to build the core. Silicon steel has much lower hysteresis than normal steel but amorphous metal has much better performance than silicon steel. Nowadays hysteresis losses can be reduced by material processing such as cold rolling, laser treatment or grain orientation. Hysteresis losses are usually responsible for more than a half of total no-load losses (50% to 70%). This ratio was smaller in the past (due to the higher contribution of eddy current losses particularly in relatively thick and not laser treated sheets). Eddy current losses are caused by varying magnetic fields inducing eddy currents in the laminations and thus generating heat. These losses can be reduced by building the core from thin laminated sheets insulated from each other by a thin varnish layer to reduce eddy currents. Eddy current losses nowadays usually account for 30% to 50% of total no-load losses. When assessing efforts in improving distribution transformer efficiency, the biggest progress has been achieved in mitigation of these losses. There are also marginal stray and dielectric losses which occur in the transformer core, accounting usually for no more than 1% of total no-load losses. Core or no-load losses is due to the voltage excitation of the core. Even though the magnetizing current does include harmonics, these are extremely small compared with the load current and their effect on the losses is negligible.

Transformer load losses include I2R losses in windings due to load current, eddy losses due to leakage fluxes in the windings, stray losses caused by stray flux in the core clamps, magnetic shields, tank wall, etc., and losses due to the flowing of current in parallel windings and parallel conductors within windings.
Ps = R I 2 + PEC + PSL

(2)

where: RI2 - losses due value of the current and resistance of the transformer; PEC - Eddy Current Losses; PSL - Stray Losses. There are, however, other two types of losses in the above mentioned working conditions, namely extra losses created by harmonic and unbalanced currents, respectively.

3. TRANSFORMER LOSSES CONDITIONS OF OPERATION

IN

REAL

2.2. Transformer load losses

These losses are commonly called copper losses or short circuit losses. Load losses vary according to the transformer loading; they are composed of: - Ohmic heat losses, sometimes referred to as copper losses, since this resistive component of load losses dominates. These losses occur in transformer windings and are caused by the resistance of the conductors. The magnitude of these losses increases with the square of the load current and are proportional to the resistance of the windings. They can be reduced by increasing the crosssection of conductor or by reducing the winding length. Using copper as the conductor maintains the balance between weight, size, cost and resistance; adding an additional amount to increase conductor diameter, consistent with other design constraints, reduces losses. - Conductor eddy current losses. Eddy currents, due to magnetic fields caused by alternating current, also occur in the windings. Reducing the cross-section of the conductor reduces eddy currents, so stranded conductors are used to achieve the required low resistance while controlling eddy current losses. Effectively, this means that the 'winding' is made up of a number of parallel windings. Since each of these windings would experience a slightly different flux, the voltage would be slightly different and connecting the ends would result in circulating currents which would contribute to losses. This is avoided by the use of continuously transposed conductor, in which the strands are frequently transposed to average the flux differences and equalize the voltage. I.S.S.N. 1224 1261

The use of nonlinear and non-symmetrical loads on power systems increasingly creates the awareness of the potential reduction of a transformers operational life due to increase the power losses. In the following, studies about the growth of power losses in electrical transformers that work under non-sinusoidal and unbalanced conditions are presented; the influence of different power quality aspects is also investigated.

3.1. Transformer losses in balance and sinusoidal state

Generally, in electric power systems, the loads are distributed as evenly as is practical between the phases. It is usual practice to discuss a balanced system first and then describe the effects of unbalanced systems as deviations from the elementary case. Three-phase systems are designed to operate at maximum efficiency when the load on each phase is balanced. Three-phase systems being 100% balanced is only theoretically possible. Symmetrical and sinusoidal operating state is characterized by the following: - Sinusoidal voltage and current wave form; - Symmetrical system of voltages and currents. In this state, the losses in transformers can be mathematically determinate by:

PT = PCu + PFe
where:

(3)

PFe - losses due magnetization of the core (it is given in the manufactures catalogues); PCu - total losses in windings of the transformer.
Total losses in windings are calculated with: Seciunea Nr. 1

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2 U2 U2 U2 U + = 1 + 2 + 3 1+ 3 6 U 6

2009

PCu = PnCu
where:

)
(9)

PnCu - copper losses (it is given in the

manufactures catalogues); - loading of the transformer.

2 2 2 I + = I1 + I 2 + I 3 1 + 3 6 I 6 2

3.2. Transformers losses in unbalance and sinusoidal state

Unbalanced working state is determined by the unequal distribution of consumers on the system phases. Also this state appears due to unbalance supply voltage system and devices. These produce additional losses in windings and magnetic circuit of the transformer. In these circumstances the losses in windings of transformer can be determined using the relations presented below:

Using the notations presented above (6), (9), the power losses equation (5) becomes:
2 2 2 PT = PFe 1 + k 2 + PCu 1 + k S U I U

(10)

where:
U - voltage coefficient; S - total power load coefficient.

2 2 U1 + U2 + U3 U2 2 2 2 2 PT = PFe + PCu n I1 + I1 + I1 U2 S2 n n

3.3. Transformers losses in non-sinusoidal and balance state

The transformers operation in non-sinusoidal conditions produces supplementary power losses in its components: windings and magnetic circuits. Losses in transformers are: - stray magnetic losses in the core - eddy current and resistive losses in the windings. Out of these, eddy current losses are of most concern when harmonics are present, because they increase approximately with the square of the frequency. Before the excess losses can be determined, the harmonic spectrum of the load current must be known. If the variation with frequency of the electrical resistance(R) is neglected (it will be the resistance for the fundamental harmonic), power losses in copper can be determinate with:
PCu = 3 R I 2 1 1 + 2 I max

(5)

where: Uk, Ik average phase voltage and current, k=1,2,3. If the zero sequence voltage and current is neglected, assumption valid for no-neutral distribution systems, the negative sequence coefficients for both voltage and current can be calculated according to relation (6):

k = U

1 3 6 U 1 + 3 6 U
(6)

k = I
And U , I are:
U =

1 3 6 I 1 + 3 6 I
where:

(11)

max 1 current;

- maximum value for the fundamental

4 4 U1 + U4 + U3 2 2 22 U1 + U2 + U3 2

I - total harmonic distortion for current.

To obtain the total losses in transformer ( PT ), losses in (7) core ( PFe ) had to be added to the losses in windings ( PCu ). As a result, to reduce power losses, it is necessary to reduce the maximum power load of the transformer or to take extra care in the design stage. Reducing the maximum power load is a practice called de-rating.
The K factor A method, witch is used in Europe, is to estimate by how much a standard transformer should be de-rated so that the total losses on harmonic load does not exceed the fundamental design losses; this is known as factor K. The expression for factor K is presented bellow:

4 I 4 + I 4 + I3 2 I = 1 2 22 I1 + I 2 + I 3 2

Using these coefficients ( k , k ) the power losses can U I be determinate by relation (8):
2 + U Pk = P0k 1 + k U U n 2 2 + I Un + Psck 1 + k I S nk 2

(8)

where:
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2 e I1 h max q I h K = 1 + h I h =2 1+ e I 1

1/ 2 2

(12)

4. ECONOMICAL EVALUATION OF LOSSES AND LIFE CYCLE COST OF TRANSFORMERS

Transformer losses represent power that can not be delivered to customers and therefore have an associated economic cost to the transformer user/owner. A reduction in transformer losses generally results in an increase in the transformers cost. Depending on the application, there may be an economic benefit to a transformer with reduced losses and high price (initial cost), and vice versa. This process is typically dealt with through the use of losses evaluations, which place a EURO value on the transformer losses to calculate a total owning cost that is a combination of the purchase price and the losses. Typically, each of the transformers individual losses parameters - no-load losses, load losses, and auxiliary losses - are assigned a EURO value per kW (EURO/kW). To perform the economical analysis of a transformer, it is necessary to calculate its life cycle cost. Taking in account only the purchase price and the cost of losses, total cost of transformer can be calculated by:

where: e - ratio of fundamental frequency eddy current losses to ohmic losses, both at reference temperature; h - harmonic number; I - rms. of the sinusoidal current including all harmonics; Ih - magnitude of the hth harmonic; I1 - magnitude of the fundamental current; q - an exponential constant that is dependent on the type of winding and frequency. Typical values are 1.7 for transformers with round or rectangular cross-section conductors in both windings and 1.5 for those with foil low voltage windings.

3.4. Transformers losses in unbalance and nonsinusoidal state

The unbalanced and non-sinusoidal working conditions have a negative impact on the transformer. The knowledge of distribution losses, which depends on the technical and operation characteristics of the electric network and on the distortion and unbalance degree of the current and/or voltage waveforms, is necessary in order to establish the working state. In unbalanced and non-sinusoidal conditions, the currents system, decomposed in Fourier series, leads to an unbalanced system of currents at fundamental frequency (f=50Hz), witch can be decomposed in three symmetrical systems. Other harmonics also can be decomposed in three symmetrical systems for each order of harmonics. Power losses computation allows setting the electrical energy distribution cost, estimating the efficiency of the losses reduction solutions, etc. In this case, total power losses in transformer can be calculated with:

TCT = PT + A P0 + B Psc

(14)

where: PT is the purchase price of transformer; A the assigned cost of no-load losses per watt; P0 is the rated no-load losses; B the assigned cost of load losses per watt; Psc - is the rated load losses. A simple method is proposed for determination of A and B factor for distribution transformers: No-load losses capitalization (A):
A=

(1 + i )n 1 C kWh 8760 i (1 + i )n

(15)

PT = Pp,k + Ps,k + PCT

where:
Pp,k

(13)

Load losses capitalization (B):

B= Il (1 + i )n 1 C kWh 8760 I n i (1 + i ) n 2 (16)

- power losses in primary windings of

transformer (k=1, 2, 3);

Ps,k - power losses in secondary windings of

transformer (k=1, 2, 3);

where: i interest rate[%/year]; n lifetime [years]; C kWh - kWh price [EURO/year];

8760 number of hours in a year [h/year]; Il loading current; In rated current.

PCT - eddy current losses.

At these losses we add the no-load losses ( PFe ) to obtain the total.

Information obtained from such an analysis can be used to compare prices from different manufacturers or to decide on the optimum time to replace existing transformers.
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5. CASE STUDY
Using the above models for determinate power losses, a numerical application has been implemented for a transformer. The characteristics of the studied transformer are presented bellow (Table 1):
Table 1 - Transformer characteristics
ST [kVA] Unp [kV] Uns [kV] usc [%] Psc[kW] P0 [kW] 160 20 0.4 4 2 0.3

If the transformer works under balanced and harmonic polluted conditions, the variation of power losses is also presented. Loss variation, as a function of the total harmonic distortion for currents, is presented below (the load of transformer have different values such 60%, 80% and 100%) Figure 3.

For a transformer working in unbalanced and not harmonic polluted conditions, the growth of power losses is presented in the following. For different loads of transformer (60%, 80% and 100%) the power losses are determinate for a variation of negative sequence coefficient for current ( k I ) between 0% to 50% (Figure1)
Fig. 3 - Power losses as a function of Total Harmonic Distortion for current for different loads

Ratio of fundamental frequency eddy current losses to ohmic losses must be specified by manufacturer, and takes value between 0.05 and 0.1. To estimate de-rating of different transformers (with round rectangular cross-section conductors in both windings and foil low voltage windings) it was taking consideration the percentage of eddy current losses to ohmic losses (values between 5% and 10%) Figure 4.

Fig. 1 - Power losses as a function of negative sequence coefficient for current for different loads

The power losses variation, as a function of the total power loading coefficient ( S ), for different values of negative sequence coefficient is presented in Figure 2:

Fig. 4 - De-rating for round rectangular cross-section conductors in both windings and foil low voltage windings transformers

6. CONCLUSIONS
The unbalanced and non-sinusoidal currents are producing an additional transformer heating due to increased losses, in mainly because of losses due to eddy currents. Such a complete technical and economical model is useful through its ability to stress opportunities and technical 117
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Fig. 2 - Power losses as a function of transformer loading for different values for k I

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measures to support the strategies aimed to increasing the efficiency of distribution industry. Some of the opportunities to increase the transformer efficiency are: - a correct choice of the transformer characteristics parameters (namely rated P0 and Psc) such as customer demand to be met with minimum power losses; - ensuring a sinusoidal and balanced regime that allow, for the same volume of supplied energy, minimum of power losses.

REFERENCES
[1] Selecting Energy Efficient Distribution Transformers, A Guide for Achieving Least-Costs Solutions, Project No. EIE/05/056/SI2.419632, FIRST Published June 2008 [2] Cziker A., Chindri M. Compensarea regimului permanent dezechilibrat la consumator. Teorie Aplicaii, Editura Mediamira, Cluj-Napoca, 2003

[3] Chindri M., Cziker A., Determinarea pierderilor suplimentare de putere n reele electrice de J.T. funcionnd n regim nesimetric i nesinusoidal, CEE 2005, Sesiunea 1 Calitatea energiei electrice Aspecte teoretice i reglementri [4] Felea I., Dale E. Efecte ale regimului deformant i nesimetric, Editura Universitii din Oradea, 2002 [5] Driesen J., Van Craenenbroeck T., Brouwers B. Practical Method to Determine Additional Load Losses due to Harmonic Currents in Transformers with Wire and Foil Windings [6] Toader C., Postolache P., Napoli R., Chicco G., Lungu I., Scutariu M., Energy losses in two windings transformers under nonsymmetrical loading, CME-Foren, N, 9-13 iunie, 2002, Neptun [7] Golovanov C., Albu M., Chindris M., Probleme moderne de msurare n electroenergetic, Editura Tehnic, Bucureti, 2001 [8] Albert Hermina, Mihailescu Anca, Pierderi de putere si energie n reelele electrice: determinare : msuri de reducere, Editura Tehnic Bucureti, 1997

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