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UNIVERSITY OF PITTSBURGH LIBRARY

J
<^

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THIS

BOOK PRESENTED BY

Katherine C, Smith.

^-:'

*\

xN

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^/^i.^/^^y^t^'-X^jy'^

AN

Jl^

ENQUIRY
CONCERNING

POLITICAL JUSTICE
ITS

INFLUENCE
O M

GENERAL VIRTUE AND HAPPINESS.

B y

WILLIAM GODWIN.
IN

TWO VOLUMES.
V O
L.
I.

LONDON:
PRINTED FOR
C. G.
J.

ANDJ. ROBINSON, PATERNOSTER-ROW.

M.DCC.XCIII.

-%

-v

>

V-

I.

R E F A C E
works of
literature are

FE W
fcience.

held in greater
treat

eftimation, than thofe

which

in

me-

thodical and elementary

way of
and the

the principles of

But the human mind in every enlightis

ened age
treatifes

progreffive

bell elementary

after a certain

time are reduced in their

value by the operation of fubfequent difcoveries.

Hence

it

has always been defired by candid en-

quirers, that

preceding works of

this

kind fhould
that other

from time to time be fuperfeded, and

produ6tions including the larger views that have

fmce offered themfelves, ftiould be fubftituted in

their place-

It

would be

llransje

if

fomethingr of this kind

after

were not dehrable

in

politics,

the

great

change that has been produced in men's minds

upon

this fubjeftj

and the

light

that

has

been

thrown

vi

PREFACE.
it

thrown upon
rica

by the recent

difcuffions of

Ame-

and France.
if

fenfe of the value of fach a

work,

properly executed, was the motive which

o-ave birth to thefe

volumes.

Of

their execution

the reader muft judge.

Authors

who have formed

the defign of fuper-

feding the works of their predeceffors, will be

found,
fign,

if

they were

ii;i

any degree equal to the de-

not merely to have Golle6ted the fcattered

information that had been produced upon the

fubje6l, but to
fruit

have increafed the fcience with the

meditations.

of their

own

In the following

work
it

principles will occafionally be found,

which

will not be juft to rejeft without examination,

It

merely becaufe they are new.

perfeveringly to refleft

was impoflible

upon

fo prolific a fcience,

and a fcience which may be

faid to

be yet in

its

infancy, without being led into

that

ways of thinking

were in fome degree uncommon.

Another

PREFACE.
Another argument
in

vli'

favour of the utiHty of

fuch a work w^as frequently in the author's mind,

and therefore ought

to

be mentioned.

He

con-

ceived pohtics to be the proper vehicle of a liberal m^orality.

That defcription of
fliglit

ethics deferves

to be held in

ellimation,

which

feeks only

to regulate our

conduft in

articles

of particular

and perfonal concern, inftead of exciting our attention to the general

good of the

Ipecies.

It

ap-

peared fufficiently prafticable to make of fuch a

treatife,

exclufively of

its

dire6l political ufe,

an

advantageous vehicle of moral improvement.

He

was accordingly defirous of producing a work, from

the perufal of which no

man

fhould

rife

without

being Hrengthened in habits of fmeerity, fortitude

and

juftice.

Having

ftated the
it is

confiderations in

which the

work

originated,

proper to mention a few cirits

ctrmftances of the outline of

hiftory.

The

fen-

timents

it

contains are by no means the fuggeftions

Political
,

f a fudden effervefcence of fancy.

1

en-

quiry

Vlll

PREFACE.
It is

quiry had long held a foremoft place in the writer's

attention.

now

twelve years fmce he be-^

fpecies of go-

came

fatisfied, that

monarchy was a

vernment unavoidably corrupt.

He owed this
Nearly
at

con-

vi6lion to the political writings of Swift perufal of the

and to a
the

Latin hiftorians.

fame time he derived great additional inftru6lion

from reading the moft confiderable French writers

upon the nature of man

Syjieme de la Nature,

in the following order^

Rouffeau and Helvetius. Long,

before he thought of the prefent work, he had familiarifed to his

mind

the arguments

it

contains

on

juftice, gratitude, rights

of man, promifes, oaths

truth.

and the omnipotence of

plexity
is

Political

com-

one of the errors that take ftrongeft hold

;

on the underftanding
fuggefted

and

it

was only by ideas

that

by the French revolution,

he was

reconciled to the defirablenefs of a government

of the fimpleft conllruftion.

To the fame

event he
exill-

owes the determination of mind which gave

ence to
this

work

Such

PREFACE.
to undertake the prefent treatife.

IX

Such was the preparation which encouraged him

The

dire6l exIt

ecution

may be

difmiffed in a few words.

was

projefted in the
pofition was

month of May 1791

in

the

com-

begun

the

following September,
fixteen

and has therefore occupied a fpace of

months.

This period was devoted

It
it

to"

the purpofe
it

with unremitted ardour.

were to be wiflied
as
if

had been longer

but

feemed

no con-

temptible part of the utility of the

work depended

upon

its

early appearance.

The

printing

of

the

following

treatife,

as

well as the compofition, was influenced by the

fame principle, a

defire to reconcile a certain de-

gree of difpatch with the neceffary deliberation.

The

printing was for that reafon

commenced, long

before the compofition was finiihed.

Some

dif-

advantages have arifen from this

circumftance.

The
and

ideas of the author

digefted,
as

became more perfpicuous

advanced.

his

enquiries

The
rately

longer he confidered the fubjeft, the more accu-

X
rately

PREFACE.
he feemed
to underftand
it.

This circum-

fiance has led

him

into a few contradiftions.

The

principal of thefe confifls in an occafional inaccu-

racy of language, particularly in the

fpefting the

lirft

book, re-

word government.

He

did not enter

upon the
ment by

w^ork, without being

aware that govern-

its

very nature countera61;s the improve;

ment of individual mind

full
as

but he underftood the

meaning of

this

proportion more completely

diftinftly into the

he proceeded, and faw more

nature of the remedy.

fers, under a different

This, and a few other de-

mode of preparation would The candid reader will have been avoided. make a fuitable allowance. The author judges
upon
a review, that thefe defe6ls are fuch as not

materially to injure the objeft of the work, and

that

more has been gained than

loft

by the con-

du6l he has purfued.

The

period in which* the work makes

is

its

ap-

pearance

fmgular.

The

people

of England

have affiduoufly been excited to declare their loy5

alty,

PREFACE.
alty,

XI

and

to

mark every man

as

obnoxious

who

is

not ready to fign the Shibboleth of the conftitution.

Money

is

raifed

by voluntary fubfcription

to defray the

expence ofprofecutingmen

who

Ihall

dare to promulgate heretical opinions, and thus to

opprefs

them

at

once with the enmity of governThis was an accident

ment and of

individuals.

wholly unforefeeiT when the work was undertaken

;

and

it

will fcarcely be fuppofed that fuch

an accident could produce any alteration in the

writer's defigns.

Every man,
is

if

we may

believe

the voice of rumour,

fliall

to

be profecuted

who
it it

appeal to the people by the publication of

;

any unconftitutional paper or pamphlet

added, that

and

men

are to be profecuted for any

unthe
to

guarded words that

may be dropped
debate.
It is

in

warmth of converfation and

now

be tried whether, in addition to thefe alarming encroachments upon our

liberty, a

book

is

to fall

under the arm of the

civil

power, which, befide

its

the advantage of having for one of

je6ls the diffuading

exprefs ob*-

from

all

tumult and violence,

is

b 2

xii

PREFACE.
its

is

by

very nature an appeal to

It is to

men

of ftudy and
is

reflexion.

be tried whether a projeft

formed

for fupprelTing the aftivity of

mind, and
fcience.

putting an end to

the

difquifitions of

Refpe6ling the event in a perfonal view the author

has formed his refolution.

Whatever condu6l

his

countrymen may purfue, they will not be able

fhake his tranquillity.

to

The duty he

is

moft

bound
truth
;

to difcharge

is

the aflifting the progrefs of

and

if

he

fuffer in
is

any refpeft for fuch a

proceeding, there

certainly

no

viciflitude

that
it

can befal him, that can ever bring along with

more

fatisfa6lory confolation.

But, exclufively of this precarious and unim-

portant confideration,
fent

it is

the fortune of the prethat

is

work

to appear before a public

panic

ftruck,

and impreffed with the moft dreadful ap-

prehenfions of fuch doftrines as are here delivered.

are
in

All the prejudices of the

human mind

arms againft

it.

This circumftance

may
But

appear to be of greater importance than the other.

PREFACE.
But
to
it Is

xin

the property of truth to be fearlefs, and

It re-

prove vi6lorious over every adverfary.

quires

no

great degree of fortitude, to

look with

indifference

upon the

falfe

fire

of the moment,

and

to

forefee

the calm period of reafon

which

will fucceed.
January
7,

1793;

C O N T K
OF
THE.

xN

FIRST

V O L U M

E.

BOOK

I.

OF THE IMPORTANCE OF POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS.

BOOK BOOK

II.

PRINCIPLES OF SOCIETY.

III.

PRINCIPLES OF GOVERNMENT.

BOOK

IV.

MISCELLANEOUS PRINCIPLES,

CONTENTS
OF

THE

FIRST BOOK.
OF THE IMPORTANCE OF POLITICAL
INSTITUTIONS.
C

H A

P.

I.

INTRODUCTION.
fnr'HE
"*
fubjeSi propofed.

Syjlem

of

indifference

dience

of

liberty,

of

paffive obe^

Syjlem of liberty extended^

Page

CHAP.
frequency of

IL

HISTORY OF POLITICAL SOCIETY.

war

among

the ancients

among

the moderns

the

French
fotlfmy

of war. Penal Dgdudilon^-'Enumeratm of arguments,

the

Engllp. Caufes

laws.

i^f-"

CHAP,

CONTENTS.
CHAP.
III.

THE MORAL CHARACTERS OF MEN ORIGINATE

THEIR PERCEPTIONS.
No
mnate
principles.

IN

from the early ObjeSiions to this offer tio7i

aStions

from the defre offelf-prefervationfromfelfof infants

pity

lovefrom

from the vices of children tyrannyfullennefs,

C

Conclufon.

Page 12

HA

P.

IV.

THREE PRINCIPAL CAUSES OF MORAL IMPROVE-

MENT
I.

CONSIDERED.

LITERATURE.
Effential properties

Benefits

of

literature.

Examples.
II.

of literature.

Its defedts.

EDUCATION.

Benefits

of education.

Caufes of its imbecility.

III.

POLITICAL JUSTICE.
injiitution.

Benefits

of political

Univerfality

of its influenceproved
,

by the mifiakes offociety.

Origin of evil.

19

HA

P.

V.

INFLUENCE OF POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS

EXEMPLIFIED.
Robbery andfraud, two great vices infociety
treme poverty

originate,

1. in

ex-

2.

in

the ofientation

of the

rich

3.

in their

tyranny

tyranny

tnimjlration

CONTENTS. permanent by of law of

rendered
i.

kgijlatlon

2.

by ths ad~

3. by the inequality

conditions.

Page

-Jt'i

CHAP.
HUMAN

VI.

INVENTIONS CAPABLE OF PERPETUAL IM-

PROVEMENT.
PerfeStibility of man

infanced, frjl, in language.

AbJlraSlion.

Complexity of language.

Second

Its beginnings.

injiance

al'

phabetical writing.
deviations.

Hieroglyphics atfirfl univerfal.

ProgreJJive

Application.

43

CHAP.

VII.

OF THE OBJECTION TO THESE PRINCIPLES FROM THE INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE.

PARTI.
OF

MORAL AND PHTSICAL

CAUSES.
refleSlion.

'the queflton fated.

Provinces
mifaken for
varieties

of fenfation and
phyfical.

Moral

caufes frequently

Superiority

evident

from

the

phyfcal caufes rare.

of human
of

charaSier.

Fertility

reflexion.

in the firfi infiance fuperior^ afterwards moral.

the effeit of breed in animals.

of Obje^ion from
Operation Phyfical caufes

of the former

Conclufon,

51

ba

PART

CONTENTS.
P

A R T

ir.

OF NATIONAL CHARACTERS.
CharaSier of the priejlhood.
ajfertion illujirated.

All

nations capable

of

liberty.

'Experience favours thefe reafonings,

The Means
Page 60

of introducing liberty.

CHAP.

VIII.

OF THE OBJECTION TO THESE PRINCIPLES FROM THE INFLUENCE OF LUXURY.

The
objeSlionfiated,

Source of this objedHon.Refutedfrom mutathe

frotn mortalityfrom bility

bability

nature

of truth,'The pro-

ofperfeverance

confidered^

ny

r'

B O O K

II.

PRINCIPLES OF SOCIETr.
C

HA

P.

I.

INTRODUCTION.
Nature of
fociety

the enquiry.

Mode of purfuing Di/linBion between

it.

and government

77

CONTENTS.
CHAP.
Connection ofpolitics
II.

OFJUSTICE.
and
:

Subje^ of jujlice
capacity of
Jidered.
its

fubjeSl

Gratitude conjidered.

from
iion.

utility.

An

exception

Extent and meaning of Bs mankind. meafured by Family from ignorance-^ Degrees AppUcU" fated.
morals.
jujlice.-^diflribution

the

by bis ufefulnefs.

affeSlion con-

Ohjedlions:

ofjufice.

Idea of

political juf ice.

Page 8p
No.
I.

APPENDIX,
Motives of fuicide:
I.

OF SUICIDE,
efcape

from pain

2.

benevolence.-

Martyrdom

confidered.

02
No.
II.

APPENDIX,
Motives of duelling:
\,

OF DUELLING.
revenge

2.

reputation

for courage,'

Fallacy of this motive.

ObjeSllon anfwered,

Illujiration.

94

CHAP.
A
fated.

III.

OF DUTY.
difficulty

Of

abfolute

and praSllcal

virtue.

Impropriety

of this
8

difinUlion.

Unlverfallty of

what

is

called praSlical virtue

infanced

CONTENTS.

mjianced in robbery
diJlinSl

in religious fanaticifm.

T/6^ quality

of

an aSlion
Farther

from the difpojition with which

it is performed,

difficulty.

Meaning of

the term, duty,

Jipplication.

hferences.

Page 97

CHAP.
Phyfcal
equality.

IV.

OF THE EQUALITY OF MANKIND.

limited.

Province of

ObjeBion.

Anfwers. Moral

equality.

How
1

political jujlice.

04

H A P V. RIGHTS OF MAN.
C
The
quefiion

flated. Foundation of fociety.

l,Je,

Conclufon

from

thefe

premifes,

Oppofte
Difcretion
i. the right

rights impoji^

confidered.-

Rights

of kings.

Immoral

confequences of the dodlrine

:

ofrights.

Rights

of communities.

Ohjediions

of mutual

aid.

Explanation,

Origin

of

the term, right.

2. rights

vate judgment

and of

the prefs,

of prithis

Explanation.

Reafons of
i.

limitation upon the funSlions

of the community

attempting rejiraint

2. its pernicious tendency,

the inutility of

Conclufon.

HA

P.

VI.
.

OF THE EXERCISE OF PRIVATE JUDGMENT.

Foundation of virtue,

of things ^, by

pofitive infitution,

Human aBions Tendency of

regulated:

i.

by the nature
:

the latter

i. ^0

CONTENTS.
to excite virtue.

Its equivocal charadler in this refpedl.

inform thejudgment,

Its inaptitude

for that purpofe.

Province
2.

fa

of

confclence

conjidered.

'Tendency

that province
injiltutlon
:

of an

Interference

with

Recapitulation.

Arguments

the

In favour

of poftlve

the necejfity

of

repelling private Injifllce.

Objec-

tions

the

uncertainty of evidence

dlverfty of motives

the unfultablenefs

of

the

new

fentlments

means of

correSilon

either

to

Imprefs
the

or to ftrengthen old ones.

Punlfhment for

fake of example confdered.

Urgency

^.war.

of

the cafe.

2.

rebellion

QbjeSilons.

Reply.

Page 120

BOOK
PRINCIPLES OF

III.

G0VERJSr^/^2NT.

CHAP.

I.

SYSTEMS OF POLITICAL WRITERS.

The queflon fated.

Flrjl hypothejis
:

government founded

in

fu-

perior frength.'Second hypothefs

government

]mt

divino.

Third
mined.

hypothejis

the facial contraSl.

The

frjl hypoihefs exa:

i
.

defcent

The
.

fecond,

Criterion

of

divine right

patriarchal

2 jujiice.

139

CONTENTS.
CHAP.
^enes propofed.
form
II.

OF THE SOCIAL CONTRACT.

Who

are the contraSl'mg parties?

What
it

is

the

of engagement ? Over ho%v

long a period does the contraSi

extend?^To
to

how great
to be

a variety of propoftions?

Can

extend

laws hereafter

made ?

Addrejfes of adhefon confidersd..

'r-Power of a.

majority^

Page 143

P.

IIL

OF PROMISES.,
'ihe validity
jiiftice

of promifes examined.be foreign to the

cited.

promife,

The
to

Shown general good. Of

to be

inconjifent with-

the expeSlation ex-^

fidfilUng expefiation does not imply the validity of

Conclufon.

x^Ot

CHAP. IV. OF POLITICAL AUTHORITY. true foundation of governmentprovedfrom: Common

deliberation the

the equal claims

from the nature of our faculties of mankind

the effeSls

from

the objeSi

from of government

of common

delibe-

ration.^

'Delegation vindicated.

Difference between the dodlrine

contraSi apparent

here maintained

and

that of

a facial

from the
is 7

from the nullity of promerely profpe5iive nature of the former

mifesfrom
the fallibility of deliberation,
_

Conclufon.

HA

Pg.

CONTENTS.
CHAP.
Society

V.

OF LEGISLATION.
can declare and inter pret^ but cannot enal,Its authority
only executive.

Page i66

CHAP.

VI.

OF OBEDIENCE.
Obedience not the correlative of authority.
obedience to another.

No man bound

to

yield

Cafe

of fubmijjion conjidered.

Foundation
confi-

of obedience.

Ufefulnefs

dence conjidered.
dence.

of facial communication.

Its

limitations.

Mifchief of

Cafe of

unlimited confi-

SubjeSlion explained.

igg

APPENDIX.
Moral principles frequently
cidental pajfages in

elucidated by incidental refleSiion

various authors.

Example.

by in-

lyQ

CHAP.
'Argument
in

VII.

OF FORMS OF GOVERNMENT.
favour of a variety of forms

compared with
creeds.

the ar-

gument
one bejl

in

favour cj a variety of religious

That
of

there truth

is

form of government provedfrom

of man.

the unity

from

the nature

QbjeSlion

from human

iveakncfs ana

prejudice.

Danger

in efiaUi/lmg an imperfedi code.

e

Manners
of

CONTENTS.
of nations produced by
provement
cation
necejfary.

their

forms of government.
to

Simplicity chiefly

be

defired.

Gradual imPubliPage 179

of truth the grand in/irument

by individuals, not by go-

vernment

the truth entire,

and

not by

parcels.Sort ofprogrefs

to be defired.

BOOK

IV.

MISCELLANEOUS PRINCIPLES.
CHAP.
I.

OF RESISTANCE.
Every individual
the

judge of

his

own

refjldnce,

Objel^ion.

is

uinfweredfrom the nature of governmentfrom the modes of refflance.

i.

Force rarely

to be

employed

either

where there

fmall profpeSi offuccefs

or

where

the profpedl is great.

2.

Hijiory

of Charles
mode.

the firji

eflimated.

Reafoning

the

legitimate

19^

CHAP.

CONTENTS.
CHAP.
SECTION
II.

OF REVOLUTIONS.
I.

DUTIES OF
Obligation
to

A CITIZEN.
of our country conftdered
the cafe, or

fupport the

con/lit ut ion

mufl arife either

from

the reafon

of

from a perfonal

and

local confideration.

ThefirH

examined,

l^hefecond.

Page 198

SECTION

II.

MODE OF EFFECTING REVOLUTIONS.

Perfuafon the proper inflrument
Latenefs of event defrable.

not violence

nor refentment,

202
III.

SECTION

OF POLITICAL ASSOCIATIONS.
Meaning of the term.

j^Jfociations

objeBed

to

i.

from

the fort
1.

of

perfons with "whom ajuf revolution fould originate

frotn the
cafes

danger of tumult.
mijjible.

ObjeBs of

association.

In

what

ad~

Argued for from

their tendency to
inutility.

the necefjlty to give weight to opinion

from

certain opitiion. af
ConceJJions.

UnnecejJ'ary

for

thefe

purpofes.

General ctmmunication. Propriety of

ca

Importance

of facial

teaching refjlance confdered.

205

SECTION

CONTENTS.
SECTION
IV.

OF THE SPECIES OF REFORM TO BE DESIRED.

Ought
it

to

be -bartial or entire ?
refbrmation

Truth

may

not be

partially

taught,

Partial

confidered.

Objection.

Partial reform indifperjible.

dijlantf

Nature
III.

of a juji revolution

Anfwer.
Page 219

how

CHAP.
OF
D'roerfty of opinions on this fuhjeEl.
'The defnidllon

TYRANNICIDE.

Argument

in its vindication.

of a tyrant not a cafe of exception.

defcribed.

Confequences
fncerity,

of

tyrannicide,

AJaJfmation
C

Importance of

226

H A P. IV. OF THE CULTIVATION OF TRUTH.

SECTION OF ABSTRACT OR GENERAL TRUTH.
I.

Its importance as conducing

to

our intelledtual improvement

moral improvement, manner of adapting by comparifon be undecaying by

by
its its

Virtue the hejifource of happinefs.

itfelf to all

Proved ftuatwns
to

our

excellence

cannot

effeBlually

propagated but

by a cultivated mind,

Importance of general truth 4o our political

improvement.

^3^

CONTENTS.
S E

CT

ON
C

11.

OF
Nature of
this

S I

E R IT

r.

virtue.

Its

effects

upo?i

our

own aollonsupon

our neighbours.
fincerity.'

Its tendency to

produce fortitude.

EfeSls ofinto

CharaSler
it.

which fncerity 'would acquire

him

who

praStifed

Objedlions.

Thefear of giving
my
life.

unnecefjary pain.

of much. Anfwer.
Anfwer,
too

"Tbe defre

prefer ving

Secrecy corfdered.

'^his objeSiion

proves

I^he fecrets

of others^

State fecrets.

Secrets of philanthropy.

Page 238

APPENDIX,
AND VIRTUE.
Can
eminent virtue
exifl

No.

I.

OF THE CONNEXION BETWEEN UNDERSTANDING

unconnedled with talents ?

Nature
ambition

of

virtue.

(ianding.

// is the offspring

of under/landing.

Illuf ration

from

other purfuits

love

// generates imder-

in

applied.

Can

eminent talents

exifl

unconneSled with virtue f

Argument

the affirmative
fality

from

analogy

in the negative

from

the iiniver-

of moral fpeculation-from the nature cfvice as founded i?i

mijiake.

T^he

argument balanced,

Importance

jufice.

Its

connexion

with

talents.

of a fenfe of

Illiberality

with which

men of talents are

ufually treated.

253

APPENDIX.

CONTENTS.
APPENDIX,
OF THE
Its impropriety
ruijitor

No.

II.

MODE

OF EXCLUDING VISITORS.
thejituation in 'which
:

from argued

it

places^

I.

the

2. thefervant.
i
.

Objediions

praSiice^

to

preferve us

from

intrufion

Pretended free
2. to

necejjity

of this

us

from

agreeable acquaintance. dif

CharaSiers

of the

honefl

and

di/honejl

man

in this

refpeSi compared.

Page 265

APPENDIX,

No.

III.

SUBJECT OF SINCERITY RESUMED.

A cafe propofed. Arguments in favour of concealment. Previous

que/lion: Is truth in general to

Cuflomary
praSiifes
3.
it

effeSis

of fncerity of

i.

the ftfpenjion

difingenuity

general importance.

upon

the fpeSiators.

Application.

communicated? upon him who mifanthropy of improvement Duty of

be partially
in/inceriiy
2.

Sincerity delineated.

Its

refpeSling the choice

refdence.

272

H A P. V. OF FREE WILL AND NECESSITY.

C
Importance of the
to exifi- in

que/lion.

Definition

of neceffity.

the operations of the material univerfe.

is

operations of mind

parallel.

Indications

of necejjity

Why fuppofed of
T^he cafe

the

in hi/lory

in

our judgments of character

in ourfchemes

ofpolicy

incur
ideas

peSlations in

CONTENTS. of moral from of Anfwer.Origin and human of of free The argued from of Hypothefs of free The will a Free will of advantageous Page
ideas
difcipline.

ObjeSilon

the fallibility

our ex-

condu5i.

univerfality

the fentiment

will.

'The fentiment ofnecejjlty alfo uni-

verfal.

truth

this fentiment
ivill

the nature

of

volition.

examined.

Self-determination.
dif-

Indifference.

not

difint faculty,

to its poffeffor

no fervice to morality.

2 83

HA

P.

VI.

INFERENCES FROM THE DOCTRINE OF NECESSITY'

Idea
it

fuggefs

to

aiion

us of the univerfe.

Influence on our

moral ideas

virtue

complacence

and

ardour punfiimentrepentance praife and averfon

exertion
perfuafion

exhortation

blame

intelleSfual

tranquillity.

Language
VII.

of

neceffiiy

re
3^5

commended.

CHAP.
Nature of mechanifm.
probablefrom

OF THE MECHANISM OF THE

HUMAN

MIND.

Its

clajfes,

material and

intelleElual.

be

Material fyfem, or of vibrations.

The

intelkSlual fyfetn mofl

the confideratlon that thought

the eflabliffed principles

would otherwife

a fuperfluityfrom
effeSls to caufes.

Objedlions

animal motion may be

were

firjt involuntary.

Thoughts produce All animal The Unattended with

refuted.

of reafo?iing from
'which

i.

Involuntary,

motions

2.

confcioufnefs,

mind

CONTENTS.
mind cannot have more than
jeSiion
to this

one thought at any one time.' Obthe cafe

aj^ertion

from

various mental operations

of the fuccefjion of
confcioufnefs,

ideas.

as comparifon
Application.

apprehenjionrapidity
meafured by
each
motion

of complex ideasfrom

Duration
to

unneceffary

3.

difinSl

thought

may

be

apparent from the complexity of fenfible imprefjions.

thinks.

The mind always

the

phenomenon of walking

Conclufon.

The

theory applied to

to

the circulation

of the blood,'Of

motion in general,

Of dreams.
CHAP.
VIII.

Page 318

OF THE PRINCIPLE OF VIRTUE.

Hypothefes of benevolence and felf lovefuperiority oftheformer.

Alion

is

either voluntary or involuntary,

thefe clajjes.

has a realexifence,

Argument Confequence of
we

that refults

that exiflence.

Nature of of from Experimental

the firfl
it.

Voluntary alion

view of
felf love

the fubjeSl,

Suppoftions fuggefed by

the advocates

of
to

that

calculate upon all occa/ions the

advantage

accrue to us,
trary fort.
refult

We

Falfenefs of this fuppofition.

Suppoftion of a conbe the uneafnefs to

do not calculate

what would

from our

refraining to al

either in relieving dijlrefs

or

in adding to the

fock of general good.

Uneafinefs

an accidental

member of

the procefs,

The

fuppoftions incoffijlently blended.

to

Scheme of felf love reconnnended from the propenfty of mind

6

abbreviate

CONTENTS.
abbreviate
its

procefsfrom the JimpUcity that

obtains

in

the

natures of things,
virtue.

Hypothejis

Conclujbn.

of Jelf love incompatible 'with

Importance of the quefion.

Application,

Page 341

CHAP.
// is the

IX.

OF THE TENDENCY OF VIRTUE.

road
to happinefs

to the

efeem and

affeSiion

Objection

from

mifconjirudlion

and

calumny.

compared with other modes of procuring efeem.

virtue
is

Anfwer. and mi
Virtue

of

others.

Vice

the fubjeSl

of obloquy

infanced

in the hafe alloy

with

which our
the vices in

virtues are

mxed

in arrogance

and

ofentation

in

which perfons of moral

excellence

allow themf elves.

Virtue
to

The

virtuous

man

only

has friends.

the

road

to profperity

and

fuccefs in the

world

applied

commercial

iranfadtions

to cafes

that depend upon patronage.^Apparent

is

exceptions ivhere
vice.

the dependent

employed as the infrument of

Virtue compared with other modes of becoming profperous.

the difrepute

Source of
deteSiion.

of virtue

in this refpedl.

ConceJJion.

Cafe where convenient vice bids fair for concealment-

Indolence

Chance of
off-

apprehenfivenefs-^and depravity the

fpring of vice,

362

AN

A K

ENQUIRY
CONCERNING

POLITICAL JUSTICE.
B Q O

I.

OF THE IMPORrjNCE OF POLITICAL INSTITUriOm.

H A

P.

INTRODUCTION.
THE SUBJECT PROPOSED. SYSTEM OF INDIFFERENCE
PASSIVE OBEDIENCE

OF

OF LIBERTY. SYSTEM OF LIBERTY

firfl:

EXTENDED.

THE
the topic
able

queftion

which

prefents itfelf in an enquiry con-

BOOK
^
.^

I.

ceming

political inflitution, relates to the

is

importance of
All

>

The

fubjeft

which

made

the fubje'St of enquiry.

men

will propofed.

grant that the happinefs of the

human

fpecies
;

is

the moft defirintelleiilual

objed for human fcience to promote

is

and that

and moral happinefs or pleafure

extremely to be preferred
to

introduction;
1.
I.
'

BOOK
CHAP.
**-V

to tliofe

which

are precarious ^

and

tranfitory.
^

The methods'
_

which may be propofed

various.

for the attainment of this objeft, are:

If
all

it

could be proved that a found political inftitutioa

was of

others the moft powerful engine for promoting indi-

vidual good, or on the other hand that an erroneous and corrupt

government was the moft formidable adverfary

to the

improvefirft

ment of

the fpecies,

it

would follow

that politics
inveftigation..

was the

and moft important fubjed of human

Syacm

of in:.

Ihe

Opinions of mankind in this refpeit have been divided,..

fet

ditierence

By one

of

men

it

is

affirmed, that the different degrees

of

excellence afcribed to different forms of government are rather

imaginary than

real;, that in

the great obje.ds of fuperintendance

;

no government

will eminently fail

and that

it

is

neither the

duty nor- the wifdom of an honeft and indliftrious individual to bufv himfelf with concerns fo foreign to the fphere. of his
fpaffive

in--

duftry.

fecond

clafs,

in adopting the

fame

principles,
all

have

obcdienct

given to them a different turn.

,

Believing that

governments

are nearly equal in their merit, they

have regarded anarchy as

the only political mifchief that deferved to excite alarm, and have

been

th-e

zealous and undiftinguiftiing adverfaries of

all

inno-

vation.

Neither of thefe

clafles

has of courfe been inclined

politics

to afcribe to the fcience

and pradlce of

a pre-eminence,

over every other.

of

liberty*.

But the advocates of what

a.

is

termed

political liberty

have

al-

ways.

INTRODUCTION.
ways been numerous.

They have
'
'

placed this liberty f prlnclpallv J f

r !

BOOK
CHAP.
*.

I.
I,

m two articles
.

the lecurity ot our perfons,

and the

lecurity of

-'

our property.

They have

perceived that thefe objeds couid not

be efFeded but by the impartial adminiftration of general laws,

and the invefting

cient to give

in the people at large a certain to

this

power

fuffi-

permanence
lefs

adminifli-ation.

They have

pleaded, fome for a

lity

and fome for a greater degree of equathe

among

the

members of

community

and they have

confidered this equality as infringed or endangered by enormoui

taxation,

and the prerogatives and privileges of monarchs and

ariftocratical bodies.

But, while they have been thus ^xtenfive in the objed of their

demand, they feem

to

have agreed with the two former

claffes

in regarding politics as an objel of fubordinate importance, and

only in a remote degree conneded with moral improvement.

They have been prompted

fenfe of juftlce

in their exertions rather

by

a quick

and difdain of opprefTion, than by a confcioufnefs

of the intimate connexion of the different parts of the focial

fyftem, whether as
to the
it

relates to the intercourfe

of individuals, or
*.

maxims and

inftitutes

of

ftates

and nations

It

may however

be reafonable to confider whether the fcience

Syftcm oflled.

of politics be not of Ibmewhat greater value than any of thefe

* Thefe remarks will apply to the Enghfli writers

upon pohtics

in general,

from Sydney and Locke

to the author of the

Rights of Man.

The more com-

ptehenfive view has been perfpicuoufly treated by RoulTeau and Helvetius.

reafoners

INTRODUCTION.
I.

BOOK
^'^

reafoners have been inclined to fufped.

'

It

may

fairly

be quefIts

'^-

tioned,

whether government be not

ftill

naore confiderable in

incidental efFedbs, than in thofe intended to be produced.

Vice,

for example, depends for

its

exiftence

upon the

exiftence of

temptation.
tirpate,

May
its

not a good government ftrongly tend to ex?

and a bad one to increafe the mafs of temptation

exiftence

Again,

vice depends for

upon the

exiftence of

error.

May

not a good government by taking avfay

'

all reftraints
its

upon the

enquiring mind haften, and a bad one by

procraftinate the difcovery

patronage of error'
?

and eftablifhment of truth

If
it

Let

us-

confider the fubjet in this point of view.

that the fcience of politics
is

can be proved*
its

thus unlimited in

importance,,

the advocates of liberty will have gained an additional recom-

mendation, and

its

admirers will be incited with the greater

its

fagernefs'to the inveftigation of

principles.

HAE

H A

P.

II.

HISTORY OF POLITICAL SOCIETY.

FREQUENCY OF WAR AMONG THE ANCIENTS AMONG THE MODERNS THE FRENCH THE ENGLISH. CAUSES

OF WAR.

PENAL

LAWS.

DESPOTISM. DEDUCTION.
is

ENUMERATION OF ARGUMENTS..

WHILE we
efFeds.
It
is

enquire whether government

capable of
its

BOOK

I.

improvement,

we

fhall do well to confider

prefent
FrcQiiciicv o

an old obfervation, that the hiftoiy of mankind

war:

is little elfe

than the hiftory of crimes.

War

has hitherto been

confidered as the infeparable ally of political inftitutlon.

earlieft records

The

among

the
i

ancients

of time are the annals of conquerors and heroes,

a Bacchus, a Sefoftris, a Semiramis and a Cyrus.

led millions of

Thefe princes

men under

their flandard,

and ravaged innumetheir forces ever redif-

rable provinces.

fmall

number only of
reft

turned to their native

eafes, hardfhips

homes, the

having perifhed of
they
infliled,

and mifery.

The

evils

and the

mortality introduced in the countries againft which their expeditions

were
their

directed,

were certainly not

fufFered.

lefs

fevere than thofe

which

countrymen
precife,
is,

No

fooner does hiftoiy be-

come more

than

we

are prefented with the four great

monarchies, that

with four fuccelsful projeds, by means- of

bloodfhed^

6
BOOK
'

HISTORYOF
I.

chap.il
V

bloodflied, '

violence and murder, of ennavinjr mankind.

The

'

expeditions of Cambyfes againft Egypt, of Darius againft the

Scythians, and of Xerxes againft the Greeks, feem almoft to
credibility at defiance
fet

by the

fatal

confequences with which they

were
lives,

attended.

The

conquefts of Alexander coft innumerable

is

and the immortality of Cxlar

computed

to

have been

purchafed by the death of one million two hundred thoufand

men.
and

Indeed the Romans, by the long duration of their wars,

their inflexible adherence to their purpofe, are to be

ranked
Their

among

the foremoft deftroyers of the

human

fpecies.

wars In Italy endured for more than four hundred years, and
their conteft for

fupremacy with the Carthaginians two hundred.

The
fifty

Mlthridatic

war began with a maflacre of one hundred and

thoufand Romans, and in three fingle alions of the war

five

hundred thoufand men were

loft

by the

eaftern

monarch.

Sylla, his ferocious conqueror, next turned his ai-ms againft his

country, and the ftruggle between

him and Marius was attended

with profcriptions, butcheries and murders that knew no reftralnt

from mercy and humanity.

The Romans,
;

at

length,

fuffered the penalty of their iniquitous deeds

and the world was

vexed
dals,

for three

hundred years by the irruptions of Goths, Van-

Oftrogoths, Huns, and innumerable hordes of barbarians.

Emong the jnoderns

I forbear to detail the vidorious- progrefs

of
mi

Mahomet and
enumerate

the pious expeditions of Charlemagne.

-the

i.

/-

,-,i

t
1

will not

crufades againft the

infidels, the

exploits

of Aurungzebe,

Gen-

POLITICAL SOCIETY.
Genglfkan and Tamerlane, or the extenfive murders of the
Spaniards in the

^OOK L
* "

new

world.

Let us examine the civilized and

'

favoured quarter of Europe, or even thofe countries of Europe

which

are thought moft enlightened.

'

France was- wafted by fucceflive

battles

during a whole cen-

the Frencb:

tury, for the queftion of the Salic law,

and the claim of the

the

Plantagenets,
religious

Scarcely

was

this conteft terminated, before

wars broke out, fome idea of which

we may form from

up

the fiege of Rochelle, where of fifteen thoufand perfons Ihut

eleven thoufand pcrifhed of hunger and mifery

nialTaci-e

and from the

of Saint Bartholomew, in which the numbers airaffinated'

were forty thoufand..

fourth,

This quarrel was appeafed by Henry the

thirty years

and fucceeded by the

war

in

Germany

for

fuperiority with the

houfa of Auftria, and afterwards by the

military tranfa^Stions of Louis the fourteenths

In England the war of CrefTy and 'Agincourt only gave place

to the civil

the EngHtho

war of York and

Lancafter, and again after an in-

terval to the

war of Charles

the

firft

and his parliament.

the revolution, than

No
we

fooner was the conftitution fettled

by

were engaged
William, the

in a

wide

field

of continental warfare by king

duke of Marlborough, Maria Therefa and thej

king of

Pruifia.

And what

are in moft cafes the pretexts

upon which war

Is

Caufes of war,

under-

^
cUAPii
*^

HISTORY OF
t^ndertaken
'

What
Edward

rational

man

could poffibly have given hlm-

^'

felf the leaft difturbance for

the fake of choofing whether

Henry

the fixth or

the fourth fhould have the ftyle of king of

England

What Englifhman

could reafonably have drawn his

fvvord for the purpofe of rendering his country an inferior de-

pendency of France,

as

it

muft neceffarily have been

?

if

the

am-

bition of the Plantagenets had fucceeded

What

can be more

deplorable than to fee us

firft

engage eight years in war rather

live

than fuffer the haughty Maria Therefa to

foverelgnty oi in a private ftation
to
;

with a diminifhed

and then eight years more

taken advantage of her

fupport the free-booter

?

who had

helplefs (Condition

The

ufual caufes of

war

are excellently defcrlbed

is

by

Swift.

" Sometimes the quarrel between two princes

fcf-th^m
fliall

to decide

which

difpolTefs a third
right.

of his dominions, where neither

of them pretends to any

Sometimes one prince quarrels

fhould
quarrel

with

another,

for fear the

is

other

with him.
is

Sometimes a war
ftrong
;

entered

upon becaufe the enemy

is

too

and fometimes becaufe he

too weak.

Sometimes our

neighbours want the things which w:e have, or have the things

which we want
us theirs.
It is

and we both -fight,

till

they taT^e-ours, or give

a very juftifiable caufe of

war

to invade a

country

after the people

tilence, or

have been wafted by famine, deftroyed by pef-

embroiled by factions

among

themfelves.

It is jufti-

iiable to enter into a

war

againft our neareft ally,

us,

when one of

Jus towns

lies convenient for

or a territory of -land, that

would

POLITICAL SOCIETY.
If a prince ^

would render our dominions round and compad:. ^

fends forces into a nation
rant,
flaves

BOOK
CHAP.
^^

where the people

are

poor and igno-

T.

II.

he

may lawfully
reft, in

put the half of them to death, and make

of the

order to civilize and reduce

It is

them from

their

barbarous

way

of living.

a very kingly, honourable

and

frequent pradice,
other to fecure

when one

prince defires the afliftance of an-

him

againft an invafion, that the alliftant,

feize

when

he has driven out the invader, fhould

himfelf,
lieve *."

on the dominions

and

kill,

imprifon or banifh the prince he came to re-

If

we

turn from the foreign tranfadlions of ftates with each

Penal laws.

other, to the principles of their domeftic policy,

find

we

fhall

not

much

greater reafon to be fatisfied.

numerous

clafs

of

mankind
tinually

are held

down
more

in a ftate of abjeft penury,

diftrefs

and are conto

prompted by difappointment and

commit

violence

upon

their

fortunate neighbours.

The only mode

to maintain the

which

is

employed

to reprefs this violence,

is

and

order and peace of fociety,

gibbets, dungeons, chains
eftabliihed

punifhment.

Whips, axes and

and racks are the moft approved and

methods of perfuading men to obedience, and imtheir

prefling

upon

minds the

leflbns

of reafon.

Hundreds of
law and

vidims

are annually facrificed at the fhrine of pofitive

political inftitution.

* Gulliver's Travels, Part IV. Ch. v.

Add

lo

HISTORYOF
I.

-JOOK

Add
'

to this the fpecles

of government which prevails over

is

^TT^

iiine tenths

of the globe, which

defpotifm
vile

a government, as

Mr. Locke juftly

" more
Deduftion.

obferves, altogether "

and miferable," and

to be deprecated than anarchy itfelf *."

This account of the hiftory and

mation, but an appeal to fads.

ftate

of

man

is

not a declait

He

that confiders
trifle,

cannot

poflibly regard political difquifition as a

and government
call

as

a neutral and unimportant concern.

by no means

uport

the reader implicitly to admit that thefe evils are capable of re-

medy, and

that wars, executions

and defpotifm can be

extir-

pated out of the world.

ther they

But

1 call I

upon him

to confider

whe-

may

be remedied.

would have him

feel that civil

policy

is

a topic upon which the feverefl inveftigation

may

laudably be employed.

If government be a fubjedt, which, like mathematics, natural

* Locke on Government, Book I. Ch.
words
in the lafl place are
:

i.

J.

i ;

and Book

II.

Ch.

vii. J.

91 .

The

" Wherever any two men

to appeal to

are,

who have no Hand-

ing rule and

common judge

on earth for the determination of conflill

troverfies of right betwixt

them, there they are

it,

in the Jlate of natur&y

and

under
jeft,

all

the inconveniences of

with only

this

woeful difference to the fub-

&c."

Mofl: of the above arguments

may be found much more

a treatife, in

at large in Burke's-

Vindication of Natural Society

which the

evils of the exifiing

political jnfiitutions are'difplayed

with incomparable force of reafoning andluftre

evils

ef eloquence, while the intention of the author was to fliew that thefe
to be confidered as trivial.

were

philofophy

POLITICAL SOCIETY.
philofophy and morals, admits of argument and demonftratlon,

then

may we

reafonably hope that

it.

men

fhall

fome time or other

that
is

agree refpeding

If

it

comprehend every thing

it

moft
the

important and interefting to man, theory

leded.
is

is

probable that,

when

greatly advanced, the pradice will not be wholly neg-

Men may
nature,
air,

one day

feel that

they are partakers of a

common
food and

and

that true freedom

and perfedl equity,

like

|
|^

are pregnant with benefit to

every conftitution.

4
^

siff

If there be the fainteft

hope that

this fhall

be the

final refult,

^ i^ ^
'"

""

-t^i'

then certainly no fubjed can infpire to a found mind fuch generous enthufiafm, fuch enlightened ardour and fuch invincible
perfeverance.

The

probability of this

improvement

will

be fufficiently

efta-

EnumeratioV

f^

blifhed, if

we

confider, first, that the moral charaders of

men
all

are the refult of their perceptions: and,

secondly,
is

that of

the modes of operating upon

fiderable.

mind government
arguments
it

the moft con-

^
'

In

addition to thefe

will be

found,

'^

^ Jii
*|

THIRDLY,
are

that the

good and
in

ill

effeds of political inftitution

^v'^ 1^*^
\'

"
!|

not

lefs

confpicuous

detail
is

than in principle

and,

"^ f^

FOURTHLY,

that perfedibility

one of the moft unequivocal

.^

f
'^

charaderiftics of the

human

fpecies, fo that the political, as well

4^ J"t"
i!!

as the intelledual ftate of

man, may be prefumed

to be

in a

'^

J ^ X V

courfe of progreflive improvement.

\^^

N^^x"^

^C2

CHAP.
v-^^-^

S.J^^

fvi

.MA^^t^ ^d^^^^. on^.v.vi^.

^^

__

Z^-

^,

^ntl ^^J" H

tt^ A.--^ ^^"^ ^^"i

THE MORAL CHARACTERS OF MEN

CHAP.

III.

THE MORAL CHARACTERS OF MEN ORIGINATE

THEIR PERCEPTIONS.

IN

NO INNATE PRINCIPLES. OBJECTIONS TO THIS ASSERTION FROM THE EARLY ACTIONS OF INFANTS FROM THE

DESIRE

OF

SELF-PRESERVATION

FROM

SELF-LOVE

FROM PITY

FROM THE

VICES OF CHILDREN

TYRANNY

SULLENNESS,
E
firll

CONCLUSION.

bring into the world vflth us no innate principles

confequently

we

are neither virtuous nor vicious as

we

come

into exiftence.

No
is

truth can be

more evident than

an impartial con-

this, to

any man who

will yield the fubjedl

fideration.

Every

principle

a propofition.

Every propofition
are

confifts in the

connexion of

at leaft

two diftind ideas, which

affirmed to agree or difagree with each other.

If therefore the

4 ^t*

principles be innate, the ideas

muft be

fo too.

But nothing can

be more incontrovertible, than that

lllhed ideas into the

we do

not bring pre-eftab-

world with

us.

Let the innate principle

are obliged to conform.

be, that virtue

is

a rule to

which we
ideas,

Here

are three great

it

and leading

not to mention Subordinate ones, which

before

is

neceflary to form,,

we

can fo

much

as

underftand the propofition.

The

ORIGINATE IN THEIR PERCEPTIONS.

What
is

13

virtue

Previoufly to our forming an idea correfpondit

ing to this general term,

feems neceflary that

we

fhould have

obferved the feveral features

the feveral

by which

virtue

is

diflinguiflied,

and

fubordinate

articles

of right condud,

that

taken

together, conftitute that mafs of praiftical

judgments

to

which

we

give the denomination of virtue.

Virtue

may

perhaps be

defined, that fpecies of operations of an intelligent being,

which
is

conduces to the benefit of intelligent beings in general, and

pro-

duced by a defire of that

benefit.

But taking for granted the uniand

this
is

verfal admiflion of this definition,

no very

defenfible

afTumption,

how widely have people of different ages and

countries

difagreed in the application of this general conception to particulars?

a difagreement

by no means compatible with the fuppofition

innate.

that

the fentiment

is itfelf

The next

innate idea included in the above propofition,

is

that

of a rule or flandard, a generical meafure with

which individuals

are to be compared, and their conformity or difagreement with

which

is

to determine their value.

Laftly, there

is

the idea of obligation,

its

nature and fourcCj

the obliger and the fanftion, the penalty and the reward.

Who

is

there in the prefent ftate of fcientifical improvement,

that will believe that this vafl chain of perceptions

and notions

is

fomething

li^

ORIGINATE IN THEIR PERCEPTIONS.

perception.

15

He

will ftretch out his

hand

to the flame,
till

and
felt

will

rH^p^m
*

have no apprehenfion of the pain of burning

fenfation.

he has

the

"

'

At
any

the age of maturity, the eyelids inftantaneoufly clofe,

when

fubftance,
;

from which danger

and
this adlion is fo

is

apprehended,

is

advanced

towards them

fpontaneous, as to be with
perfon, though he fhould
is

great difBcuIty prevented

explicitly defire
it.

by

grown

In infants there

no fuch propenfity

and

an objeft may be approached to

their organs,

however near and

however fuddenly, without producing

be
totally indifferent to a child,

this effedt.

Frowns

will
afl!b

who

has never found them

itfelf is

ciated with the effects of anger.

fight
;

Fear

a fpecies of fore-

and in no

cafe exifts

till

introduced by experience.

It

has been

faid, that
is

the defire of felf-prefervation

this defire
?

is

innate.

I from the deprefervation:

demand what
by
itj

meant by

Muft we not underftand

?

a preference of exiftence to non-exiftence

it is

Do we
?

prefer

any thing but becaufe

that

apprehended to be good

It

follows,

we

cannot prefer exiftence, previoufly to our experience of

it

the motives for preference

poffefTes.

Indeed the ideas of

life

and death are exceedingly complicated, and very tardy

formation.

in their

child defires pleafure

and loathes pain, long before

exift.

he can have any imagination refped:ing the ceafing to

Again,

it

has been faid, that felf-love

is

innate.

But there
the love of
felf

fromfelf-love;

cannot be an error more eafy of detedion.

By

i6
felf

THE MORAL CHARACTERS OF MEN

we
:

underfland the approbation of pleafure, and diflike of

but this
is

pain

only the facuity of perception under another

that

name.

"Who ever denied

man was

a percipient

being

Who

ever dreamed that there was a particular inftinft neceiTary

to render

him

percipient?

-'-

o^l

o;

from pity

Pity has fometimes been fuppofed an inftance of innate principle

;

particularly as

it

feems to

arife

more

inflantaneoufly in

young
But
it

perfons, and perfons of

little

refinement, than in others.

was reafonable

to expedt, that threats

and anger, circumfufferings, fhould

ftances that have been aflbciated with our

own

excite painful feelings in us in the cafe of others, independently

of any laboured

analyfis.

The

cries

of

diftrefs,

the appearance

of agony or corporal

inflition, irrefiftibly revive the

memory

of

the pains accompanied

by

thofe

fymptoms

in ourfelves.

Longer

experience and obfervation enable us to feparate the calamities of

others

and our own

fafety, the

exiflence of pain in one fubje(ft

and

of pleafure or benefit in others, or in the

fame

at a future

period,

more

accurately than

we

could be exped:ed, to do pre-

vioufly to that experience.

from the vkes

Sucli then

is

univcrfally the fubjeit of

human

inftitutlon

and

education.
'

We

bring neither virtue nor vice with us at our

entrance into the world.

But the feeds of error are ordinarily

with
fuperficial obfervers for innate.

fown

fo early as to pafs

Our

ORIGINATE IN THEIR PERCEPTIONS.

Our
conftitutlon
*

17
pfr^l^^^Jy
"^

prompts us

to utter a cry at the unexpeiSled

affiftance

ienfation of pain.

Infants early perceive the

'

they
'

'

*
;

tyranny:

obtain from the volition of others

and they have

at firft

no
In

means of inviting
this neutral

that affiftance but

by an

inarticulate cry.

and innocent circumftance, combined with the

folly

and imbecility of parents and

firft

nurfes, vre are prefented with the

is

occafion of vice.

Affiftance

neceflary, conducive to the

infant.

exiftence, the health

and the mental faulty of the

Em-

pire in the infant over thofe

who

proted him

is

unneceJary.

If

we do
it

not withhold our affiftance precifely

ceafes to be rcquifite, if

at the

moment

when

our compliance or our refufal

be not in every cafe irrevocable,

if

we

grant any thing to imthat

patience, importunity or obftinacy,

from

moment we

be-

come

parties in the intelledual

murder of our

offspring.

In

this cafe

we

inftil

Into

them the

vices of a tyrant

but

we
It is

fuUennefs.

are in equal danger of teaching

them the

vices of a flave.

not

till

very

late that

mankind acquire the

ideas of juftice, retri-

bution and morality, and thefe notions are far from exifting in

the minds of infants.

Of confequence, when we
rifk at leaft the exciting in

ftrike,

or

when

we

rebuke them,

we

them a

fenfe of

injury,

and a feeling of refentment.

cannot
fail

Above
if

all,

fentiments of

this fort

to be

awakened,

our ation be accom-

panied with fymptoms of anger, cruelty, harfhnefs or caprice.

The fame

imbecility, that led us to infpire

them with

a fpirit of

tyranny by yielding to their importunities, afterwards didates to

us

iS

THE MORAL CHARACTERS OF MEN,

them
as abfurdly, as at

&c.

us an inconfiftent and capricious condudl, at one time denying

another

we

gratified

them unreafonably*

Who,

that has obferved the confequences of this treatment,

how

generally thefe miftakes are committed,

in

how

infeparable they are

fome degree from the

wifeft

and the

beft, will
?

be furprifed

at

the early indications of depravity in children *

Conclufion.

From
qualities

thefe reafonings

it

fufficiently appears, that the

moral

of

men

are the
is

produce of the impreffions made upon

original propenfity to
evil..

them, and that there

no inftance of an

Our

virtues

and vices

may
i

be traced to the incidents which

if thefe incidents

make

the hiftory of our lives

and

could be divefted

of every improper tendency, vice would be extirpated from the

world.

The

tafk

may

be difBcult,

may

be of flow progrefs, and

will never defert

of hope undefined and uncertain.

it
' ;

But hope

and the

man who

is

anxious for the benefit of his fpecies,

will willingly devote a portion of his activity to

an enquiry into
part,

the

mode of

efFedling this extirpation in

if
it

whole or in
reality

an

enquiry which promifes much,

every thing.

do not in

promife

The arguments

of this chapter are for the mofl; part an abftrafl, the diret

ones from Locke on the

Human Underftandhig,

thofe

which

relate to experience

from Hartley's Obfervations on Man, and thofe Emilc of J. J. RouiTeau.

refpe(3;ing education

from the

CHAP.

19

CHAP.

IV.

THREE PRINCIPAL CAUSES OF MORAL IMPROVEMENT CONSIDERED.

I.

LITERATURE.

lENEFITS OF LITERATURE.

EXAMPLES. ESSENTIAL PROPERTIES OF LITERATURE. ITS DEFECTS.

II.

EDUCATION.

BENEFITS OF EDUCATION.
III.

CAUSES OF ITS IMBECILITY.

POLITICAL JUSTICE.

BENEFITS OF POLITICAL INSTITUTION.

ITS

INFLUENCE

UNIVERSALITY OF PROVED BY THE MISTAKES OF SOCIETY.

by which the human
;

ORIGIN
mind

OF EVIL.
are three principal caufes

THERE
Is

BOOK L CHAP IV.

'

advanced towards a

ftate

of perfedlon

literature,

or the diffufion of knowledge through the

medium of difcuflion,

whether written or

oral

education, or a fcheme for the early

impreflion of right principles

upon

the hitherto unprejudiced

mind; and

political juftice, or the

adoption of any principle

of morality and truth Into the pradlice of a community.

take a

Let us

momentary review of each of thefe.

D2

I.

LITERJ^

20

THREE PRINCIPAL CAUSES OF

T.

LITERAl'URE.
Without en\t

Few
more

engines can be more powerful, and at the fame time

falutary in their tendency, than literature.

quiring for the prefent into the caufe of this phenomenon,

is

fufEciently evident in fad:, that the

human mind
The

is

ftrongly

infeded with prejudice and miftake.

prevailing in different countries

various opinions
claffes

and among

different
;

of

men upon
all

the fame fubjed, are almoft innumerable

and yet oF

thefe opinions only

one can be

true.

Now

the effedual

way

for extirpating thefe prejudices

rature.

and miftakes feems

to be lite-

Example?*

Literature has reconciled the

whole thinking world refpeding

the great principles of the fyftem of the univerfe, and extirpated

upon, this fubjed the dreams of romance and the dogmas of

fuperftition.

Literatiure has

unfolded the nature of the

human

mind, and Locke and others have eftablifhed certain maxims

refpeding man, as

Newton

has done refpeding matter, that are^

Difcuflion has afcer-

generally admitted for unqueftionable.

tained'

with tolerable perfpicuity the preference of liberty over

;

flavery

and the Mainwarings, the Sibthorpes, and the Filmers,

the race of fpeculative reafoners in favour of defpotifm, are

almofl extinii.
privifeges

Local prejudice had introduced innumerable

;

and prohibitions upon the fubjed of trade

is

fpecu-

lation has nearly afcertained that perfed freedom

moll favourable

MORAL IMPROVEMENT CONSIDERED.

profperity. able to her t^ tJ

21

If in

many ;

Inftances the collation of

it

BOOK
CHAP.

r.

IV.
'

evidence have failed to produce univerfal conviifllon,

muft *-n

however be confidered,
fragable argument,

that

it

has not failed to produce irre-

and that falfhood would have been

it

much

fliorter in duration, if

had not been protected and inforced by

the authority of political government..

Indeed,

if there

be fuch a thing as truth,

collifion

it

muft

infallibly
reftlefs

Effentlal properties of
li-

be ftruck out by the

of mind with mind. be

fertile in

The

teruture.

activity of intellel will for a time

paradox and

error; but thefe will be only diurnals, while the truths that occafionally fpring up,
like fturdy plants, will

defy the rigour of

feafon and
his

climate.

In proportion as one reafoner compares

deductions with thofe of another, the

will be deteded, the principles

weak

places of his

argument

he too

haftlly adopted

will be overthrown, and the judgments, in which his mind was

expofed to no fmlfter influence, will be confirmed.

is

All that

requifite

in thefe difcuflions

is

unlimited fpeculation, and a

fufficient variety

of fyftems and opinions.

While we only
itfelf

dif.

pute about the beft

way of doing

a thing in
;

wrong, we

fhall

indeed

make but

a trifling progrefs
is

but,

when we

are once per-

fuaded that nothing

too facred to be brought to the touch-^

fcience will advance with rapid
fl;rides

ftone of examination,

Men, who turn

and
of.
ftill

their attention to the boundlefs field of enquiry,

recolledl the

more who

innumerable errors and caprices

mind,

are. apt to

imagine that the labour. is without benefit

and'.

THREE PRINCIPAL CAUSES OF

and
endlefs.
real

But

this

cannot be the

cafe, if truth at laft

have

any

exiftence.

Errors will, during the whole period of

;

their reign,

combat each other

prejudices that have paffed un;

fufpeded for ages, will have their era of detedion

but, if in

any

fcience

we

difcover one folitary truth,

it

cannot be over-

i^thrown.

Its defease

'

Such

are the arguments that

may

be adduced in favour of
in their full force,

literature.

But, even fhould

we admit them
is

and
ficer

at

the fame time fuppofe that truth

infallibly

the omnipotent artiit

by which mind can

be regulated,

would yet
adequate

by no means
to
all

fufficiently follow that literature is alone

the purpofes

of

human improvement.
by which
prejudice
is

Literature,

and

particularly that literature

fuperfeded, and

the

mind

is

ftrung to a firmer tone, exifts only as the portion

of a few.
fociety,
it

The

multitude, at leaft in the prefent ftate of

its

human

cannot partake of

illuminations.

For that purpofe

would be

neceffary, that the general fyftem of policy fhould

become

favourable, that every individual fhould have leifure for

rcafoning and refiedion, and that there fhould be no fpecies of

public inflitution, which, having

falfhood for
ftate

its

bafis,

fhould
did not

counterad their progrefs.

This

of fociety,

if

it

precede the general diiTemination of truth, would

at leaft

be the

immediate

refult

of

it.

But

in reprefenting this ftate of fociety as the ultimate refult,

we

MORAL IMPROVEMENT CONSIDERED.

we
fliould incur

23
is

an obvious

fallacy.
_

The
^

difcovery of truth
'

BOOK
CHAP.
^^

i,

IV.
*

a purfuit of fuch vaft extent, that

fcribe

it

is

fcarcely poflible to pre-

bounds to

it.

Thofe great

lines,

which fecm

at prefent

to

mark

the limits of

human

underftanding, will, like the mills

that rife

from a

lake, retire farther

and farther the more

clofely
fuffi-

we

approach them.

certain quantity

of truth will be
;

cient for the fubverfion of tyranny and ufurpation

and

this

fubverfion,

by a refleded

force, will

affift

our underftandings
it

in the difcovery of truth.

In the

mean

time,

is

not eafy to

define the exat portion of difcovery that miifh neceffarily pre-

cede political melioration.

The

period of partiality and injuftice

political

will be fliortened, in proportion as

redlitude occupies

a principal fhare in our dlfquifition.

able part of a nation, either for

When
its

the mofl confiderinfluence,

numbers or

becomes

convinced of the flagrant abfurdity of

will foon be prepared tranquilly

infUtutions, the
fort

whole
eon--

and by a

of

common

fent to fuperfede them.

11.

EDUCATION.
literature,
is

But,

if

it

appear that

unaided by the regularity

Bencfis of

of inftitution and difcipline,

the fpecies,
it

inadequate to the reformation of

may
is

perhaps be imagined, that education, comthe befl of

all

monly
defeats.

fo called,

fubfidiaries for

making up

its

Education

may have

the advantage of taking

mind

in

its

original ftate, a foil prepared for culture,

and

as yet unin-

fefted

Vr'

34
J?9P^^^ CHAP.
^

THREE PRINCIPAL CAUSES

IV.
'

}\

felled

with weeds

'

and
is

it

is

common

and a reafonable opi'^

nion, that the tafk

much

eafier to plant right

and virtuous

difpofitions in an unprejudiced underftanding, than to root

up

the

errors that

have

ah-eady

become

as

it

were a part of
as
it

ourfelves.

If

an erroneous and vicious education be,

all

has

been fhewn to be, the fource of

our depravity, an education,

deprived of thefe errors, feems to prefent itfelf as the moft natural

exchange, and mufl neceffarily render

its

fubjedt virtuous

and pure.

I will

imagine the pupil never to have been made the victim

of tyranny or the flave of caprice.

He

has never been per-

mitted to triumph in the fuccefs of importunity, and cannot

therefore well have
unjuft.

become

reftlefs,

inconftant, fantaftical

or

He

has been inured to ideas of equality and indeis

pendence, and therefore

bearing.

not pailionate, haughty and over-

The

perpetual witnefs
is.

of a temperate condu<St and

is

reafonable fentiments, he
liable to

not blinded with prejudice,

not

make

a falfe eflimate of things, and of confequence has

defires after wealth,

no immoderate
fications

and fplendour, and the

grati-

of luxury.

Virtue has always been prefented to

him

under the moft

attractive form, as the fureft

medium of

fuccefs

in every honourable purfuit, the never-failing confolation of dif-

appointment, and infinitely i*iperior in value to every other acquifition.

It

OF MORAL IMPROVEMENT CONSIDERED.

It

25
I'OOIC
I.

cannot be doubted that fuch an education

effedls.

is

calculated to

CHAP.
'

produce very confiderable

pupil will

In the world indeed the

fcenes very different

Caufcs of

IV.
r*

its

become the fpedator of

from

imtecllity.

what

his preconceived ideas

of virtue might have taught him to

it

expeft.

Let us however admit

as to render
it

to be poffible fo to

temper

the mind,

proof againft the influence of example

Still
it

and the allurements of luxury.

doubt
of the fufficiency

may

be reafonable to

of education.

How many inftances may

and ardent,
as to

we

expedt to find, in which a plan has been carried into exe-

cution, fo enlightened, unremitted

thefe extraordinary effeds
?

produce
'

Where muft

the preceptor himfelf

all

have been educated,

who
?

fhall

thus elevate his pupil above

the errors of mankind

to birth

If the world teach an implicit deference

will fcarcely

and

riches

and accidental diftindions, he

be exempt from

this deference.
felfiflinefs,

If the world be full of intrigue

difinterefted.

and

rivallhip

and

he will not be wholly

If falfhood be with mankind at large reduced to a fyftem, re-

commended by
forced

the prudent,

commanded by

the maglftrate, In-

by the moralift*, and pradifed under a thoufand forms,

the

The

following paflage

is

extrafted from

Lord Kaimes,

late

one of the judges

of the kingdom of Scotland.

" Cuftom-houfe

oaths

now

a-days go for nothing.

lays

Not

that the world

grows more wicked, but becaufe nobody

any

ftrefs

upon them.
But
as

The duty

on French wine

is

the fame in Scotland and in England.

we cannot

afford to pay this high duty, the permiflion

underhand

to pay Spanifh duty for

French

26

THREE PRINCIPAL CAUSES OF

I.

BOOK
CHAP.

IV.

the Individual will not always have the fimplicity to be fincere,.

or the courage to be true.

If prejudice have ufurped the feat o

knowledge,

if

law and religion and n^etaphyfics and governartifice, he. will

;

ment be furrounded' with myfteiy and

the truth, and. therefore cannot teach
criterion,

not

know

it

he will not
to another.

pofTefs the

and therefore cannot

fui;nifh

it

Again;

if

man

thus mighty, thus accomplifhed, thus fuperior to rivalfhip

and comparifon, can be found,

tion of employing

who

will confent to the profana-

him

in cultivating the
?

mind of a boy, when

he fhould- be inllru^ting the world

Education, In
derilood,

tlie

fenfe in

which

It

has

commonly been unis

though
is

In

one view an engine of unlimited power,

French wine,

found more beneficial to the revenue thantherigour of the law.

The

oath however muft be taken that the wine

we

import

is

Spanifh, to entitle

us to the eafe of the Spanifh duty.

Such oaths

at firfl

were highly criminal,

is.

becaufe direftly a fraud againft the public; but

now

that the. oath

only exit

afted for form's fake, without any faith intended to be given or received,

becomes very
friend,
p. 362.

little

different

from faying in the way of

civility,

'

am,

fir,

your

or your obedient fervant."^

Loofe

Hints upon Education, Appendii,

Edinburgh, 1781.
in a

Archdeacon Paley

work, the feventh edition of which

lies

before
:

me,

and which

is

ufed as a text book in the univerfity of Cambridge, fpeaks thus

"There
as

are falfhoods

which are not

lies; that is,

which

are not criminal;

a fervant's denying his mafter, a prifoner's pleading not guilty,

an advocate
In fuch

aflerting the juflice, or his belief of the juflice of his. client's caufe.

inftances no confidence

is

deftroyed, becaufe none

was

repofed."'

Principles of

Moral and

Political Philofophy,

Book

III.

Part

I.

Chap. xv.

London, 1790.

exceed-

MORAL IMPROVEMENT CONSIDERED.

exceedingly

27
??^J^ J^
^

incompetent to the great bufinefs

It

of reforming

mankind.

performs

its

tafk

weakJy and in

detail.

The grand

'

principles that the inventor feeks in his machines, and the phi-

lofopher in inveftigating the fyilem of the univerfe, are fuch, as

from a few fimple data are

thoufand events.
is

fufficient

to the
I

produlion of a

But the education

this.
It

have been defcribing

the reverfe of

employs an immenfe combination, of

powers, and an endlefs chain of caufes for the produftion of a

fingle fpecimen.

No

tafk,

which

is

not in

its

own

nature im-

pradllcable, can eafily be fuppofed

more

difficult,

than that of

counteracting univerfal error, and arming the youthful

againll the contagion of general example.

mind

The

ftrongeft

mind

that propofed this as

its

objed, would fcarcely undertake the

at

forming more than one, or

pupils.

moft

ft

very fmall number, of

this
all

Where
?

can a remedy be found for

fundamental

difadvantage
five

where but

in political juftice, that

comprehen-

fcheme, that -immediately applies to the removal of counterits

action and contagion, that embraces millions in

that

grafp,
?

and

educates in one fchool the preceptoj and the pupil

III.

POLITICAL JUSTICE.
of
political juftice will

The
we

benefits

beft

be underftood,

if

Benefits of

confider fociety in the

moft comprehenfive view, taking

^^
Uce!"^^

into our eftimate the erroneous inftitutions by

which the human

.mind has been too often checked in

its

career, as well as -thofe

well

28

'

THREE PRINCIPAL CAUSES OF

which

BOOK
CHAP.
*

I.

IV.
'

well founded opinions of public and individual intereft, ^ ^

perhaps need only ta be clearly explained, in order to their

being generally received.

Umverfali'ty

Now

in w^hatever light
firft,

it

be confidered,
is

we

cannot avoid

of its influence :

perceiving,

that political inftitution

peculiarly ftrong in

that very point in

which the
operation.

efficacy of education

was

deficient,

the extent of

its

That

it

in

fome way influences

fufficiently

our condud will hardly be difputed.

that a defpotic

It is

obvious
pliant,

government

is

calculated to render

men

and a

free

one refolute and independent.

All the effeds that

any

principle
it

adopted into the practice of a community

fcale.
It

may

produce,

produces upon a comprehenfive

creates a

fimilar bias in the whole, or a confiderable part of the fociety.

The motive

it

exhibits, the ftimulus

fitted to

it

begets,

are

operative,

becaufe they are

produce effed upon mind.

all
is

They

will therefore inevitably influence

to

whom

they are equally

addrefled.

Virtue, where virtue

the refult, will ceafe to be a

It

talk of perpetual watchfulnefs

and contention.

will neither

be, nor appear to be, a facrifice

difinterefl:ed confiderations.
It will

of our perfonal advantage to

render thofe the confederates,

fupport and fecurity of our reditude,

who were

before

its

moll

formidable enemies.

proved by the
{ociety.

Again, an additional argument in favour of the efiicacy of

political inftitutions, arifes
'I

from the extenfive influence which

certain

MORAL IMPROVEMENT CONSIDERED.

certain falfe principles,
fociety,

25^

engendered by an imperfedt fyftem of

Superftition,

BOOK
*^

i.

have been found to exert.

an immoderate
have

v-

fear of fliame, a falfe calculation of intereft, are errors that

been always attended with the mofl extenfiv^ confequences.

How
and

incredible at the prefent

day do the effeds of

fuperftition

exhibited in the middle ages, the horrors of excommunication

interdift,

and the humiliation of the greateft monarchs

?

at

the feet of the pope, appear

What

can be more contrary to

European modes than that dread of

difgrace,

which induces the

Bramin widows of Indoftan to dellroy themfelves upon the

funeral pile of their hufbands
?

What more

horribly immoral

than the miftaken idea which, leads multitudes in commercial

countries
to regard fraud, falfhood
?

and circumvention as the

trueft policy

But, however powerful thefe errors

if

may

be, the

empire of truth,
greater.

once eftablifhed, would be incomparably

is

The man, who

enflaved

by fhame,

fuperftition or

deceit, will be perpetually

expofed to an internal war of opi-

nions, difapproving

by an involuntary cenfure the condudl he

has been moft perfuaded to adopt.

enated from
inceflant

No mind
its

can be fo far

ali-

truth, as not in the midft of

degeneracy to have
fyftem of fociety

returns

of a better principle.

No

can be fo thoroughly pervaded with miftake, as not frequently to

fuggeft
truth
is

to us fentiments

of virtue, liberty and

juftice.

But

in

all its

branches harmonious and confiftent.

The

^o

THREE
The

PRINCIPAL CAUSES OF
me
to

recoUeftlon of this cu'cumilance induces

it

add

as a

concluding obfervation, that

may

reafonably be doubted

whe-

ther error could ever be formidable or long-lived, if government

did not lend

it

fupport.

The

nature of

mind

is

adapted to the
difference.

perception of ideas,

their correfpondence
is its ti-ue

and

la

the right difcernment of thefe

genial purfuit.
refult -of
-Jirror

element and moft con-

would indeed for a time have been the

perceptions
;

eur

partial

but, as

our perceptions are

continually changing, and continually becoming more definite

and

correct,

our errors would have been momentary, and our

to

judgments have hourly approached nearer

the truth.

The
really

dodlrine of tranfubftantiation, the belief that

eating flelh

men were

when

they feemed to be eating bread, and drinking

-to

'human blood when they feemed

never have maintained
reinforced
its

be drinkmg wine, could

if it

empire fo long,

had not been

fo long

by

civil

authority.

Men
man

would not have

elected

perfuaded themfelves that an old

by the

intrigues

of a conclave of cardinals, from the

moment of

that eledlion

became immaculate and

infallible, if

the perfuafion had not been

maintained by revenues, endowments and palaces.

fyftem

of government, that fhould lend no fandion to ideas of fanaticifm and hypocrlfy,

would prefently accuftom

its

fubjeds to

think juftly upon topics of moral worth and importance.

ilate, that

fhould abftain from

impofmg

contradidlory and imits

practicable oaths, and thus perpetually ftimulating

I

members
to

MORAL IMPROVEMENT CONSIDERED.

to

yi

concealment and penury, would foon become ^' ^

-^

diftlnjruiflied

BOOK
CHAP.
*

I.

IV,
'

for plain dealing

dignity"

and

veracity.

country, in v/hich places of

to be at the difpofal

and confidence fhould ceafe

of

fadlion, favour
fervility

and

intereft,

would not long be the

refidence of

and

deceit.

Thefe remarks fuggeft to us the true anfwer ro an obvrous OHgIn

objedion, that might otherwife prefent
to
itfelf,

of

to the conclufion

which

thefe principles appear to lead.

It

might be

faid, that

an erroneous government can never afford an adequate folution

for the exiflence of moral evil,

fmce government was

and therefore,
if
ill,

itfelf

the

produ(5tion of

human

intelligence,

mufl have

been indebted for

vious exiflence..

its ill

qualities to

fome wrong which had pre-

The

propofition alTerted in this objedion

is

is

undoubtedly

true.

All vice

nothing more than error and miftake reduced into

pradice, and adopted as the principle of our condudl.

is is

But error

perpetually haftening to

its

own

detection.

Vicious conduct
Injuftice

foon difcovered to involve injurious confequences.

therefore
ence.

by

its

own

nature

is

little

fitted for a

durable exiftis

But government "

lays
its

its

hand upon the fpring there

It

in fociety, and puts a flop to

motion *."

gives fubflance and

permanence

to

our

errors.

It reverfes

the genuine propenfities

* Logan, Philofophy of Hiflory, p. 69,

of

32

THREE
I.

PRINCIPAL CAUSES,

&c.

BOOK
CHAP.
'

-v

IV. -^

of mind, and, inftead of fuffering us to look forward, teaches us ' '

'

to look

backward

for perfection.

It

prompts us to feek the

public welfare, not in innovation and improvement, but in a

timid reverence for the decifions of our anceftors, as

if

it

were

the nature of mitid always to degenerate, and never to advance.

CHAP.

33

CHAP.

V,

INFLUENCE OF POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS

EXEMPLIFIED.
310BBERY

AND FRAUD, TWO GREAT VICES IN SOCIETYORIGINATE, I. IN EXTREME POVERTY 2. IN THE OS3.

TENTATION OF THE RICH

IN THEIR

TYRANNY

RENDERED PERMANENT I. BY LEGISLATION 2. BY THE ADMINISTRATION OF LAW 3. BY THE INEQUA-

LITY OF CONDITION*

THE
ihewn

efficacy

of

political inftitutions will

be rendered

ftill

more

evident, if

wc

enquire Into the hiftory of the moft

;

book l CHAP V
'

'-

confiderable vices at prefent exifting in fociety

that they derive their inveteracy

and

if it

can be

from

political inftitution.

Two
nations,

of the greatell abufes

relative to the Interior policy

of

Robbery and
gre"

which

at this

time prevail in the world, will be allowed

firft

t\^

ii.

to confift in the irregular transfer of property, either

violence, or fecondly

by

"^'^*

by

fraud.

If

among

the inhabitants of
to poffefs

any country there exifted no

defire In

one Individual

himfelf of the fubftance of another, or no defire fo vehement

and

reftlefs, as

to

prompt him
;

to acquire

it

by means

inconfiftent
guilt could

with order and

juflice

undoubtedly in that country

hardly

INFLUENCE OF POLITICAL
hardly be

known

but

by

report.

If every
life,

man

could wltls

perfedi facility obtain the neceflaries of

feel

and, obtaining them,

no uneafy craving
its

after its fuperfluities, temptation

would

lofe

power.

Private intereft
fociety

would
all

vifibly accord

with public

good

and

civil

become

that poetry has feigned of

the golden age.

thefe evils

Let us enquire into the principles to which

their exiftence,

owe

and the treatm.ent by v/hlch they

may

be alleviated or remedied.

originate,
in

i.

Firfl

then

it

is

extreme

poverty.

of Europe, the inequality of property has anien to an alarming

height.

...

to be obferved, that, in the

,

moft refined
,

ftates
.

Vail numbers of their inhabitants are

life

deprived
tolerable

of

almoil every accommodation that can render

fecure.

or

Their utmoft induftry fcarcely

fuffices

for their fup-

port.

The women and

efforts

children lean vfith an infupportable

weight upon the

of the man, fo that a large family has

in the lower order of

life

become

a proverbial expreflion for an

If ficknefs

uncommon

degree of poverty and wretchednefs.

cafualties
life,

or fome of thofe
aftive

which

are perpetually incident to

an

and laborious
yet greater.

be fuperadded to thefe burthens, the

diftrefs is

It

feems to be agreed that In England there

Is

lefs

wretched-

nefs

and

diftrefs

than in moft of the kingdoms of the continent.

In England the poors' rates amount to the fum of two millions

fterling per

annum.

It

has been calculated that one perfon In

feven

INSTITUTIONS EXEMrLIFIED.
feven of the inhabitants of this country derives at fome period

35
^P^]^
^^

of his
fons,

life affiftance

from

this fund.

If to this

we add

the per-

'

who, from

pride, a fpirit of independence, or the

want of
no fuch

a legal fettlement,
affiftance, the

though

in

equal diftrefs, receive

proportion will be confiderably increafed.

lay

no
is

ftrefs

upon the accuracy of

this calculation

the ge-

neral fad:
abufc.

fufficient to give us

an idea of the greatnefs of the

placed

The confequences

that refult are

beyond the

reach of contradidlion.
poverty,
if

perpetual ftruggle M'ith the evils of

frequently ineffedlual, muft neceffarily render

many

of the fufferers defperate.

fituation will itfelf deprive
it.

A painful

feeling of their opprefled

them of the power of furmounting

The

fuperiority of the rich, being thus unmercifully exerreprifiils

;

cifed,

muft inevitably expofe them to

and the poor

ftate

man

will be induced to regard the

ftate

of fociety as a

of
in

war, an unjuft combination, not for proteding every

his.i'ights

man

and fecuring
all
its

to

him the means of

exiftence, btit for

engroffing

advantages to a few fiivoured individuals, and

referving for the portion of the reft want, dependence and mifery.

fecond fource of thofe deftrudive paflions by which the

'

2.

in

the of.

tentatlon of
is

peace oi lociety

is

mterrupted,

to be

found in the luxury, the

is

the rich:

pageantry and magnificence with which enormous wealth

ufually accompanied.

Human
F

beings are capable of encoun2

tering

'26>

INFLUENCE OF POLITICAL^^^^"^S

CHAP V
^"-^

^^*^ chearfulnefs confiderable hardfhips,

when

thofe hard-

fhips are impartially fhared

with the

reft

of the fociety, and they

are not infulted

others,

with the fpeftacle of indolence and eafe in

gi-eater

no way deferving of
a bitter aggravation

advantages than themfelves.

But

it is

of their

own

calamity, to have the

privileges of others forced

on

their obfervation, and, while they

are perpetually and vainly endeavouring to fecure for themfelves

and

their families

the pooreft conveniences, to find others

re--

veiling in the fruits of their labours.

This aggravation

is afli-

duoufly adminiftered to them under moft of the

bliihments at prefent in exiftence.

political efta-

There

is

a numerous clafs
brilliant talents

of individuals, who, though rich, have neither

nor fublime virtues

and, however highly they

may

prize their

education, their affability, their fuperior polifh and the elegance

of their manners, have a fecret confcioufnefs that they

poiTefs.

nothing by which they can fo fecurely

.

aflert

their pre-emi-

nence and keep their inferiors

at

a diftance, as the fplendour of

their equipage, the magnificence of their retinue

and the fumpis

tuoufnefs of their entertainments.

this exhibition
;

The poor man

miferies
;

ftruck with

he

feels his

own

he knows

how

im-

wearied

are his efforts to obtain a {lender pittance

;

of this pro-

digal wafte

and he miftakes opulence for

felici ty.

He

cannot

perfuade himfelf that an embroidered garment

may

frequently

cover an aching heart,

3,

m their

third difadvantagc that

is

apt

to

connedl: poverty with

difcontent

INSTITUTIONS EXEMLPLIFIED.
difcontent confifts in the infolence and ufurpation ^

37
of the rich.
*
.

r>OOK

I.

CHAP.
^

V.
'

If the poor

man would

in other refped;s

compofe himfelf in

philofophic indifference, and, confcious that he poffeffes every

thing that

is

truly honourable to
reft

man
as

as fully as his rich neigh-

bour, would look upon the

beneath his envy, his neigh-

bour

will not permit

fatisfied

him

to

do

fo.

He

feems as

if

he could

never be

with his poffeffions unlefs he can make the

to others
;

fpeftacle of

them grating

and that honeft

felf-efteem,
is

by which

his inferior

might otherwife

arrive at apathy,

ren-

dered the inftrument of galling

juftice.

him with
is

oppreffion and infubjetft

In

many

countries jufdce

avowedly made a

of

folicitation,

and the

man

of the higheft rank and moft fplen-

did connedions almoll infallibly carries his caufe againfl the

unprotected and friendlefs.

In countries where this fliamelefs

is

pradice

is

not eftablifhed, juftice

frequently a matter of exis

penflve purchafe, and the

verbially vidorlous.

man

with the longeft purfe

pro-

confcioufnefs of thefe facts mufl be

little

expcded

to render the rich

cautious of offence in his deal-

ings with the poor, and to infpire

bearing, didlatorial and tyrannical.
preffion fatisfy his defpotifm.

him with

a temper over-

Nor does
rich are in

this
all

indired op-

The

fuch countries

diredly or indiredly the legiflators of the

ftate

and of confe-

quence are perpetually reducing oppreffion into a fyftem, and

depriving the poor of that
little

commonage of nature

as

it

were,

which might otherwife

ftilT

have remained to them.

The

o8

INFLUENCE OF POLITICAL
I.

BOOK
CHAP.
*

The
^

V.

opinions of individuals, and of confequence their defires, 5 ^ ^

is

for defire

nothing but opinion maturing for adion, will

al-

ways be
munity.
are

in a great degree regulated

by

the opinions of the

in

com-

But

the

manners
to

prevailing

many

countries
inte-

accurately

calciilated

imprefs a

convidtion, that

grity, virtue,

underftanding and induilry are nothing, and that'

opulence

is

every thing.

Does

man, whofe

exterior denotes

indigence, expedl to be well received in fociety, and efpecially

by

thofe

who would

be underftood to didate to the

reft

Does
fa-

he find or imagine himfelf in want of their

affiftance

and

vour

He

is

prefently taught that

no merits can atone

is

for a

mean

appearance.

The

leflbn that

read to

him

is,

Go

home,

enrich yourfelf

by whatever means,

obtain thofe fuperfluitles

which

are alone

regarded as eftimable, and you

may

then be

fecure of an amicable reception.

Accordingly poverty in fuch

of demerits.
It
is

countries

is

viewed

as the greateft

efcaped

from with an eagernefs

honefty.
It is

that has

no

leifure for the fcruples

of

concealed as the moft indelible difgrace.

While

one

man

choofes the path of undiftlnguifhing accumulation, an-

other plunges into expences which are to impofe

him upon

the

world

as

more opulent than he

is.

He
the

haftens to the reality

;

of that penury, the appearance of which he dreads

ther with his
character

and, toge-

property, facrifices

integrity,

veracity an^

which might have confoled him

in his adverfity.

rendered per-

Such

are the caufcs, that, in different degrees

under the

dif-

manent

ferent

INSTITUTIONS EXEMPLIFIED.
ferent

39

governments of the world, prompt mankind openly or

encroach upon the property of each other.
far

BOOK

I.

fecretly to

Let us

confider

how

they admit either of remedy or aggravation

from pohtical

inftitution.

Whatever tends

to decreafe the in-

juries attendant

upon poverty,

decreafes at the

fame time the

in-

ordinate defire and the enormous accumulation of wealth.

is

Wealth
grati-

not purfued for

it

its

own

fake,

and feldom for the fenfual

fications

can purchafe, but for the fame reafons that ordinarily

to the acquifition

prompt men

of learning, eloquence and

fkill,

for the love of diftindion and fear of contempt.

How few would

to enjoy

prize the poIlefTion of riches, if they

their equipage, their palaces

were condemned

and

their entertainments in folitude,

with no eye to wonder

at their

magnificence, and no fordid

into an adulation of the

obferver ready to convert that

wonder

owner

If admiration

were not generally deemed the exclufive

property of the rich, and contempt the conftant lacquey of poverty, the love of gain

would

ceafe to be

an univerfal paflion.
is

Let us confider in what

refpefts political inftitution

rendered

fubfervient to this paflion.

Firft then, legiflation is in

almofl:

every country grofsly the

i.

by

legif;

Istion

favourer of the rich againft the poor.

the

Such

is

the charaQer of
is

game

laws,

by which the

induftrious ruftic

forbidden to

deftroy the animal that preys

fiftence, or to
itfelf in his

upon the hopes of

his future fub-

fupply himfelf with the food that unfought thrufts

path.

Such was the

fpirit

of the

late

revenue laws

of
)

'

40

INFLUENCE OF POLITICAL
^ France, which in feveral of their provifions
'

TH \p V
^

fell

exclufively

upon the humble and

ration thofe

induftrious,

and exempted from their opeit.

who were

beft able to fupport

Thus

in

England
than
it

the land tax at this

moment

produces half a million

lefs

did a century ago, while the taxes on confumption have ex-

perienced an addition of thirteen millions per

annum during

the

fame period.

This

is

an attempt, whether effedlual or no, to

rich

throw the burthen from the

an exhibition of the
fpirit

upon the poor, and

as fuch

is

of

legiflation.

Upon

the fame princi*

pie robbery and other offences, which the wealthier part of the

community have no temptation

crimes, and attended with the

to

commit, are

treated as capital

mod

rigorous, often the moft in-

human

punifhments.

The

rich are encouraged to aflbciate for

the execution of the moft partial and oppreffive pofitive laws.

Monopolies and patents are lavifhly difpenfed

to purchafe them.

to fuch as are able

is

While the moft

vigilant policy

employed

to

prevent comxbinations of the poor to fix the price of labour, and

they are deprived of the benefit of that prudence and judgment

which would feled the fcene of

their induftry.

by the adminiftration
2.

Secondly, the adminlftration of law

t}ig fpirit

is

not

lefs

iniquitous than

f law

in

which

it is

framed.

Under

the late government of

France the

office

of judge was a matter of purchafe, partly by an

open

price advanced to the crown,

and partly by a
beft

fecret

douceur
his

paid to the minifter.

He, who knew

how

to

manage

market in the

retail trade

of juftice, could afford to ptirchafe the

good

INSTITUTIONS EXEMPLIFIED.
Its

41
the client

"cood will of *?
juftice

fundlons

at the

liio-heft

or
good

price.

To

BOO^:

I.

CHAP.
^ ^

V.
'

was avowedly made an objed; of perfonal

folicitation,

and

a powerful friend, a handfome

articles

woman,

or a proper prefent, were

caufe.

of

much

greater value than a

is

In England

the criminal law

adminiftered with tolerable impartiality fo far

;

as regards the trial itfelf

but the

number of capital

offences,

and

of confequence the frequency of pardons, open even here a wide

door to favour and abufe.

pradice of law
ineffedual.
peals
is

In caufes relating to property the

,to

arrived at fuch a pitch as

render

all

juftice

The

length of our chancery

to court, the

fuits,

the multiplied ap-

from court

enormous

fees

of counfel, attornies,

fecretaries, clerks, the

drawing of

briefs, bills, replications

and

re-

joinders,

and what has fometimes been

it

called the glorious

un-

certainty of the law, render

often

more

advifable to refign a

property than to conteft

it,

and particularly exclude the im-

poveriflied claimant from the fainteft hope of redrefs.

certainly
is

Nothing

more pradicable

.than to fecure to

all

queftions of

controverfy a cheap and fpeedy decifion, which, combined with

the independence of the judges and a few obvious improvements
in the conftrudion of juries,

would

infure the equitable applicaftations..

lion of general rules to

all

charaders .and

Thirdly, the inequality of conditions ufually maintained

political Inftitution, is calculated greatly to

by

3.

by the

In-

equality of

enhance the imagined

eaft,

conditions.

-excellence of wealth.

In the ancient monarchies of the

and

in

Turkey

at

the prefent day, an eminent ftation could

fc arc cly

42
fcarcely
fail

INFLUENCE OF POLILTICAL,
to

&c.
timid inhabitant
it little

excite implicit deference.

The

trembled before his fuperior; and would have thought

lefs^

than blafphemy, to touch the veil drawn hj the proud fatrap

over his ingloiious origin.

The fame

principles

were extenfively

prevalent under the feudal fyftem.

The

vaffal,

who was

re-

garded

as a fort

of

live flock

upon the

eftate,

and knew cf no
fcarcely venture

appeal from

the arbitrary fiat of his lord,

would

to fufpeft that
ftituted
fity in

he was of the fame

fpecies.

This however con-

an unnatural and violent

fituation.
;

There
and

is

a propen-

man

to look farther than the butfide

title

to

come with

a writ of enquiry into the

of the upftart and the fuccefsful.

In England

at

the prefent day there are few poor

men who do

not

confole themfelves,
their fuperiors.

by

the freedom of their animadverfions

upon

The

new-fangled gentleman

is

by no means
their furly

fecure againft having

his tranquillity difturbed

by

and

pointed farcafms.

This propenfity might

to the

eafily

be encouraged,

and made conducive

moll falutary purpofes.

Every

man

might, as was the cafe in certain countries

fpired with the eonfcioufnefs of citizenfhip,

upon

record, be into feel

and be made

himfelf an adive and efficient

member of the

great whole.

The

poor

man would
;

then perceive,

that, if eclipfed,

he could not be
furies

trampled upon

and he would no longer be Hung with the

of envy, refentment and defpair.

CHAP.

43

43

CHAP.

VI,

HUMAN INVENTIONS CAPABLE

IMPROVEMENT.
PERFECTIBILITY OF

OF PERPETUAL

MAN

INSTANCED,

FIRST, IN

LAN-

GUAGE. ITS BEGINNINGS.

ABSTRACTION. COMPLEXIALPHABETICAL

TY OF LANGUAGE.
WRITING.

SECOND INSTANCE:

HIEROGLYPHICS

AT FIRST UNIVERSAL.

PROGRESSIVE DEVIATIONS.

APPLICATION.
book
i.
'

T F we would form

to ourfelves a folid eftlmate of political, or

indeed of any other fcience,

we ought

not to confine our

of

furvey to that narrow portion of things which pafles under our

man

own
that

immediate infpedion, and rafhiy pronounce every thing

we have

not ourfelves feen, to be impoffible.

There

is

no

charaberiftic

of man, which feems

at prefent at leaft fo

eminently

to diftinguifh

him, or to be of fo

much

importance in every

branch of moral fcience, as his

perfedtibility.

Let us carry back

our minds to
preffions

man

in his original ftate, a being capable of imto

and knowledge

an unbounded extent, but not having

;

as yet received the

trail this

one or cultivated the other

all

and

let

us con-

being with

that fcience

and genius have efFedled

it is

and from hence we may form fome idea what

of which hu-

man

44

HUMAN
man
nature
is

INTENTIONS CAPABLE
It is to

capable.

be remembered, that this being::

did not as

now

derive affiftance
his feeble

from the communications of

affifted

his

fellows, nor

had

and crude conceptions

;

by the

experience of fucceilive centuries

figuiing
all

but that in the

ftate

we

are

men were

equally ignorant.

The
Nor

field

of improve-

ment was

before them,^ but for every ftep in advance they were

is it

to be indebted to their untutored efforts.

of any con-

fequence whether fuch was actually the progrefs of mind, or

whether,

as

others teach, the progrefs

.

was abridged, and man

end of
his career
it

was immediately advanced half way

to the

by
is

the interpofition of the author of his nature.

In any cafe

an allowable and no unimproving fpeculation, to confider mind

as
if,
it is

in

itfelf,

and

to enquire
its

what would have been

it

its

hiftory,

immediately upon

production,

had been

left

to be adled

upon by
tion

thofe ordinary laws of the univerfe with whofe. operaare acquainted.

-

we

inftanced, 1. in language,

One

of the acquifitions moft evidently reouifite as a i preliml^ x y

is

nary to our prefent improvements

that of language.

But

it is

impoffible to conceive of an acquifition, that mufl have been in

its

origin

more

different

from what

at prefent

it is

found, or that
has fince ex-

lefs

promifed that copioufnefs and refinement

it

hibited.

Its begin-

Its

beginning was probably from thofe involuntary

infants for

cries,
earlieft

which

example are found to

utter in the

ftages

OF PERPETUAL IMPROVEMENT.
fiages

45
r.

of

theix"

exiftence,

and which, previoufly

to the idea

of

BOOK
CHAP.
'

VI.
'

exciting pity or procuring afliftance, fpontaneoufly arife from the

operation of pain
adlually uttered,

upon our ammal frame.

Thefe

cries,

when

become a

fubject of perception to

him by whoni

I'hey are uttered; and,

being obferved to be conftantly aflbciated

with certain preliminary impreffions and to excite the idea of

thofe impreffions in the hearer,
reflelion

may

afterwards be repeated from

defire to

and

tlfe

defire

of

relief.

Eager

communicate
to utter
:

any information

to another, will alfo

prompt us

fome
found

fimple found for the purpofe of exciting attention

this

will probably frequently recur to organs unpradtifed to variety,

and

will at length ftand as

it

were by convention for the inform-

ation intended to be conveyed.

But the diftance

is

extreme
poflefs in

fcom

thefe funple

modes of communication, which we

all

common

with fome of the inferior animals, to

the analyfis

and abftradlon which languages require.

Abftradion indeed, though

as

it

is

commonly underflood
is

it

Abftraclion.

be one of the fublimeft operations of mind,

eval with

in

fome

fort co-

and infeparabk from the exiftence of mind.

is

Th^ next

ftep to fimple perception

that of comparifon, or the coupling

together of

two

ideas

and the perception of their refemblances

and

differences.

"Without comparifon there can be no preference,

:

and without preference no adion

ledged, that this comparifon
is

though

it

muft be acknow-

an operation that
to
its

may

be per-

formed by the mind without adverting

nature, and that

neither

46

HUMAN
T.

INVENTIONS CAPABLE
any confcioufnefs of the ^
Comparifon immediately
is

BOOK
CHAP. *-^'

VI.
'

neither the brute nor the favage has ^

feveral

Heps of the intelledual progrefs.

leads to

imperfed abftradion. The fenfation of to-day

claffed,
is

if fimilar,

with the fenfation of yefterday, and an inference

the conduit to be adopted.

made refpeding

Without

this

degree

of abftradion the faint dawnings of language already defcribed

could never have exifted.
the
lirft

Abftradlon, which was neceflary to

is

exiftence of language,

again afhfted in

its

operations

by

language.

That

generalifation,

which

is

implied in the very

notion of thought, being thus embodied and rendered palpable,

makes the mind acquainted with

its

own powers and

creates a

reftlefs defire after farther progrefs.

nTifgua'ge.

^^^ though

it

be by no means impoflible, to trace the caufes

that concurred to the

produdion of language, and

it

to

prove them
is

adequate to their

efFel,

does not the

lefs

appear that this

an acquifition of flow growth and ineftimable value.

fteps,

The very
an endlefs

were we

to purfue

them, would appear

like

labyrinth.

The

diflance

is

immeafurable between the three or

four vague and inarticulate founds uttered by animals, and the

copioufnefs of lexicography or the regularity of grammar.

The

general and fpecial names

by which things

are at

lirfl:

compli-

cated and afterwards- divided, the are feparated

names by which properties

and powers from both, the

from

their fubftances

comprehenfive diftribution of parts of fpeech, verbs, adjectives

and

particles,

the

inflexions of

words by which the change

of

OF PERPETUAL IMPROVEMENT.
of their terminations changes
their

47
variety
*^

meaning through a
all

BOOK

I.

of fhadings, their concords and their governments,

of them

'

prefent us with fuch a boundlefs catalogue of fcience, that he,

who on

the one

hand did not know

that the boundlefs tafk

had

been adtually performed, or

acquainted with

who on

the other was not intimately

the progreffive nature

of mind, would pro-

nounce the accomplifhment of them impoffible.

A fecond

invention, well calculated to imprefs us with a fenfe

"

^="<5
Itance
:

'"n-

al-

of the progreffive nature of man,

is

that of alphabetical writing,

pi'^beucal

Hieroglyphical or pidture writing appears at fome time to have

Hieroglyphics at
firft

been univerfal, and the

difficulty
is

of conceiving the gradation

univ'-rfai.

from

this to alphabetical

fo great, as to
all

have induced Hartley,

one of the moft acute of

philofophical writers, to have re-

courfe to miraculous interpofition as the only adequate folution.

In reality no problem can be imagined more operofe, than that of decompofmg the founds of words into four and twenty fimple
elements or
letters,

and again finding thefe elements in

have examined the
fteps
fubjecft a little

all

ether
clofe-

words.
ly,

When we

more

and perceived the

by which

this labour

was accom-

plifhed, perhaps the

immenfity of the labour will rather gain

fhall

upon

us,

as

he that

have counted a million of

units, will

have a vafter idea upon the fubjed, than he that only confiders

them

in the grofs.

In China hieroglyphical writing has never been fuperfeded by

Progrtffive

deviauons.

alpha-

43
^9^,?^'

'

HUMAN
alphabetical,

INVENTIONS CAPABL-E
from the very nature of
their language,

and

this

which

is

confiderably monofyllabic, the fame found being

made

to fignify a great variety of objedls,

by means of

certain fliadings

of tone too delicate for any alphabet to be able to reprefent.

They have

hovKCver two kinds of writing, one for the learned,

and another for the vulgar.

The

learned adhere clofely to their

hieroglyphical writing, reprefcnting

every word by

its

corre-

fponding pidure

but the vulgar are frequent in their deviations

from

ito

Hieroglyphical writing and fpeech

in the
firft

may

indeed be confidered
parallel to

inftance as

two languages, running

each

other, but with

no neceffary connexion. The picture and the word

each of them reprefent the idea, one as immediately as the other.

But, though independent, they will become accidentally affociated;
the pidure at
firft

imperfedly, and afterwards more conftantly

its

fuggefting the idea of

correfpondent found.

It is

in this

manit is

ner that the mercantile

clafies

of China began to corrupt, as

ftyled, their hieroglyphical writing.

They had

word fuppofe

of two

fyllables

to

write.

The

charater appropriate to that

it

word

they were not acquainted with, or

failed to fuggeft itfelf

dillindt

to their memory.

Each of the

fyllables

however was a

word in the language, and the characters belonging to them perfectly familiar.

The

expedient that fuggefted

itfelf

was

to write

thefe

two

characters with a

mark

fignifying their union, though

la

reality tlie characters

had

-hitherto been- appropriated to ideas

OF PERPETUAL IMPROVEMENT.
of a difterent
to
fort, '

49
Intended

wholly unconne<fled with that

''

now

BOOK
"^

I.
'

CHAP. VI.
^

be conveyed.

Thus

a fort of rebus or chararde

was produced.

In other cafes the word, though monofyllabic, was capable of be-

ing divided into two founds, and the fame procefs v/as employed.

This

is

firft

ftep

towards alphabetical

analyfis.

Some word,

fuch as the interjedlion

0!

or the particle
firft

is

already a found

perfedly fimple, and thus furnifhes a

But, though thefe ideas

ftone to the edifice.

v,'ith

may

perhaps prefent us

a faint

view

of the manner in which an alphabet was produced, yet the atual

produdion of
coveries, that

a complete alphabet

is

perhaps of

all

human

dif-

which required the moft perfevering

refleftion, the

luckieft concurrence

of circumftances, and the moft patient and

gradual progrefs.

Let us however fuppofe

man

to have gained the

;

two

firft

Applicatioa.

elements of knowledge, fpeaking and writing

let

us trace

him

through

all

his

fubfequent

improvements, through whatever

conftitutes the inequality

between Newton and the ploughman,

this, fince

and indeed

much more when

than
is

the moft ignorant plough-

man

in civilifed fociety

infinitely different
all

from what he would

have been,
literature

ftripped of
arts.

the benefits he has derived from

and the

Let us furvey the earth covered with the

inclofures, harvefts, manufactures, inftru*
all

labours of

man, houfes,

ments, machines, together with

poetry, eloquence and philofophy.

the wonders of painting,

Such

so
Such

HUMAN
v^as

INVENTIONS CAPABLE,
and fuch
is

&c.

man

in his original flate,

Is it pcffible for

man

as

we

at

prefent behold him.

us to contemplate

what

he has already done, without being impreffed with a ftrong prefentiment of the improvements he has yet to accomplifh
is
?

There,

no

fcience that

is

not capable of additions

ftill

there

is

no

art

that

may

not be carried to a
other fciences,
arts,

higher perfedlion.
?

If this he

true of

all

why

not of morals

If this be true
?

of all other
ception of
If we. can

why

not of

focial inftitution

The very con-

this

as poffible,, is in the higheft

it

degree encouraging.

ftill

farther demonftrate

to be a part

of the natural
will

and regular progrefs of mind, our confidence and our hopes

then be complete.

This

is

the temper with

which we ought

to

engage in the ftudy of

political truth.

Let us look back, that

;

we may

profit

by the experience of mankind

but

let

us not
as to

look back, as if the

leave

wifdom of our

anceftors

was fuch

no room

for future improvement..

CHAP.

51

CHAP.

VII.

OF THE OBJECTION TO THESE PRINCIPLES FROM THE INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE.

P A

R T

OF MORJL AND PHTSICAL CAUSES.

THE QUESTION STATED.

REFLECTION.

PROVINCES

OF SENSATION

AND

MORAL CAUSES FREQUENTLY MISTAKEN FOR PHYSICAL. SUPERIORITY OF THE FORMER EVIDENT PROM THE VARIETIES OF HUMAN CHARACTER. OPERATION OF PHYSICAL CAUSES RARE.
REFLECTION.
FERTILITY OF

PHYSICAL

CAUSES

IN

THE FIRST IN-

STANCE SUPERIOR, AFTERWARDS MORAL.

OBJECTION
CONCLU-

FROM THE EFFECT OF BREED IN ANIMALS.

SION.

THERE
ciples already

are certain propofitions whicli

may

be confidered
^

book

indifferently, either as corollaries flowing

eftablifhed,

from the prin-

^l^'^^V

or as a fource

of

new arguments
firfl;

againft the validity of thofe principles.

In the

view they

are entitled to a clear and perfpicuous ftatement, and in the fe-

cond

to a

mature examination.

For example

H2

The

52

OF
I.

MORAL AND
to operate
: J

BOOK
' '

The

caufes

which appear

upon the human mind

'

The

queftion

may ^

be divided into two

clafles

perceptions, which are ren' r r

ftated,

dered diredlly a fubjedl of reafoning, and regarded by the intelXtOi as

inducements to ation

and perceptions, which

al indivi-

rectly

upon

the mind,
elaflic,

by rendering the animal frame gay,

gorous and
inadive.

or on the contrary fluggifh, morbid

to

and
the

According

the

fyftem

already

eilablifhed,
latter

former of thefe are

to be regarded as the

whole, the

being

fo comparatively inefficient

and fubordinate

as to ftand in the

eftimate as almoil nothing.

To many
trivial

reafoners

however they
it

have by no means appeared of fo

not be ufelefs to examine
for a

importance, and

may

moment

the ideas they have

formed, and the reafons which have induced them to afcribe

fo

much

to the

meaneft branch of the

human

conftitution.

Impreflions upon our fenfes

may

at either as

phyfical or

moral

caufes..

Indifpofition of the
firft

body operates upon the mind

feeming without any
difTa-

principally in the

of thefe ways,

formal deliberation of the underftanding to incline us to

tisfadtibn

and indolence.
tlifi

Corporal punifliment
it

affe<fls

us prin-

cipally in

latter

mode, fmce, though

it

diredly introduces a
it
a^

painful ftate of the mind,

is

influences,

our condut, only as

reflected

upon by

the unde.rfl:anding, and converted into

motive of adtion.

Provinces of
fenfatior.

It

may

be a curious fpeculation to examine

6.

how

far

thefe
claflTes

and

lefledion.

PHYSICAL CAUSES.
clafTes are diftindl

53

from each

other.

It

cannot be denied but

It poffeffes

that fenfation
initiative.
It

is is

of fome
that

moment

in the affair.
all

the

from which

the intelledls with

Its
firft

which

we

are

acquainted date their operations.

effed:

upon

mind does

in the majority of cafes precede refledlion

and choice*

In fome cafes the impreffions upon our fenfes are forefeen

us,

by
it

and

may

confequently be refilled in the outfet.

But

would be a contradiftion
feen.

to affirm that they can always be fore-

Forefight

is itfelf

the offspring of experience.

Meanwhile, though they can only in particular inflances be

forefeen,

and of confequence completely

effedl is in all cafes

foreftalled, yet

much

Moral caufes frequently miibkcn far

pliyfical,

of their
choice.
it is

to

be afcribed to deliberation and

I

"

I feel

a painful fenfation, and

perfuade myfelf that

its

wifer to fubmit, and thus cherlfh and fecond

refift..

influence,

than to

conceive myfelf unfortunate, opprefTed by a

combination of unfavourable accidents, and

am

rendered by this
I fatisfy

conception gloomy, difcontented and wretched.

felf that

my-

my
and

fituatlon

is

fuch as to render exertion unreafon-

able,

and believe that the attempt would produce nothing but

fruitlefs

abortive
inadlive."

torture.

remain

liftlefs,

fluggifo

and

How
It

different

would be the fum of

my

fituatlon, if I

were
?

animated by fentiments of chearfulnefs, induftiy and courage

has been faid " that a rainy day has been

known

to convert a

man

54

OF

MORAL AND
How
eaflly

man

of valour Into a coward."

would

this external

difadvantage have been furmounted,

full

if his

mind had been more

day

of the benefits to

arlfe

from

his valour, if the rainy

had been put

illuftrious

in the balance

with his wife and children, the moft

rewards to be beftowed upon himfelf, and freedom

be fecured to his country ? " Irfdigeftion,"
fit

and

felicity to

we

are

told, " perhaps a

of the tooth-ach, renders a

man

incapable of

ftrong thinking and fpirited exertion."

How
?

long would thefe

be able to hold out againft a fudden and unexpected piece of

intelligence of the

moft delightful nature

When
nefs,

operations of an Injurious nature are Inflifted on the

body, and are encountered by the mind with unalterable firm-

what
?

Is

the degree of pain which in fuch inftances

is

fuf-

fered

Was

the language of Anaxarchus merely a philofophical

!

rant, " Beat on, tyrant

Thou mayeft

deftroy the fhell of

Anax-

archus, but thou canft not touch

Anaxarchus himfelf?"

How
to

much
bllhop

pain was really endured by Mutius Scsevola and arch-

Cranmer, when each

?

fteadily

held

his

hand

be

devoured by the flames

Indkns,

How

much

is

endured by the favage

who fmg

In the midft of tortures,

and

farcaftically
?

pro-

voke

their tormentors to

more ingenious barbarity

The

truth that feems

to refult

from thefe confideratlons

as

is,

that indifpofition only

is

becomes formidable in proportion

it

feconded by

the confent of the

mind

that our

communication

PHYSICAL CAUSES.
cation with the material univerfe
is

55

at

the

mercy of our choice: ^

BOOK
'
>/

I.

'

CHAP. VII.
^

and that the inabiUty of the underftanding for intelleQual exertion

is

principally an affair of moral

it is

confideration, exifting

only in the degree in which

deliberately preferred^

" The hero of to-day,"

we

are told, " fhall

by an

ihdigeftion or

Superiority of
the former
evident from the varieties

a rainy atmofphere be converted into a coward to-morrow."

Waving the
reality of a

confideration of

how

far this fadl

let

where

it

exifts is in

of

human

charalcr,

moral and intelledtual nature,

is

us examine to

what

degree a principle of this fort

the true
it

index of

human

adions.

We

have already eftablifhed

as a

fundamental, that
if

there are no innate ideas.

cipally

Of

confequence,

men were
as that

prin-

governed by external circumftances fuch

of atalike.

mofphere, their characters and actions would be

much

The fame
fo too,

weather, that

made you a coward, would make me

fog.

and an army would be defeated by a

Perhaps

indeed this cataftrophe would be prevented by the impartiality

of the moifture, in proportion as the

neceffarily

enemy advanced, which he

mull do, into the fame atmofphere.

Every thing

that checks the uniformity

of

this

effed,

and
that
affc-

permanently diftinguifhes the charader of one

of another,
ciation
is is

man from
But

to be traced to the affociation

of

ideas.

of the nature of reafoning.

lafting

The

principal, the
intelledtual,

moft
not

numerous and

of our

affociations,

are

accidental, built tjpon the refemblances

and differences of things,

ijot

^6

OF
I.
'

MORAL AND
man
appears courageous and an-

BOOK
*

not upon the contingency of their occurring In any given time

or place.
It is

thus that one

other cowardly, one

man

vigorous and another dull, under the

fame or nearly the fame external circumftances.

^h'^^T""^
tcaufes rare.

In reality the atmofphere, inilead of confiderably afFedling

^]-^g

rmLk of mankind, affeds in an eminent degree only a fmali

part of that mafs.

The

majority are either above or below

it

are either too grofs to feel ftrongly thefe

minute variations, or
It
is

too bufy to be at leifure to attend to them.

only a few,

whofe treatment has been tender enough to imbue them with

extreme delicacy, and whofe
faculties are

not roufed by ftrong

and unintermitted incitements,

If
it

who

can be thus blindly direded.

is

fliould

be faid " that the weather indeed

too great a

trifle

to produce thefe confequences, but that there are pains and in-

terruptions

which

fcarcely

any man can withftand

j"

it

may

be

anfwered, that

thefe

occur too feldom to be miftaken for the

efScient principles of

human

character, that the fyftem

rifes

which
and

determines our proceedings

ordinarily returns

from a

different fource,

when

the pain or interruption has fubfided.

There can be no queftion more

Interefting than that

which

we

are

now

confidering.

Upon

our decifion in
wifely

this cafe it

depends, whether thofe

perfons at

who

prefcribe to

themfelves a certain difcipline and are anxious to enrich their

minds with

fcience, or

whether on the contrary

it

be better to
truft

PHYSICAL CAUSES.
truft

S7
it

every thing to the mercy of events.

Is

pofTible that
"^

BOOK

r.

we

fhould not perceive from the very nature of the thing the

'

advantages which the wife

man

pofTeiTes

over the foolifh one,

as

and that the points in which they refemble will be

nothing

compared
in w^hich

to thofe

in

which they
is

differ?

In thofe particulars

our condu*^

directed merely
;

by external impreffions
from them
in the

we

refemble the inferior animals

we

differ

greater facility with

pare, prefer

which

%ve arrange our fenfations,

and com-

and judge.

Out of

a fmele fenfation a great variety of reflections

may

Fertility of

be generated.

Let the thing perceived be a material fubflance of

I

certain regular dimenfions.

perceive that

it

has an upper and

as divided.
I

a lower furface,

can therefore conceive of

it is

it

can

conceive of the parts into which

formed

as

moving towards

and from each other, and hence

acquire the ideas of diftance

and

fpace.

I
I

can conceive of them as ftriking againft each other,

derive the notion of impenetrability, gravity and
the flownefs, rapidity and direction of motion.
I

and hence

momentum,

Let
its

the fenfation be a pain in the head.

caufes,
its feat,

am

led to refled:

upon

the ftrudure of the parts in

it

which

it

refides, the
it

inconvenience

impofes, the confequences with which

may

be attended, the remedies that

may

be applied and their

effedls,

whether external or

internal, material or intelledlual.

It is true that

the infant and inexperienced

mind cannot thus

its

Pl>yfical

analyle and conjure

up

^rr

differtations
I

of philofophy out of

caufes in the

moft

firrt

iuiiance

trivial

58
r^OOK
"^

OFMORALAND
I.

CHAP.VIL
fiiperior, af-

trivial fenfations..

Such a capacity ^
^

infers a lone; feries

of pte^

^^

'

ceding impreffions.

Mind

is

in

its

infancy nearly what thefe

terwards
leoral.

philofophers defcribe, the creatlire of contingencies^ ^

ther
it

But the

far-

advances, the more

it

individualifes.

Each tnan has

habits
little

and prejudices that are properly

tinlverfe of his

his

own.

He

lives ia

own

creating, or

he communicates with the omtruth.

niprefent and eternal

volume of

With

thefe

he compares,

the fucceflive perceptions of his mind, and

upon

thefe

depend the
it
iii'*-

conclufions he draws and the conduit he obferves.

evitably

Hence

follows, that phyfical

caufes,

though of fome confe-

quence in the hiftory of man, fink into nothing, when compared

with the great and inexpreffible operations of
are the prejudices
refledtion.

They

we

conceive or the judgments

we form^ our
between

apprehenfions of truth and falfhood, that conftitute the true bafis

f diftinition betweea

man and mam. The

firfl:

difference

favage and favage indeed j in the

fpecies

generation of the

human

and in perfed;

folitude,,

can only be afcribed to the dif-

ferent impreffions

made upon

th^ir fenfes..

But

this difference

would be almoft imperceptible.

The

ideas of

wifdom and
men,

folly

would never have entered the human mind,

if

like beafls,

derived neither good nor evil from the refledlions and difcoveri&s

cf their companions and ancefiors..

Objcaion
from the
feet of

"

Hence we
gumcut from
to

cf-

are furnifiied with an anfwer to the analogical ar-^

breed

the confiderable effefts that phyfical caufes appear

produce upon brutes.

" Breed for example appears

to be of

unqueftionable importance to the character and qualifications of

horfes

PHYSICAL CAUSES.
horfes and does '^
:

55

why '
it

fiiould

we

not fuppofe thU or certain ff

BOOK I. CHAR VII.

"^

other brute and occult caufes to be equally efficacious in the cafe

of men

How comes

that the races of animals perhaps never

;

<iegenerate, if carefully cultivated

at the

fame time that

we have

no

feeurity againft the wifeft philofopher's begetting a dunce?"

anfwer, that the exiflence of phyfical caufes cannot be conIn the cafe of

troverted.
(the fuperior

man

their efficacy

is

fwallowed up in
In animals

importance of reflexion and fcience.

are left almoft alone.

on the contrary they

If a race of negroes
his infancy,

were taken, and maintained each man from

except

fo far as was neceflary for the propagation of the fpecies, in folitude

;

or even

if

they were excluded from an acquaintance with

the improvements and imaginations of their anceftors, though

permitted the fociety of each other, the operation of breed might

perhaps be rendered as confpicuous

ferent dafles of horfes and dogs.
wtfe receive firom their parents

among them,
ideas they

as in the dif-

But the

would other-

and civilifed or

half-ciyilifed neigh-

hours would be innumerable

tioned were unobfervcd,
-ceafe.
all

and, if the precautions above

men-

parallel

between the two

cafes

would

Such
is

Is

the charader of

man

confidercd as an individual.

He

Conclufion.

operated upon by exterior caufes immediately, producing cer-

tain effedls

upon him independently of the

exercife of rcafon

And he

Is

operated upon

by

exterior caufes mediately, their immaterials for reflcftlon.,

I

prcffions furnlfhing

him with

and

af-

fuming

6o

OF NATIONAL
^"^^""^ ^^^ form of motives to
slQ.

CHAp'Vn
^
V
'

or to refrain from- adtmgv,

far as relates to

But th

latter

of

tbefe, at lead fo

man

in a

Givilifed ftate,

may

ftand for the whole.

He

that

would change
his ef-

the charatter of the individual,

forts, if

would miferably mifapply

effedl this

he principally fought to

purpofe by the cpera*-

tions of heat
fi-ame.

and

cold,

drynefs and moifture

upon

the animal

The

true inftruments of moral influence, are defire

and

averfion,
truth,

punifhmeat and reward, the exhibition of general

aad the development of thofe punilhments and. reward^

tlie

which wifdom and error by

ftantLy bring along

very nature of the thing con*-

with them*.

PART
OF LIBERTY.

IL

OF N4TI0NAL CHARACTERS.
-CHARACTER OF THE PRIESTHOOD.: ALE NATIONS. CAPABLE

THE

ASSERTION ILLUSTRATED.

EXPER.I*-

ENCE FAVOURS THESE REASONINGS.

MEANS OE INTRO*may we exped

The
to find

DUCING LI3ERTY.-

AS

is

the charader of the individual; fo

it

with nations and great bodies of men.

politicai inftitution will

operations

of law and

be important and ihterefting,

the operations of climate trifling and"

unworthy of notice.

Thus

there are particular profeffions, fuch as that of the priefthood,

which mull always operate

charader.

to the

produdion of a

particular

Priefts

CHARACTERS.
Piiefts arc

6r
J^PPi'^ } CHAP.VIU
j!::

upon

all

occafions acGuftomed to have their opinions

:

liftened to

with implicit deference ^

they will therefore be im'

Charafter of
['^^
P''''^''--

perious, dogmatical and impatient of oppofition.

Their fuceefs

with mankind depends upon the opinion of their fuperior innocence

;

they will therefore be particularly anxious about appear-

ances, their deportment, will be grave,

and their manners formal.

will be obliged to

The

frank and ingenuous

;

fallies

of mind they

flipprefs

the errors and irregularities into

will be ftudious to conceal.

which they may be

are obliged at fef
j

drawn they
intervals to

They

aflume the exterior of an ardent devotion

all

but

it is

impoflible that this fhould at

times be free from occafional

is

coldnefs and diftradion.

Their importance

conrieled with
reft

their real or fuppoled mental fiiperrority

over the

of mankind

they muft therefore be patrons of prejudice and implicit

faith.

Their profperity depends upon the reception of particular opinions

in the world
;

they muft therefore be enemies to freedom of en-

quiry

they muft have a bias upon their minds impreffed by

Particular moral

fomething different from the force of evidence.

caufes

may

in

fome

inftances limit, perhaps fuperfede the in-

fluence of general ones, and render

fome men fuperior

to the

charader of their prefeffion

priefts

but, exclufively of fuch exceptions,

all

of

all

religions, of

all

climates and of

ages

v^ill

have a

flriking fimilarity of

manners -and

difpofition.

In the fame

man-

ner

we may

reft affured that free

men

in

whatever country will

be firm, vigorous and fpirited in proportion to their freedom, and

that vafTals
cipled.
.

and Haves

will

be ignorant, fervile and unprin^

The

62

OF NATIONAL
The
truth of this
it

axiom has indeed been pretty

univerfally
9.

admitted; but
All nations
capable ot
Ubeit)'.

has been affirmed to be " irapoffible to eftablifh

free p-cvernment in certain

warm and

effeminate climates."

To
let

enable us to judge of the reafonablenefs of this affirmation,

us confider what procefs would be neceffary in order to intro-

duce a free government into any country.

The anfwer
that
other,

to this queftion

is

to be

found in the anfwer to

real

whether freedom have any

?

and

folid

advanre-

tages over flavery

If

it

have, then our

mode of proceeding

fpeling

it

ought to be exadly

parallel to that

we

Ihould

em-

ploy in recommending any other benefit.

a

If I

would perfuade
a

man

to accept a great eflate, fuppoiing that poffeffion to be

;

real

advantage

if I

would induce him

to felet for his

com-

panion a beautiful and accomplifhed woman, or for his friend

a wife, a brave and difmterefted
to prefer eafe to pain,
neceffary, than that
I

man

if I

would perfuade him

and

gratification to torture,

what more

is

fhould inform his underftanding, and

?

make

-him fee thefe things in their true and genuine colours

I
.

Should

find

it

necellary to enquire

firll

of what climate he was a

poffeffion of
?

native,

and whether that were favourable to the

a great eftate, a fine

woman,

or a generous friend

The

advantages of liberty over flavery are not

ai'e lefs

lefs real,

though

unfortunately they

palpable, than In the cafes jull enufenfe

merated.

Every man has a confufed

of thefe advanta-ges,
tear each

but he has been taught to believe that

other to pieces,
if

men would

they had not priefts to diredt their confciences,

CHARACTERS.
fcienccs,
(leer
litical

6^
kinsrs to ^

and lords to confult for their fubfiftence, and ^

in fafety

BOOK
^

i.
'

CHAP.Vir.
.

them

through the inexplicable dangers of the po-

ocean.

But whether they be milled by thefe or other pre-

judices,

whatever be the fancied terror that induces them quietly have their hands bound behind them, and the
all

to fubmit to

fcourge vibrated over their heads,

fon.

thefe are queftions of rea-

Truth may

be prefented to

them

in fuch irrefiftible evi-

dence,

perhaps by fuch juft degrees familiarifed to their ap-

prehenfion, as ultimately to conquer the moft obftinate prepofTeflions.

let

Let the prefs find

its

way

into Perfia or Indoftan,

bell

the political

truths difcovered

by the

of the European
impoffible that

iages be transfufed into their language,

and

it is

a few

falitary converts ihould not

be made;^

It is

the property

cf truth
fions,
its

to fpread

and, exclufively of great national convul-

advocates in each fucceeding age wiU be

in that wliich

fomewhat
caufes,

more numerous than

which fufpend
its

went

before.

The

progrefs, arife, not

from climate, but from the

watchful and intolerant jealoufy of defpotic fovereigas.

Let us fuppofs then that the majority of a nation by how- The

.

afllrtion

iliaibattd,

ever flow a progrefs are convinced of the defirablenefs, or, which

amounts
pofitlon

to the fame, the pradlicability

of freedom.

The

fup-

would be

parallel, if

we

v/ere to imagine ten thoufand

men
hy

of found

intelledl, fhut

up

in a

madhoufe, aad fuperintended.

Hitherto they have been per-

a fet of three or four keepers.

fuadcd, for what abfurdity has been too great for

human

iiitelle{3i:

to.

64
J^PP^yrh CHAP.VII.
'

OF NATIONAL
t-o

entertain

that thev '

were

deftitute

of reafon, and that the

"

'

{"uperintendence under
for their prefervation.

which they were placed was necefiary

They have

therefore fubmitted to whfps

this ty-

and ftraw and bread and water, and perhaps imagined

ranny

to be a blefling.

But a fufpicion
that
all

is at

length

by fome

means propagated among them,

dured has been an impofition.
fled, they reafon, the idea
is

they have hitherto en-

The

fufpicion fpreads, they reto another

communicated from one

cells,

through the chinks of their

and

at certain

times

when

the

vigilance of their keepers has not precluded

fures of

them from the

plea-

mutual

fociety.

It

becomes

the clear perception, the fet-

tled perfuafion

of the majority of the perfons confined.

What

will be the confequence of this opinion

Will the In-

fluence of climate prevent

them from embracing the obvious

Is there

means of

their happinefs

any human underftanding

that will not perceive a truth like this,

when

forcibly

and re-

peatedly prefented

Is there a

mind
?

that will conceive

no
fall

in-

dignation at fo horrible a tyranny

In reality the chains

is

off a

of themfelves,

when

the magic of opinion

diffolved.

When

great majority of any fociety are perfuaded to fecure any benefit

to themfelves, there
is

no need of tumult or violence

refifl:

to effefl

it.

The

effort

would be

to

reafon, not to
hall,

obey

it.

The

pri-

soners are colledled in their

common
They

and the keepers incells.

form them

that

it

is

time to return to their

to obey.

They have

no longer the power

look at the impotence of

their

CFIARACTERS.
tlieir late

'

65
^

maflers,

and fmile

at their

prefumptlon.

They
/

quietly M / CHAP.VII.
I.
*

BOOK.
v

leave the

manfion where they were hitherto immured, and par-

-*

take of the bleflings of light

and

air like

other men.

the theory be true,

11

Let us compare
1

this

theory with the hiftory of mankind.

we may

expect to hnd the mhamtants of

flates,
little

nri..-i..
affimilated

If E^tpenence
n favours thefe rea&uings.

neighbouring provinces in different

widely difcriminated

by the
blaace
in
all

influence of government,

and

by refem-

of climate.

Thus

the Gafcons are the gayeft people

pafs

France

but the

moment we

the Pyrenees,

we

find the ferious

and faturnine

charaiSter of the Spaniard.

Thus

the Athenians were lively, penetrating and ingenious, but the

Thebans unpolilhed, phlegmatic and

able to expe(5l that different races
other, but differently governed,
contrail.

dull.

It

would be reafon-

of men, intermixed with each

afford a flrong

would

and

vifible

Thus

the

Turks

are brave,

open and fmcere, but the

modei'n Greeks mean, cowardly and deceitful.

clofely connedled

Wandering
little

tribes

among

themfelves, and having

refide,

fympathy

with the people with

whom they

may

be expected to have

great fimilarity of manners.

Their

fituation renders

them con-

fpicuous, the faults of individuals refled difhonour

upon the whole,-

and

their

manners

will be particularly fober

and reputable, unlefs

they fhould happen to labour under fo peculiar an odium as to

render
all

endeavour

after reputation fruitlefs.

Thus the Armenl-

iins in the

Eaft are as univerfally diftinguiflied

among

the nations

with

whom

they

refide, as the

Jews

In

Europe; but the Armenians

66

OFNATIONAL
I.

BOOK
/^

CHAP.VII.
"-'

nians are as

much

noted for probity, " ^

is

as the

Tews for extortion.

-"_

What

refemblance

there between the ancient and the modern

Greeks, between the old

Italy,

Romans and

the prefent inhabitants of

?

between the Gauls and the French

Gauls
as particularly

Diodorus Siculus de-

fcribes the

given to taciturnity, and Ariftotle

affirms that they are the only warlike nation

who

are negligent

of

women.

If

on the contrary climate were

principally concerned in

form-

ing the charadlers of nations,

we might

expert to find heat an J

as

cold producing an extraordinary

e&Q. upon men,

they da
this

upon

plants

and

inferior animals.
Is it

But the reverfe of

ap-

pears to be the falc

fuppofed that the neighbourhood of

?

the fun renders

men

gay, fantaftlc and ingenious

While the
for-

French, the Greeks and the Perfians have been remarkable

their gaiety, the Spaniards, the Turks and the Chinefe are not
lefs

diftinguifhed

by the

ferioufnefs of their deportment.

It

was

the opinion of the ancients that the northern nations were incapable of
civil ifation

and improvement

but the moderns have

found that the Englifh

are not inferior in literary

Is
it

eminence to
northern naconqueft has
?

any nation
tions are

in the world.

alTerted, that the

more hardy and courageous, and

from

that

ufually travelled

that to the oppofite quarter

is

It

would

have been truer to fay that conqueft

ufually

made by poverty

upon

plenty.

The Turks, who from

provinces of the

the deferts of Tai-tary in-

vaded the

fertile

Roman

empire, met the Sara-

cens

CHARACTERS.
cens half way,

67

who were

advancuie; with fimilar views from the

.

BOOK
'^

I.

no

lefs

dreary deferts of Arabia.

^ CHAP.VIL In their extreme perhaps heat

'

and cold
for

may

determine the charadlers of nations, of the negroes

fide

example on one
this

and the Laplanders on the other.

Not

but that in

very inftance
fterile

much may

be afcribed to the
to the in-

wretchednefs of a

climate

on the one hand, and

fertility

dolence confequent upon a fpontaneous

on the

other.
dif-

As

to

what

is

more than

this,

the

remedy has not yet been

covered.
till

Phyfical caufes have already appeared to be powerful

moral ones can be brought into operation.

Has

It

been alledged that carnivorous nations are endowed

?

with the greateft courage

The Swedes, whofe

nutriment

is

meagre and fparing, have ranked with the moft diftinguifhed

modern nations

in the operations

of war.

It is

ufually

flxid,

that northern nations are moll addldted to

wine, and fouthern to women.

full force, it

Admitting

this obfervatlon in its

would only prove

that climate

may
it

operate

upon

the groffer particles of our frame, not that

finer organs

influences thofe

upon which
firfl

the operations of intelled; depend.

But

the truth of the

of thefe remarks

may

well be doubted.

The

Greeks appear
of the
bottle.

to

have been

fuflScIently addldled to the pleafures

Among

the Perfians no character was

It is

more co-

veted than that of a hard drinker.

eafy to obtain any thing

of

68
^

OF NATIONAL
I.

BOOK

of the negroes, even their wives and children, In exchange for

Hquor.

As

to vv-omen the clrcumftance

may

be accounted for from

moral caufes.
half naked.
tries.

The

beat of the climate obliges both fexes to go

arrives fooner at maturity in hot

The animal

coun-

And

both thefe circumftances produce vigilance and jea-

loufy, caufes

which

inevitably tend to inflame the paffions *.

Means of introducing
liberty
.^

The

refult

of thefe reafonings

Is

of the utmoil importance to'

It is

him who

fpeculates

upon

principles of government.

of

little.

Gonfequence what difcoverles

fclence,
if,

may be made

in moral

and

political

when we have

afcertained moft accurately

what

are
^

the Intelledlual requifites that lead to

wifdom and
Itfelf,

virtue, a blind

and capricious principle

clufions.

is

to Intrude

and

taint all

our con--

Accordingly there have been writers on the fubjet of

government, who, .idmitting, and even occafionally declaiming

with enthufiafm upon the advantages of

claims of

liberty

and the equal

mankind

to every focial benefit,

have yet concluded

arifto-

that the corruptions of defpotifm

and the ufurpations of

cracy were congenial to certain ages and divlfions of the world,,

and under proper limitations

entitled to

our approbation.

The

majority of inftances in the three preceding pages are taken from

Effay on National Charadlers,
Effays, Vol. I, Part
I,

Hume's
ability,

where

this fubje(5t is treated

with mucli

Eflay xxi.

But

CHARACTERS.
Fut
this hypothefis will ^^
*

tg

be found incapable of holding out EOOK I. ^ ^ CHAF.VII. againft a moment's ferious reflection. Can there be any flate of
'

mankind

that renders

them incapable of
which
it is

the exercife of reafon

Can

there be a period in

neceflary to hold the

human

fpecies in a condition of pupillage

If there be,

it

feems but

reafonable that their fuperintendents and guardians, as in the cafe

of infants of another

fort,

fhould provide for the means of their

fubfiftence without calling

upon them

for the exertions of

manual
duties

induftry.

Wherever men
face,

are competent to look the

firft

of humanity in the

and

to provide for their defence againft

the invafions of hunger and the inclemencies of the fky, there

they will out of

exertion that
Prefent to

all

doubt be found equally capable of every other

be neceflary to their fecurity and welfare.

may

them

a conftitution

which

fhall

put them into a fimple

and

intelligible

method of direding

their

own

affairs,

adjudgin
their

ing their

conteflis

among

themfelves,

and cherifhing

bofoms a manly

fenfe of dignity,

equality and independence,

and you need not doubt that profperity and virtue will be the
refult.

The

real

enemies of liberty in any country are not the peohigher orders

ple, but thofe

who

profit

by a contrary

fyfl:em

Infufe juft views of foclety into a certain

number of

the liberally

educated and refledling members

inftrudtors
;

give to the people guides and

and the bufmefs

is

done.

This however

is

not to

be accomplifhed but in a gradual manner, as will more fully

4.
appeal-

70
r^P'^p'^vn
'

OF NATIONAL CHARACTERS.
^PP^^^
^""^

^^'^^

fequel.

The

error

lies,

not in tolerating the worft

forms of government for a time, but in fuppofing a change impradicable, and not incefiantly looking forward to
plifliment.
its

accom-

CHAP.

7^

CHAP.

VIII.

OF THE OBJECTION TO THESE PRINCIPLES FROM THE INFLUENCE OF LUXURY.

THE OBJECTION STATED.

SOURCE OF THIS OBJECTION. REFUTED FROM MUTABILITY FROM MORTALITY FROM

FROM THE NATURE OF TRUTH.
THE PROBABILITY OF PERSEVERANCE CONSIDERED.

SYMPATHY

THERE
which
itfelf,

Is

another propofition relative to

to be confidered as

the

fubje6I,
^

book
CH

is lefs

an aflertion diftind in

I.

VIII.
/

'

than as a particular branch of that which has juft been

'^'^^
1

objec-

tion ftated.

difculTed ;I

mean

the propofition which affirms, " that nations like

individuals are fubjedt to the

phenomena of youth and

old age,

and

that,

when

a people by luxury and depravation of manners

it

have funk into decrepitude,

to reftore

is

not in the power of legiflation

them

to vigour

and innocence."

This Idea has partly been founded upon the romantic notions
ofpaftoral
life

Source of thu
objeftion.

and the golden age.

Innocence

is

not virtue.

Virtue demands the aftive employment of an ardent mind in

the promotion of the general good.
virtuous,
tion.

No man

can be eminently

who

Is

not accuftomed to an extenfive range of reflecfee

all

He

muft

t^e benefits to

arlfe

from

a difinterefted

proceed-

72

OF THE INFLUENCE
I.

BOOK
*
^^

proceeding, and muft underftand the proper method of producing

'

thofe benefits.

Ignorance, the flothful habits and Umited views

life

of uncultivated

have not in them more of true virtue, though

they

may
by

be more harmlefs, than luxury, vanity and extrava-

gance.
excited

Individuals of exquifite feeling, vv^hofe difguft has been

the hardened felfifhnefs or the unblufhing corruption
in their

which have prevailed

imagination
fortable

own

times,

have recurred in

to the forefts

of

Norway

or the bleak and

uncom-

Highlands of Scotland in fearch of a purer race of manThis imagination has been the offspring of difappoint-

kind.

ment, not the diftate of reafon and philofophy.

It

may

be true, that ignorance

is

nearer than prejudice to the

is

reception of wifdom, and that the abfence of virtue

dition
cafe
it

a con-

more hopeful than

would have been

the prefence of
jufter to

its

oppofite.

In this

compare a nation funk in

luxury, to an individual with confirmed habits of wrong, than

to an individual
faft

whom

a debilitated conftitution was bringing

that

to

the grave.

But neither would

comparifon have

been

fair

and equitable.

Refuted from
mutability

The
found
their

Condition of nations Is
lefs

more

fludluating,

and

will

be

obftinate in

its

refillance to a confiftent

endeavour for

improvement, than that of individuals.

lefs

In nations fome

of their members wall be

confirmed in error than others.

A certain- number will

be only in a very fmall degree indifpofed

t

OF LUXURY.
to liften to the voice
increafe.

73
'^

of

truth.

This number will perpetually BOOK I. ^ CHAP. via.

-'

Every new convert

In proportion as the

will be the

means of converting
augmented, the

'

others.

body of

difciples is

modes of attack upon the prejudices of

fuited to the variety of

others will be varied, and

men's tempers and prepofleflions.

Add
the

to this that generations

of

men

are perpetually going off frcnmi^itality:

ftage,

while other generations fucceed.

The next geneSuppofe a

ration will not

have

fo

many

prejudices to fubdue.
in
its

defpotic nation
feffed

by fome revolution

affairs to

become pof-

of a free conftitution.

The

children of the prefent race

habits of thinking

will be bred in

more firm and independent

the fupplenefs, the timidity and the vicious dexterity of their

fathers will give place to

an ereO. mien, and a clear and decifive

imperfel change of character which

judgment.

The partial and

was introduced

at firft, will in the

fucceeding age become more

unalloyed and complete.

Laftly, the

power of

fecial inftitutions

changing the character

from fympa^

of nations

is

very different from and infinitely greater than any

ordinarily be brought to bear

'^

power which can

individual.

upon

a folitary

Large bodies of men, when once they have been en-

lightened and perfuaded, al with

dividuals.

more vigour than

folitary in-

They animate

the mutual exertions of each other,

to per-

and the united forces of example and fhame urge them

feverance.

The

cafe

is

not of that cuftomary fort where the

power

74

OF THE INFLUENCE

BOOK
'

I.

power of reafon only

but
is

is

tried in

curing any perfon of his errors;

fituation.

-*

as if

he fhould be placed in an entirely new

his

His habits are broken through, and

changed.
tices

motives

of adion

Inftead of being perpetually recalled to vicious prachis

by the recurrence of

former connections, the whole

ats

fociety receives an impulfe

from the fame caufe that

and the

upon

any

individual.

New

ideas are fuggefted,

furprife of

novelty confpires with the approbation of truth to prevent

men

from

falling

back into imbecility and languor.

from

tlie

na-

The

queftion

may

in reality be reduced to an enquiry,

whe-

ture of truth.

ther the
truth,

human
it

underflanding can be be poffible for an

made

the recipient of

whether

effort fo

ftrenuous to exifl

as to

make men aware of

their true interefts.

is

For

let this

be

granted, and the confequence

inevitable.
is

It

has already fuf-

ficiently appeared, that whatever

politically right or politically

wrong, muft be
fare of

in

all

cafes

of no
for

trivial

confequence to the welwill

mankind.
to

Monarchy

example

by

all

men
It

be

acknowledged

be attended with

many

difadvantages.

a<Sts

upon

infufhcient

and

partial information, it generates intrigue,

corruption, adulation and fervility.

it

If

it

could be proved, that

that
its

produced no advantages in equal proportion, and

abolition

would not

lead

to mifchief, anarchy

and diforder,

is

there a nation
tions

upon the

face of the earth to

whom

thefe propofito
it ?

were rendered palpable, that would endure to fubmit

Is there a nation

upon

the face of the earth, that

would fubmit
to

OFLUXURY.
to the Impofitlons of ^
its

75
It

adminlftration, the wars '

it

occafions,
'

book
*^

i.
"*

CHAP.VIir.
>'

and the
it

lavifh revenues

by which

is

maintained, if they

knew

to

be merely an excrefcence and a difeafe in the order of

?

fociety

But
.

it

has been farther alledged, that, even fhould a luxurious

.

The

nation be

prompted by

intolerable

grievances

and notorious
fociety,

probabllityofperfeveiance
confidered.

ufurpation to afTert the juft principles of

human

they

would be unable
back by their
that
is,

to

perpetuate them, and would foon be led

their

evil habits to

former vices and corruption

they would be capable of the heroic energy that fhould

expel the ufurper, but not of the moderate refolution that fhould

prevent his return.

They would

roufe themfelves fo far from

character and enter into
dif-^

their lethargy as to affume a

new

ferent views

but, after having for

fome time aled upon

their

convilions, they

would fuddenly become incapable of undertheir principles

Handing the truth of

and feeling

their influence.

Men
There

always at upon their apprehenfions of preferablenefs.

are

few

errors of

which they

are guilty,

which may not

be refolved into a narrow and inadequate view of the alternative

prefented for their choice.
certain
as

Prefent pleafure

may

appear more
evil

and

eligible

than diftant good.

evil.
is

But they never choofe

a clear

apprehended to be

Wherever

and unanfwerable

notion of any fubjet

prefented to their view, a correfpondcnt

adtion or courfe of a<!^ions inevitably follows.

Having thus gained

one

76
one

OF THE INFLUENCE OF LUXURY.

ftep in the acquifition
loft.

of Jruth,

it

cannot

eafily

be conceived

of as

A body
it off,

of men, having deteded the injurious con-

fequences of an evil under which they have long laboured, and

having fhaken

will fcarcely voluntarily reftore the mifchief

they have annihilated.

vival of falfhood,

Nothing can reconcile them

to the re-

which does not

obliterate their prefent

con-

vidion of truth.

AN

77

A N

ENQUIRY
CONCERNING

POLITICAL JUSTICE.
B O O

II.

PRINCIPLES OF SOCIETT.

H A

P.

I.

INTRODUCTION.
NATURE OF THE ENQUIRY MODE OF PURSUING IT. TINCTION BETWEEN SOCIETY AND GOVERNMENT.

DISbook ii. CHAP I

'
.

MR. Locke
Filmer
that
;

begins his celebrated Treatife of

.

Government
fir

with a refutation of the patriarchal fcheme of

Robert

'j

and, having thus cleared his ground, proceeds to obferve,

all

enquiry.

" he, that will not give juft occafion to think that
in the

go-

vernment

world

is

the produsfl only of force and violence,

and that men

live together

by no other

rules but that of beafts,

muft

7S

PRINCIPLES
rife

BOOKir. CHAP. I.
^^

niuft

of neceflity find out another

-^

of government, and &

"^

another original of political power

*."

Accordingly he proceeds
to reafon abftradedly

through the greater part of his

treatife

upon the probable hiftory of the early ages of mankind, and

concludes that no legitimate government could be built upon

Any
^

other foundation than that of an original contract.

It is to

be fufpeded that

this great

man, friend

as

he was to

the liberty and the interefts of mankind, intrepid and fagacious

in his fearch after truth, has been guilty of an overfight in the
firft

flep of the inveftigation.

Mode

of pur-

There

are

two modes, according

.fuingit.

JO
is,

to

which we may enquire J n.

into the origin of fociety and government.

We may
;

either

examine them

hiftorically, that

confider in

what manner they

or

-have or ought to have begun, as

Mr. Locke has done

is,

we

may examine them

principles
is

philofophically, that

confider the moral

upon which they depend.

its

The
is

firft

of thefe fubjeds

not without
efl'ential

ufe

but the fecond

of a higher order and

;

more

importance.
It

The

firft

is

a queftion of form

the

fecond of fubftance.
cally confidered,

would be of

trivial

confequence pradlifociety flowed,

from what fource any form of

its

and by what mode

principles v^rere fanSioned, could

we

be

always fecure of their conformity to the dictates of truth and

juftice.

-*

Book

II.

Chap.

i.

i.

It

OF SOCIETY.
It Is

79
careaf-

farther rieceflary before

diftinguifh
firft

we

enter

upon the fubjed

fully to

between fociety and government.

mutual
affiftance.

Men

fociated at

for the fake of

reftraint

1 hey did not

forefee that

any

would be

necefTary, to regulate the con-

dudl of individual members of the fociety, tovvards each other,

or towards the whole.
errors

The

neceffity of reftraint

grew out of the

and perverfenefs of a few.

with peculiar
felicity.

An

acute writer has expreffed

this idea

" Society and government," fays

different origins.

he,

" are different in themfelves, and have

is

Society
ednefs.
In
its

produced by our wants, and government by our wickis

Society

in every ftate a bleffing

government even

beft ftate but a necefTary evil *."

Common

Senfe, p.

i.

HA

F,'.

&0

C.H A

p.

II.

OF JUSTICE.
eONNECTION OF POLITICS AND MORALS.

EXTENT
:

MEANING
KIND.
ITS

OF JUSTICE.

SUBJECT

OF JUSTICE

AND MAN-

DISTRIBUTION MEASURED BY THE CAPACITY

BY HIS USEFULNESS.

OF ITS SUBJECT

TION CONSIDERED.
TIONS
:

GRATITUDE CONSIDERED.

FAMILY AFFEC OBJECAN

EX-

FROM IGNORANCE
STATED.

FROM
OF

UTILITY.
JUSTICE.

CEPTION
TION.

DEGREES

APPLICA-

IDEA

OF POLITICAL JUSTICE.

'ROM
ofpoliticsand morals,

what has been

faid
is

It

appears, that the fubjet

of

the prefent enquiry

^j^g

ftridtly
is

Ipeaking a department of
the fource

fcience of morals.

MoraUty ^

from which

its

fundamental axioms muft be drawn, and they will be made

fomewhat

clearer in the prefent inftance, if

IB

we aflume

the term

juftice as a general appellation for

all

moral duty.

Extent and meaning of

juftice.

That

this

appellation

is

fufficiently expreffive

of the fubjel
gratitude,

will appear, if

we

confider for a

moment mercy,

tem-

perance, or any of thofe duties which in loofer fpeaking are contradiftinguifhed

from juftice.

Why fhould I pardon this

criminal,

remunerate

OF JUSTICE.
remunerate
tliis

8i
indulgence
?

favour, abflain from this

it

If

it

^-9?^
'
^^

}]'

partake of the nature of morality,

muil be either right or

in-

wrong,

juil or unjuft.

It

mufl: tend to the benefit of the

dividual, either without intrenching upon, or with adual advan-

tage to the mafs of individuals.

Either

way

it

benefits the whole,

becaufe individuals arc parts of the whole.

is

Therefore to do

it

juft,

and

to forbear

it is

unjuft.

If juftice

have any meaning,

it is

juft that I fhould contribute every thing in

my

power

to the

benefit of the whole.

Confiderable light will probably be thrown upon our inveftigation,

juftice
if,

Subjeft of
ji'.flfce
:

man-

quitting for the prefent the political view,

as
it

we examine
is

'^'"d.

merely

exifts

among

individuals.

Juftice

a rule of

condul originating in the connedlion of one percipient being

with another.

comprehenfive
is,

maxim which

has been laid

down upon

the fubjed

" that

we

fhould love our neighbour

poflefling confiderable

as ourfelves."

But

this

maxim, though
is

merit as a popular principle,

not modelled with the ftridncfs

of philofophical accuracy.

In a loofe and general view

us

and

my
is

neighbour are both of

^}^ dlftribu*

tion

mea-

men

and of confequence
is

entitled to equal attention.

But

in

f"rcd by the capacity of

reality

it

probable that one of us

other.

a being of
is

more worth

"sfubjta;

and importance than the

a beaft
;

man

of more worth than

is

becaufe, being pofTeffed of higher faculties, he

capable

of a more refined and genuine happinefs.

In

th-e

fame manner
the

82

OF JUSTICE.
IT,
II.
'

BOOK
CHAP.
'^

the illuftriotis archbifhop of -^

his

Cambray was of more worth '

few of us
in flames, that

thaia-

chambermaid, and

thei"e are

would
life

hefitate,

to pronounce, if his palace

were

and the

of only
to

one of them could be preferved, which of the two ought

preferred.

be

by

Ills

ufeful-

g^jj-

t^e^g

jg

another ground of preference, befide the private-

coniideration of one of
flate

them being

farther

removed from the

one or two^

of a mere animal.

We

are not connected with

percipient beings, but

fenfe
life
v,^ith

with a fociety, a nation, and in fome

the

whole family of mankind.

Of confequeiice

that
the.

ought to be preferred which will be moft conducive to

In faving the
life

general good.

of Fenelon, fuppofe

at

the

moTe-

ment when he was conceiving the

lemachus,
I

projedl of his immortal

fhould be promoting the benefit of thoufands,

it

who

have been cured by the perufal of

fequent unhappinefs.

of fome error, vice and con-

Nay,

my

benefit

would extend

farther

than

this, for

every individual thus cured has become a better

member

of fociety, and has contributed in his turn to the hap-

pinefs, the infonnation

and improvement of

others.

Suppoiing

had been myfelf the chambermaid, I ought

die,

to.

have chofen to

rather than that Fenelon fhould have died,.

The

life

of Fenelon was really preferable to that of the chamber-

maid.

But underftanding

is

the faculty that perceives the truth,

j

of this and fimilar propofitions

1

and

juftice is the principle that

regulates

OF JUSTICE.
reeulates

3
jufl:

my

condufl accordinp;ly.
,

It

would have been

in

BOOK
CHAP.
^^

IT.
II.

the chambermaid to have preferred the archbifhop to herfelf.

To

have done otherwife would have been a breach of jufticc.

Suppofing the chambermaid had been

or

my

wife,

my

mother

ramiif
deicd.

afT^rc-

tion conii-

my

benefadlor.

This would not of Fenelon would

;

alter the truth

ftill

of the pro-

pofition.

The

life

be more valuable than

that of the

chambermaid

and

juftice, pure, unadulterated juftice,

would

ftill

have preferred that which was moft valuable.

to fave the life of Fenelon at the
is

Juftice

would have taught me

of the other.

expence
to

What magic

there in the
?

pronoun " my,"

overturn the decifions of everlafting truth

My

wife or

my

mother may be a

fool or a proftitute, malicious, lying or dllhoneft.

is it

If they be, of what confequence

that they are

mine

" But

my

mother endured for

me

the pains of child bearings Gratkuae

confidered.

and nouriihed me

in the helpleffhefs of infancy."

When

flie firft

fubjedled herfelf to the neceffity of thefe cares,

ftie

was probably

influenced
offspring.
to

by no

particular motives of benevolence to her future

benefit

Every voluntary

however
But

entitles the

beftower

fome kindnefs and

is

retribution.

why

fo

Becaufe a
is,

voluntary benefit

an evidence of benevolent intention, that

of virtue.
adion, that
is equal,

It is

the difpofition of the mind, not the external

entitles to refpedt.

But the merit of

this difpofition

whether the benefit was conferred upon

I

me

or

upon

another,

and another

man

cannot both be right in preferring

our

OF
our

U S T C E.
I

own

individual benefador, for no

man

can be

at the

fame

time both better and worfe than his neighbour.

My benefactor
being.

ought

to be efleemed, not becaufe

it

he bellowed a benefit upoa

a

me, but becaufe he beftowed

fert

upon

human

His dethat

will be

in exadt proportion to the degree, in

which

human

being was worthy of the diftindlion conferred.

Thus.

every view of the fubjedl brings us back to the confideration of myneighbour's moral worth and
as the
his,

importajice to the general weal^

i&

only ftandard to datermine the treatmentto which he

entitled.

Gratitude therefore, a principle which has fo often beea

is

the theme of the moralift and the poet,

r virtue..
lead

no part

either

of juftice.

By

gratitude I underftand a fentiment,

which would,

me

to prefer one m.an to another,

,

from fome other con*

worth: that
is,

fideration than that of his fuperior ufefulnefs ox

which would make fomething

ferablenefs),

true to

me

(for

example

this pre-is

which cannot

be, true to

another man, and

not:

true in itfelf *..

Objeftions:

It

may

be obje<Sed, " that

my

relation,

my

companion, or my-

benefadlpr will of cpurfe in

fromlgnoTapce

many

inftances obtain an

uncommon

portion of

my

regard: for, not being univerfally capable of dif-

criminatifig the comparative

worth of

different

men,

I Ihall in-.

eyitably judge moll favourably of him, of

received, the moft unqueftionable proofs
;

whofe

virtues I have.
fhall

and thus

be coni-

* This -argument -refpefting gratitude

is

flated

with great clearnefs in anEflay*

sm

the Nature of True Virtue, by the Rev. Jonathan Edwards.

lamo. Dilly.

pelled

OF JUSTICE
prefer the pelled to ^ ^

85

man

of moral worth

whom

know,
'

to

COOK
CHAP.
*

11.
II.

another
liority."

who may

pofTefs,

unknown

to

me, an

effential

fupe-

-'

This compulfiott however

perfedtion of

is

founded only in the prefent im*

It

human

nature.

may

ferve as an apology for

It will

my
The

error, but can never turn error into truth.

ftridt

always

remain contrary to the

difficulty

and
this

inflexible decifions of juftice.

is

of conceiving

owing merely
is

to our con-

founding the difpofition from which an adion

the adlion
vice
itfelf.

chofen, with
virtue to

The

difpolltion, that

would prefer
lefs,
is

and a greater degree of virtue to a

of approbation
a
;

undoubtedly a

fubje<3:

the erroneous exercife of this difpofition

is

by which

wrong

objedl

feleited, if unavoidable,

is

to be de-

plored, but can

by no colouring and under no denomination be

converted into right*..

It

may

in

the fecond place

be

objeded, " that a mutual

from

utility,

commerce of
action,

benefits tends to increafe the mafs to increafe the

of benevolent
is

and that

mafs of benevolent adion

to

contribute to the general good."

Indeed

Is

the general good

promoted^ by flUfhood, by treating a

as if

man
or
is

of one degree of worth,

he had ten times that worth

as if
?

he were in any denot the moft

gree different from what he really

beneficial confequences refult

Would

from a

different plan;

from

my

* See this fubjeft more copioufly treated in the following chapter.

conftantly,'

86

-OFJUSTICE.
all

BOOK IT.
'

conftantly and carefully enquiring into the deferts of

'

tliofe

with

whom

am

connefted, and from their being fure, after a

certain allowance for the fallibility

treated

of human judgment, of being

?

by me exadlly
effefts

as they deferved

Who

can

tell

what

would be the
adopted .?

of fuch a plan of condud univerfally

An exception
ibted.

There feems

to be moretruth in the argument, derived chiefly

diftribution of property, in favour of

from the unequal

my

pro-

viding in ordinary cafes for

my

wife and children,

my

brothers
as proif

and

relations, before I

provide for ftrangers.

it

As long
feems as

ividing for individuals belongs to individuals,

there

muft be a certain diftribution of the

;and fupply

clafs

needing fuperintendence
it,

among

the clafs affording

refource.

that each
if

man may
admitted at

have his claim and

all, is

But

this

argument,
It

to

be admitted with great caution.

;

belongs only to or-

idinary cSfes

and cafes of a higher order or a more urgent

meceflity will perpetually occur, in competition with

will

which

thefe

be altogether impotent.

We

muft be feverely fcrupulous in

and, with refped
little is

meafuring out the quantity of fupply;

to

money

in particular,

muft remember
it

how

yet underftood

-of the true

mode

of employing

for the public benefit.

egrees of
jjuilice.

Having confidercd
fant, let

the perfons with

v/hom

juftice

is

conver-

us next enquire into the degree in which

we

are obliged
it is

to confult the good of others.

And

here

fay, that

juft

that

OFJUS'^ICE.
thaX I iliould

^j
Does any perfon
duty to grant
it,
'"

do

all

the good in

my

power.
is

E<^OK

ir.

in diftrefs apply to

me

foi-

relief?

It

my

'

and

commit

a breach of

duty in refufing.
it is

If this principle be

not of univerfal application,

becaufe, in conferring a benefit

upon an

individual,

may

in

fome

inftances

infli(Sl

an injury
the fame

of fuperior magnitude upon myfelf or fociety.

juftice, that binds

Now

me
If,

to

any individual of
I

my
I

fellow

men, binds
it

me

to the whole.

while

confer a benefit upon one man,

appear, in ftriking an equitable balance, that

am

injuring the

whole,

my

adlion ceafes

to
I

be right and becomes abfolutely

wrong.
that
is,

But

how much am

bound

to

do for the general weal,

for the benefit of the individuals of

?

whom
am

the whole

is

compofed

Every thing

in

my

power.
?

What
for I

to the negledl

of

the means of

my own
Befide,

exiftence
it

No

myfelf a part
pi-o-

of the Avhole.

will rarely

happen but that the

jedl of doing for others every thing in

for

its

execution the prefervation of

it

my power, will demand my own exiftence or in

;

other words,
in

will rarely

happen but

that

can do more good

twenty years than in one.

I

If the extraordinary cafe fhould

occur in which

can promote the general good by

life,

my

death,

more than by
to die.

my

juftice requires that I fhould be content

it

In

all

other cafes,

is

juft that I fhould be careful

to-

maintain

my

body and

my

mind

in the utmoft vigour,

and

irt

the beft condition for fervice *.

* Vide Appendix to

this chapter,

No.

I.

I will

OF JUSTICE.
1
will fuppofe for

example that

it

is

right for

one

man

to

.poffefs a greater
'fruit

portion of property than another, either as the

Juftice

of his iaduftry, or the inheritance of his anceftors.

obliges

him

to regard this property as a truft,

and

calls

upon

him

maturely to confider in

what manner

it

may

beft

be em-

ployed for the increafe of

liberty,

knowledge and
it

virtue.

He

has no right to difpofe of a (lulling of

at the will

of his caprice.

So

far

from being

entitled to well

earned applaufe for having

fervice

employed fome fcanty pittance in the

he
is

of philanthropy,

in the eye of juftice a delinquent if

that fervice.

he withhold any portion

incontrovertible.
?

from

Nothing can be more

Could

that portion have been better or more worthily employed

it

That
it

could
juft

is

implied in the very terms of the proportion.

fhould have been fo employed.
I

Then

was
as

it

In the fame manner

man-

my

property,
I

hold
to

my

perfon as a truft in behalf of

kind.

am bound

employ

my

talents,

my

underftanding,

my

ftrength and

my

time for the produdion of the greateft quantity

of general good.
is the

Such

are the declarations of juftice, fo great

extent of

my

duty.

But

juftice
it

is

reciprocal.

If

it

be juft that

fhould confer a
it,

benefit,

is

juft that another

man. fhould receive

is

and, if I
juftly

withhold from him that

complain.
fpare.

to which he
is

entitled,

he

may

My
is

neighbour

in

want of ten pounds

that I can

There

no law of
and

political inftitution that has

been made
to

to reach this cafe,

to transfer this property

from me

him.

But

OF JUSTICE.
Cut
in the eye of fimple juftice, unlefs
it

89

can be fhewn that the

is

BOOK
CHAP.
^
^^

II.
II.
'

money can
plete, as if

be more beneficently employed, his claim

as

com-

he had

my

bond

in his pofleflion, or
*.

had fupplied

me

with goods to the amount

To

this

it

has fometimes been anfwered, " that there

is

more

than one perfon, that ftands in need of the

fpare,

money

have to
it

and of confequence
I

I rauft

be

at liberty to

beftow

as I

pleafe."

anfwer,

if

only one perfon offer himfelf to

is

my
I

knowcannot
every

ledge or fearch, to

me there

but one. Thofe others that

to
aflift

find belong to ether rich

men

(rich

men,

I fay, for

man

is

rich,

who

has

more money than

If

his juft occafions deoffer,

I

mand), and not to me.

more than one perfon

am

obliged to balance their fitnefs, and condul myfelf accordingly.

It is fcarcely poffible

to
I

happen
fhall

that

two men

fhall

be of exactly
fitnefs

equal

fitnefs,

or that

be equally certain of the

of

the one as of the other.

It is

therefore impoffible for

I

me

to confer
'

upon any man

deviates

favour,

can only do

him
I

a right.

Whatever

from the
in
is

law of

juflice,

even

will

fuppofe in the too

much done

favour of fome individual or fome part of the general whole,

fo

much fubtraded from the

general flock,

is

fo

much of abfolute

injuflice.

fphited outline of thefe principles

is

flcetched in Swift's

Sermon on

Mutual Subjection.

The

90

OFJUSTICE.
The
tt'

PHA p
V

inference moft clearly afforded

by the preceding reafonall

prT"^

'^^b^i is

the competence of juftice as a principle of deduftion in

cafes of

moral enquiry.

The

reafonings themfelves are rather of

the nature of illuftration and example, and any error that

may

be imputed

to

them

in particulars, will not invalidate the general

conclufion, the propriety of applying moral juftice as a criterion

in the inveftigation of political truth.

Idea of polltical juilice.

Society
Its

is

nothing more than an aggregation of individuals.

its

claims and
duties,

duties

muft be the aggregate of their claims

and

the

one no more precarious and arbitrary than

has the fociety a right to require from
already anfwered
:

the other.

What
is

me

The

queftion

every thing that

it

is

my
^

duty to do.

Any

thing more

Certainly not.

Can they change

their

eternal truth, or fubvert the nature of

men and

adions

Can they make

or affaflinate
is

it

my
its

duty to commit intemperance, to maltreat

?

my

neighbour

Again.
?

What

is it

that the fociety that can contriis

it,

bound

to

do for

members

Every thing

bute to their welfare.

But the nature of

their welfare

defined

by

the nature of mind.

That

will

moft contribute to

which
fills

enlarges the underftanding, fupplies incitements to virtue,

us

with a generous confcioufnefs of our independence, and carefully

removes whatever can impede our exertions.

Should
litical

it

be affirmed, " that

it is

not in the power of any po-

fyftem to fecure to us thefe advantages," the conclufion I

am

OF JUSTICE.

9,

\ every thing
^

am

drawing

will
^

ftlll

be incontrovertible.

It is

bound

to contribute

^^OK
CHAP.
*^

ir.
II.
'

it

is

able to thefe purpofes,

and no man was ever

it

yet found hardy enough to affirm that

could

do nothing.

Suppofe

its

influence in the utmoft degree limited, there muft be

to the defired

one method approaching nearer than any other

objed, and that method ought to be univerfally adopted.

is

There

one thing that

political inftitutions

can alTuredly do, they can

avoid pofitively counterafting the true interefts of their fubjeds.

But

all

capricious rules

and arbitrary diftindions do pofitively

is

counteradt them.

There

fcarcely

any modification of So
far as

fociety
it

but has in

it

fome degree of moral tendency.

it is

profar

duces neither mifchief nor benefit,

as
it

good

for nothing.
it

So

tends to the improvement of the community,

ought to be

univerfally adopted.

APPENDIX,

92

OF SUICIDE.
A
P P E

N D

X,

No.

I.

p. 37.

OF
MOTIVES OF SUICIDE
LENCE.
:

SUICIDE.
I.

ESCAPE FROM PAIN.

2.

BENEVO-

MARTYRDOM CONSIDERED.

BOOK
*

II.

CHAP. II.
V

T^HIS
-*-

reafonine; will explain to -us the long difputed cafe

.

of fuicide.

" Have

a right under

any circumftances
difgrace
?'

Appendix.
Motivts of
filicide.

to deftroy myfelf in order to efcape

from pain or

I.

Efcape

Probably not.

It

is

perhaps impoflible to imagi.ne a fituation,

life,

that fhall exclude the poflibility of future

nefs.

vigour and ufefultrivial,

The motive
is

alligned for efcape

is

eminently
;

to
is

avoid pain, which

a fmall inconvenience

or difgrace, which

an imaginary
if there

evil.

The example of

fortitude in enduring

them,

were no other coniideration, would probably

live.

afford a

better motive for continuing to

2.

Benevo-

"

Is there

then no cafe in which fuicide

is

a virtue ?"

What

fhall

lence.

we

think of the reafoning of Lycurgus, who,

when he
all

deter-

mined upon a voluntary death, remarked, " that

rational being poffeffed
after

the faculties a
ufe,

were capable of a moral

and

that,

having

fpent his life in the fervice of his country, a

to render his

man

ought,

if poffible,

death a fource of additional

benefit ?"

This was the motive of the fuicide of Codrus, Leonidas

If the

and Decius. 7

fame motive prevailed in the much admired

'
fuicide

O
fuicide of Cato, if
lent, '
it

E,

93

he were inftigated by reafons purely benevo-

BOOK
^

n.
^

is

impoilible not to applaud his intention, even if he ^^ ^ '

.

ArrtNDix.

were miftaken in the

application.

The

difficulty

is

to decide in

any inftance whether the

i

re-

courfe to a voluntary death can overbalance the ufefulnefs

may
it

exert in twenty or thirty years of additional

life.

But furely

would be
There
is
is

precipitate to

decide that there

affirms,
It is

is

no fuch

inftance.

a proverb

which

" that the blood of the martyrs

that Junius
firft

the feed of the church."

commonly fuppofed

Brutus did right in putting his fons to death in the

the

year of

Roman

republic,

and that

this

adion contributed more than

energy and virtue for which

any other

caufe, to generate that

his counfry

was afterwards

fo

eminently diftinguifhed.

The

death

of Cato produced an

effedl

fomewhat
all

fmiilar to this.

It

was

dwelt on with admiration by

fubfequent tyrants of

the lovers of virtue under the

Rome.

It

feemed

to be the

ramp from
it

which they caught the facred

flame.

Who

can

tell

how much
it

has contributed to revive that flame in after ages,

to

when

feemed

have been fo long extinit

Let

it

be obferved that

all

martyrs

[iu(.ap%p;i]

are fuicides

by the
];

Martyrdorr

very fignification of the term.

that
is,

They

diefor a teftimony

[^apWs

they have a motive for dying.

But motives refpedl

only our
another.

own

voluntary adls, not the violence put upon us by

APPENDIX,

OF DUELLING.

APPENDIX,

No. IL

'

OF DUELLING.
MOTIVES OF duelling:
I.

REVENGE.

2.

REPUTATION FOR

COURAGE.
SWERED.
JC0KII.

FALLACY OF THIS MOTIVE.

ILLUSTRATION.

OBJECTION AN-

T'p

CHAP.

jji^y \yQ

proper in this place to beftow a moment's confitrite, ^

II.

Appendix.
Motives of
duelling.

I deration
^ very
'

upon the ^

but very important cafe of r J

it

duelling;. t

fhort reliedion will fufEce to fet

in

its

true lieht.

I.

Revenge.

This deteftable pradlice was originally invented by barbarians

for the gratification of revenge.
It-

was probably

at that

time

thought a very happy

projedt for reconciling the odioufnefs of

mallgnil|Pwith the gallantry of courage.

2.Reputat'on
for courage.

gm

[^

tj^jg

[irrht it

is

now
lend

generally given up. a o /

<->

Men

of the

beft underftanding

who

it

their fantion, are unwillingly

fingle

induced to do
reputation

fo,

and engage in

combat merely

that their

may

fuftain

no

flander.

Fallacy of
this motive.

Which

of thefe two actions

is

the trueft

teft

of courage

the

engaging in a practice which our judgment difapproves, becaufe

we

cannot fubmit to the confequences of following that judg;

ment

or the doing what

we

believe to be right,

and chearfully
encoun-

O
encountering
all

DUEL

L, I

G.
be annexed to the

95

the confequences that

?

may

^^^p
"-;

nradice of virtue

With what
life

patience can a
fellov^r

man

of virtue

11"
'

think of cutting off the

of a

mortal, or of putting an

abrupt clofe to
for the beneht

all

the generous projedls he

may

himfelf conceive

of others,

merely becaufe he has not firmnefs

falfhood into filence
?

enough

to

awe impertinence and

" But the refufing a duel

is

an ambiguous adion.

Cowards

Obj^aion.

may

pretend principle to fhelter themfelves from a danger they

dare not meet."

This

is

partly true and partly

falfe.

There

are

few adions

Anfwered.

indeed that are not ambiguous, or that with the fame general
outline

may

not proceed from different motives.

But the man-

ner of doing them will fufficiently fhew the principle from which

they fpring.

He,

that

would break through an unlverfally received cuftom

it

IlIuflratloB.

becaufe he believes

to be

wrong, muft no doubt arm himfelf

with

fortitude.

The

point in which

we

chiefly

fliil,

is

in not

accurately underftanding our

own

intentions,

and taking care

beforehand to free ourfelves from any alloy of weaknefs and

error.

He, who comes forward with no other

idea in his

mind

but that of rectitude, and

firmnefs

who

expreffes,

with the funplicity and

to infpire, the

which full convidtion never fails

is

views with
for a

which he

imprefled,

is

in

no danger of being miflaken

coward.

96

OF DUELLING.
u'
'

rS AP
^T

Appendix.

coward.

If he hefitate,

it is

becaufe he has not an idea perfedlly

If

^'

clear of the fentiment

he intends to convey. '

he be in any '

degree embarrafled,

it is

becaufe he has not a feeling fufficlently

is

generous and intrepid of the guilt of the action in which he

preffed to engage.

If there be

any meaning

in courage,
all

its firfl;

ingredient

muflbe

the daring to fpeak the truth at

ppffible fituation.

times, to

all

perfons, and in every

What

is it

but the want of courage that fliould

prevent

me

from faying, "

Sir, I
I

ought to refufe your challenge.

What

ought to do, that

dare do.

Have

injured

you

will readily

and v/ithout

coffipulfion repair

my
?

injuftice to the

uttermoft mite.
particulars,

.Have you mifconftrued

that

me
I

State to

me

the

and doubt not

what

is

true

Mall

make appear

to be true.

Thus

far I will go.

all

But, though
I will

fhould be branded

for a

coward by

mankind,

not repair to a fcene of deI

liberate i#urder. I will exercife

I will

not do an at that

know

to be flagitious.

my judgment

upon every proportion

judgment
I

that
;

comes

before

me

the dictates of that

will fpeak

and upon

them

I will

form

my

condud."

He

that holds this language

fuf-

wuth a countenance in unifon with his w^ords, will never be

peded of ading from

the impulfe of fear.

CHAP.

97

CHAP.
OF
A DIFFICULTY STATED.
VIRTUE.

III.

DUT

Y.

OF
OF
IS

ABSOLUTE AND PRACTICAL.

THIS DISTINCTION.

IMPROPRIETY
WHAT

UNIDIS-

VERSALITY OF

CALLED PRACTICAL VIRTUE

INSTANCED IN ROBBERY

IN RELIGIOUS FANATICISM.
IS

THE QUALITY OF AN ACTION DISTINCT FROM THE

POSITION WITH WHICH IT
DIFFICULTY.

PERFORMED

MEANING

OF THE TERM, DUTY.

FARTHER APPLIas to the

dif^

CATION.

INFERENCES.
is

THERE
1

a difliculty of confiderable
1

magnitude
,

BOOK
CHAP.
,

II.
III",
'

r rL r 1 Ir , lubject or the preceding chapter, lounded

upon the
and
in

ference

which may

exift

between
I

abltraa: juftice
adl,

my

A difficulty
ftated.

appre-

henfions of juftice.

When

do an

wrong

itfelf,

but

which

as to all the materials

is

of judging extant to

my

under-

ftanding appears to be right,

my

condiid virtuous or vicious?

Certain moralifts have introduced a dIftin61:ion

upon

this

head of abfolute
v"rtu^"^""

between ablblute and pradical

virtue," they fay,
is

virtue.

" There

is

one fpecies of

" which

rifes

out of the nature of things and

rifes

immutable, and another which

out of the views extant

I

to

my

underftanding.

Thus

for

example fuppofe,

ought to
worfliip

98

O
worfliip -' Tefus Chrlft

D U T Y.
of
evi-

^9??^^* CRAP. in.

*^

but, having been bred in the reIie;ion 5 to to

its

'

Mahomet, L ought
dences
fhall

to adhere to that religion, as long as

appear to

me

conclufive.

am

irapannelled

upon

'a jury to try a

man

arraigned for murder, and

who

is

really in-

nocent.
I

Abflractedly confidered, I ought to acquit him.

is

But

am

unacquainted with his innocence, and evidence

adduced

fuch as to form the ftrongefl prefumption of his

monftration in fuch cafes
is

guilt,

De-

not to be attained
to adl

am

obliged in
I

every concern of

human

life

upon prefumption j

ought

therefore to convldt him."

Impropriety
of this diftiudion.

It

may

be doubtcd however whether any good purpofe

is

likely to be

anfwered by employing the terms of abftral fcience

in this verfatile

and uncertain manner.

;

Morahty

Is,

if

any thing

can be, fixed and immutable

and there muft furely be fome

an
a(flion

ftrange deception that fhould induce us to give to

eternally

and unchangeably wrong, the

epithets

of reditude^

duty and virtue.

Unlverfaiity

JsJor

have

tliefe

morallfts been thoroughly

aware to what exis

of what is called praaical virtue

:

tcut this admiffion

would carry them.

The human mind

inits

credibly fubtle in inventing an apology for that to

inclination leads.

which

Nothing
is

is

fo rare as pure
lives

and unmingled

hypocrify.

There

no action of our
it

which we were not

ready

at the

time of adopting

to juftify, unlefs fo far as

we
Is

were prevented by mere indolence and unconcern.

There

fcarcely

O
fcarcely
' '

DUT

Y.
to pals

99
^

any ^juftiiicadon which we endeavour

tolerable fuccefs

upon r

others,
>

BOOKir. CHAP. III.

*"-

which we do not with

pals

upon

ourfelves.
to

'*

The

diftinftion therefore

which

is

here

fet

up would go near
is

prove that every adtion of every

appellation of virtuous.

human

being

entitled to the

There
he

is

perhaps no

man

that cannot recollctS the time

when

-inttanced \n

robbery

fecretly called in queftion the arbitrary divifion

of property

eftablilhed in
his ufe
firable.

human

fociety,

and

felt

inclined to appropriate to
to

any thing the

It is

poffeffion of

which appeared

him de-

probably in Ibme fuch

way

that

men

are ufually

influenced in the perpetration of robbery.

felves

They

perluade them-its

of the comparative inutility of the property to

prefent
it

pofleflbr,

and the ineftimable advantage that would attend

in

their hands.
It
is

They

believe that the transfer ought to be made.

of no confequence that they are not confiftent in thefe

views, that the impreflions of education fpeedily recur to their

minds, and that in a feafon of adverfity they readily confefs the

wickednefs of their proceeding.
It is

not

lefs

true that they did

what

at the

moment they thought

to be right.

But there

is

another confideration that feems

us.

ftill

more

decifive

'" rellgi'ous

fanaticifm.

of the fubjedl before

abftradl juftice

The

worft adions, the moft contrary to

and

utility,

have frequently been done from the

Clement, Ravaillac, Damiens and

moft confcientious motives.

Gerard had

their

minds deeply penetrated with anxiety for the

eternal

loo
eternal welfare of
their eafe,
It v/as

DUT

Y.
facrifieed

mankind.

For thefe objels they

to tortures

and chearfully expofed themfelves

and death.
fires

benevolence probably that contributed to light the

of

Smithfield, and point the daggers of Saint Bartholomew.

The
re-

inventors of the

Gunpowder Treafon were

lives

in general

men

markable for the fandity of their

manners.
It is

and the

feverity of their

probable indeed, that fome ambitious views, and

fome fentiments of hatred and abhorrence

lence and integrity of thefe perfons.
It is

mixed with the benevoprobable that no

wrong

adion was ever committed from views

ception they put
plete.

entirely pure.

But the de-

upon themfelves might

neverthelefs be

com-

At

all

events their opinions

upon

the fubjetS could not

alter the real nature

of the

adtion..

The

quality

The

true folutlon of the queftion

lies

In obferving, that the

is

of an aftion
diftind from

difpofitiou

with which an adtion

another.

is

adopted

one thing, and the

the difpofition with

adtion

itfelf
;

right

adion

may

be done from a wrong

which

it is

performed.

difpofition

in that cafe

we approve

the adlion, but

condemn

the

ador.

wrong adion may be done from a

right difpofition

in that cafe

we condemn

the adion, but approve the ador.

If

the difpofition

by which a

man

is

governed have a fyllematical

he cannot
fail

tendency to the benefit of his fpecies,

our efteem, however miftaken he

to obtain

may

be in his condud.

Farther
ficulty.

dif-

Eut what
cumftances
?

fhall

we

fay to the duty of a

man under
clearly

thefe cir-

Calvin,

we

will fuppofe,

was

and confcientioufly

OF DUTY.
tioully perfuaded that
'
_

loi
II.

he ousht to burn Servetus. Oueht he to r^OOK ^ ^ ^ CHAP. v have burned him or not ? " If he burned him, he did an action
_
_
'^

III.
'

deteftable in

its

own

nature

if

he refrained, he afted in oppoli-

tion to the befl

judgment of
It is

his

own

underftanding as to a point
it

of moral obUgation."

abfurd however to fay, that

was

in

any
is,

fenfe his

duty to burn him.

The moft

that can be admitted

that his difpofition

was

virtuous, and that in the circumftances

to be deplored flowed

in

which he was placed an action greatly

that difpofition

from

by

invincible neceffity.

Shall

we

fay then that

it

was the duty of Calvin, who did

not underftand the principles of toleration, to al upon a truth

of which he was ignorant

at

Suppofe that a perfon

is

to be tried

York next week

Shall

for murder, and that

quit him.

we

fay that

it

was

my evidence would acmy duty to go to York,

?

though
ciples

knew nothing

of the matter
it is

Upon

the fame prin-

we might
in half

affii-m that

my
trial

duty to go from London to

will

York
time
;

an hour,

as

the

come on within

that

the impoifibility not being

more

real in

one cafe than in

affirm, that
it

the other.
is

Upon

the fame principles

we might

my

duty to be impeccable, omnifcient and almighty^

Duty is a term the ufe of which feems

in

to be to defcribe the

mode

Meaning of
duty.

which any being may

limited in
its

bell be

employed

for the general good. that

It is

extent

by the extent of the capacity of

its

being.

Now

capacity varies in

idea in proportion as

we

102
^

DUT

Y.
it

rHAP^TH ^
'^

"

varjT

our view of the fubjed to which

belongs.
a

What
is

am

capable of, if

you connder me merely

as

man,

one thing

what

am

capable of as a

man

of a deformed figure, of weak

imderftandlng, of fuperftitious prejudices, or as the cafe

pen,
is

may

hapthefe

another..

So much cannot be expedted of me under

abfent.

difadvantages, as if they were

finition

But, if this be the true de-

of duty,

it is

abfurd to fuppofe in any cafe that an adion

injurious to the general welfare can be clafTed in the rank of

duties.
.

Application.

To
I

apply thefe obfervations to the cafes that have been Hated.

it

Ignorance, fo far as

goes, completely annihilates capacity.

trial at

As

was uninformed of the

York,

could not be influenced

it is

by any
was
If

confideration refpeiling

it.

But

abfurd to fay that

I

it

my

duty to negledl a motive with which

was unacquainted.
tole-

you

alledge,

" that Calvin was ignoi"ant of the principles of

it

ration,

and had no proper opportunity to learn them,"

follows
it

that in burning Servetus

he did not violate his duty, but

duty to burn him.

does

not follow that

it

was

his

Upon

the fup-

pofition here ftated duty

is filent.

Calvin was unacquainted with

the principles of juftice, and therefore could not pradtife them.

The duty

of no

man

can exceed his capacity

but then neither

can in any cafe an at of injuftice be of the nature of duty.

Inferences.

There
fubjedt,

are certain Inferences that flow

it

from

this

view of the
is

which

may

be proper to mention.
.

Nothing

more

common

OF DUTY.
common
than for Individuals and ibcietles of

103

men

to alledge that
"

^^-^'i^'^J^

C-Ia/il

111.
'

they have adled to the befh of their judgment, that they have

done
it

their duty,

and therefore that their condudt, even

Is

fliould

prove to be miil;aken,

neverthelefs virtuous.

This appears
befl:

to be

an

error.

An

adlon, though done with the

intention

in the world,

may have

nothing in

it

of the nature of virtue.

In reality the moft

efTentlal

part of virtue confifts in the incef-

fantly feeking to inform ourfelves more accurately upon the fub-

jel of utility

and
is

right.

Whoever

is

greatly

mlfmformed

re-

fpedling them,

Indebted for his error to a defedl in his philan-

thropy and

zeal.

Secondly, fince abfolute virtue

may

be out of the power of a

to lay the greateft

human
ftrefs

being,

it

becomes us in the mean time

upon

a virtuous difpofition,

which

is

not attended with the

is

fame ambiguity.
fequence, fince
it

A
;

virtuous difpofition

of the utmofl: con-

will In the majority

of inftances be productive

of virtuous adllons

fince

it

tends, in exail proportion to the

quantity of virtue, to increafe our difcernment and improve our

underftanding

and' fince, if

it

were unlverfally propagated,

It

would immediately

lead to the great

end of virtuous adllons, the

pureft and moft exqulfite happlnefs of intelligent beings.

But

a virtuous difpofition
exercife of private

is

principally generated
rigid

by the uncontrolled

judgment, and the

conformity of every

man

to the didlates of his confcience.

CHAP.

I04

OF THE EQUALITY

CHAP.

IV.

OF THE EQUALITY OF MANKIND.

PHYSICAL EQUALITY.
EQUALITY.
JUSTICE.

OBJECTION.

ANSWERS.

MORAL

HOW

LIMITED.

PROVINCE OF POLITICAL

BOOK
CHAP.
^

II.

B
I --

"^HE
.

equality of

mankind
.

Is

either

pliyfical
.

or

moral.
it

IV.
>

Their phyfical equality

may

be confidered either as
faculties

Phyfical
equality.

relates to

the ftrength of the body or the

of the mind.

Objeaion.

This part of the fubjed: has been expofed to

jedlion.
It

cavil

and obIs

has been

faid,

" that the reverfe of this equality

the refult of our expeiience.

fpecies
'

Among

the individuals of our

alike.

we

adually find that there are not two

One man

is

ftrong and another weak.

One man

is

wife and another

foolifh.

All that exifts in the world of the inequality of conis

ditions

to be traced to this as their fource.

The

ftrong

man

poflefles

power

to fubdue,

and the weak ftands in need of an

is

ally to protedl.

The confequence

inevitable

the equality of

conditions

is

a chimerical affumption, neither poffible to be reit

duced into

practice, nor defirable if

could be fo reduced."

Upon

OF MANKIND.
Upon
this ftatement

105

two obfervations
origin infinitely
ftate

are to be
lefs

made.
it

Firft,
'

BOOK
CHAP.
*
^^

ii.

IV.
'

this inequality
fent.

was

in

its

than

is

at pre-

Anfwers.

In the uncultivated
little

of

man

difeafes,

efFeminacy and
ftrength cf

luxury were
every one
neighbour.

known, and of confequence the

much more

nearly approached to the ftrength of his

ftate

In the uncultivated

of

man

the underftandings
their viev.'s nearly
firft

of

all

were

limited, their wants, their ideas

It

and

upon
from
and

a level.
this

was

to be expected that in their

departure

ftate great irregularities

would introduce themfelves

it is

the objedt of fubfequent

wifdom and improvement

to

mitigate thefe irregularities.

Secondly, notwithftanding the incroachments that have been

made upon

the equality of mankind, a great and fubftantial.

equality remains.

There

is

no fuch

difparity

among

the

human
in fub-

race as to enable one

man

to hold fevei-al other

men

jiedion, except fo far as they are willing to be fubjedl.

All go-

vernment

is

founded in opinion.

Men

at prefent live
it

under any

particular form, becaufe they conceive

their intereft to

do

fo.

One

part indeed of a

community or empire may be held

in fub-

jelion

by
;

force

but this cannot be the perfonal force of their

defpot

it

muft be the force of another part of the community,

it

who

are of opinion that

is

their intereft to fupport his

au-

thority.
it

Deftroy
to

this opinion,
It

and the

fabric vs^hich

is

built

upon
are

falls

the

ground.

follows therefore that

all

men

effentially independent.

So much for the phyfical equality.

P The

io5

OF THE EQ^UALITY
The moral
equality
I
is
ftill

lefs

open

to reafonable exception.

By

moral equality

underftand the propriety of applying one

unalterable rule of juftice.to

every

-cafe

that

may

arife.

This
th^e
v^^ill

cannot be queftioned but upon arguments that would fubvert

very nature of virtue.

" Equality,"

it

has been affirmed, "

always be an unintelligible fidion, fo long as the capacities of

men

fhall

be unequal, and their pretended claims have neither

guarantee nor fantIon by which they can be inforced *."

furely juftice
ftradled
is

But
ab-

fufficiently intelligible

in
it

its

own

nature,

from the confideration whether

be or be not reduced

into practice.

Juftice has relation to beings

endowed with

per-

ception, and capable of pleafure and pain.

refults

Now

it

immediately
arbi-

from the nature of fuch beings, independently of any

is

trary conftitution, that pleafure

agreeable and pain odious, pleaIt is

fure to be defired and pain to be obviated.

therefore juft and

it lies

reafonable that fuch beings fhould contribute, fo far as

their

in

power, to the pleafure and benefit of each other.

Among
lefs

pleafures

fome

are

more

exquifite,

more unalloyed and

pre-

carious than others.

It is juft

that thefe fhould be preferred.

From

thefe

fimple

principles

we may deduce

the

moral
nature,

equality of mankind.

We

are partakers of a

common

" 0

fl

dit

que
il

nous avians tons

les

memes

droits.

J'igfiore ce que c'ejt que les

tnemes droits,
fanElion."

oil

y a inegalite de talens ou de force,

iS

nulle garantie, niille

Rayjial, Revolution d'/lmeriqiie, p. 34.

and

OF MANKIND.
and the fame caufes that contribute to the benefit of one contribute to the benefit

107

of another.

Our

fenfes

and

faculties are

of

the fame denomination.

Our

pleafures

and pains will therefore

to

be the fame.
pare, to judge
is

We are all of us endowed with reafon, able

and to
infer.

com-

The improvement
is

therefore

which

to be defired for the

one

to be defired for the other.

We

fhall

be provident for ourfelves and ufeful to each other, in pro-

portion as

we

rife

above the atmofphere of prejudice.

The fame
fhould

independence, the fame freedom from any fuch

prevent us -from giving the reins to our

reflraint, as

own
we

underftanding, or

from uttering upon

will

all

occafions whatever
all.

think to be true,
certain op-

conduce to the improvement of

There are

portunities

and a

certain fituation
it is

moft advantageous to every

human
to
all,

being, and

juft that thefe fhould be

communicated

as nearly at leaft as the general

economy

will permit.

There

is

indeed one fpecies of moral inequality parallel to the

How limited.

phyfical inequality that has been already defcribed.

The
by

treat-

ment

to

which men

are entitled

is

to

be meafured

their
feat

merits and their virtues.

That country would not be the

of wifdom and reafon, where the benefaftor of his fpecies was

confidered in the fame point of view as their enemy.
reality this diftindlion, fo far

But

in

from being adverfe

it,

to equality in

any tenable

fenfe,

is

friendly to

and

is

accordingly

known

by the appellation of equity, a term derived from thd fame

origin.

Though

in

fome

fenfe an exception,

it

tends to the fame

purpo'e

io8

OF THE EQUALITY OF MANKIND.

IV.
'

BOOK IT.
CHAP.
'

purpofe to which the principle f f ^ ^

It is

itfelf is

indebted for

its

value,

calculated to infufe into every bofom an emulation of ex-

Province of
political juftice.

cellence.

The

thing really to be defired

,
.

as pouible

arbitrary

diumdlions,

11' and leavmg

We

is

the removing as
to

much
and

talents

virtue the field of exertion unimpaired.

to afford to
all

fliould

endeavour

the fame opportunities and the fame encourage-

ment, and to render juftice the

common

intereft

and choice.

CHAP.

109

I09

CHAP.

V.

RIGHTS OF MAN.
THE QUESTION STATED.

FOUNDATION OF SOCIETY. OP-

POSITE RIGHTS IMPOSSIBLE.

I'REMISES.

CONCLUSION FROM THESE

CONSIDERED.

DISCRETION

RIGHTS

OF

KINGS.

IMMORAL

CONSEQUENCES OF THE DOCTRINE

OF RIGHTS.
I.

RIGHTS OF COMMUNITIES.
AID.
2.

THE RIGHT OF MUTUAL

OF

OBJECTIONS EXPLANATION. ORI:

GIN OF THE TERM, RIGHT.

RIGHTS OF PRIVATE JUDG-

MENT AND
OF THIS

THE PRESS.

EXPLANATION. REASONS
TENDENCY.

COMMUNITY:
STRAINT.
SION.

LIMITATION UPON THE FUNCTIONS OF THE I. THE INUTILITY OF ATTEMPTING RE2.

ITS

PERNICIOUS

CONCLUmore
*

THERE
,

is

no fubjed

that has been difcufled with

BOOK
CHAP.
v

ii.

V.
*

eagernefs and pertinacity than the rights of man.

Has he
on

The

quellion

any
both

rights, or has
fides

he none
;

Much may

plaufibly be alledged

ftated.

of

this queftion

and in the conchifion thofe reafoners

appear to exprefs themfelves with the greateft accuracy

brace the negative.

who em-

There

is

nothing that has been of greater

differvice to the caufe of truth, than the hafty

and unguarded
it
:

manner

in

which

its

advocates have fometimes defended

and
it

:iIO

RIGHTS OF MAN.
ir.
it

BOOK
CHAP.
^

V.

^111 be admitted to be peculiarly unfortunate, if the advocates 7 r y

fide

'

on one

of this queilion ihould be found to have the greateft

quantity of truth, while their adverfaries have expreffed themfelves in a

manner more confonant

to reafon

and the nature of

things.

Where

the queftion has been fo extremely darkened

it

by
to'

an ambiguous ufe of terms,

try,

may may

at

any

rate

be defirable

whether, by a patient and fevere inveftigation of the

it

firft

principles of political fociety,

be placed in a light confi-

derably different from the views of both parties.

Toundatlon of fociety.

Political fociety, as has already

been obferved,
It is

is

founded in

the principles of morality and jufxice.

lectual beings to be

impoffible for intel-

brought into coalition and intercourfe, with

adapted to their nature and con-

out a certain

mode of conduft,

nexion, immediately becoming a duty inciimbent on the parties

concerned.

Men

would never have

aflbciated, if

they had not

imagined
tually

that in confequence of that affociatlon they

would mu-

conduce to the advantage and happinefs of each ether.

the real purpofe, the genuine bafis of their intercourfe
is
;

This

is

and, as far as this purpofe

the end of
its

anfwered, fo far does fociety anfwer

inftitution.

Oppofite
lights impofilble.

There

is

only one poftulate more, that

is

neceffary to bring

us to a conclufive

mode

of reafoning upon this fubjedt.

right, for
it

What-'

ever

is

meant by the term

will prefently appear that

the fenfe of the term

itfelf

has never been clearly underftood,

there

R IGHTS
tliere

M A N.
cannot
cla^Ti

in
BOOKir. CHAP. V.
^^

can neither be oppofite rights, nor rights and duties hoftlle ^^

to each other.

The

rights of

one

man
;

with or be

'

deftrudive of the rights of another

for this, inftead of ren Jer-

ing the fubjedl an important branch of truth and morality, as the

advocates of the rights of

man

certainly underfland

it

to be,

would be

to reduce If

it

to a

heap of unintelligible jargon and ina right to be free, another

;

confiftency.

one

man have

man

cannot have a right to make him a flave

a right to
infli(fl

if

one

man have
to.

chaftifement

upon me,
;

cannot have a right

withdraw myfelf from chaftifement

right to a

if

my

neighbour have a
have a right

fum of money
in

in

my

poffeflion, I cannot
lefs

to retain
I

it

my pocket.

It

cannot be

incontrovertible, that

have no right to omit what

my

duty prefcribes.

From hence

it

inevitably follows that

is

men have no

rights,. Conclufion
p^cmifes.

By

right, as the

word

employed
is,
it,

in this fubjedl, has always

been imderftood difcretion, that

either doing a thing or omitting
liable to

a full and complete

power of

without the perfon's becoming

is,

animadverfion or cenfure from another, that

in other
guilt.

words, without his incurring any degree of turpitude or

Now in this

fenfe I affirm that

man

has no rights, no difcretionary

power whatever.

It is

commonly

faid,

" that a

man

has a right to the difpofal

Difcretion
coniidered.

of his fortune, a right to the employment of his time, a right to

the uncontrolled choice of his profeffion or purfuits."

But

this

can

114

RIGHTSOFMAN.
II.

BOOK
*

CHAP.V.
V
'

can never be confiftently affirmed ^

till

it

can be fliewn that he

has no duties, prefcribing and limiting his

all

mode of proceeding
as

in

thefe refpeds.

My

neighbour has juft

much

right to put

an end to

my

exiftence with dagger or poifon, as to

affi fiance

deny

me

that pecuniary

without which without which

muft

ftarve, or as to

deny

me

that affiftance

my

intelledtual

attain-

ments or
juft as

my

moral exertions will be materially injured.

right to

He

has

much

amufe himfelf with burning

my

houfe or

torturing
a

my

children

upon the

rack, as to fhut himfelf

up in

cell carelefs

about his fellow men, and to hide " his talent in

a napkin."

If

men have any

total

rights,

any difcretlonary powers, they muft

whether
I
fit

be in things of
or on the
left

indifference, as

on the right

fide

of

my

fire,

or dine on beef to day or to-

morrow.

Even

thefe rights are

much fewer

than

we

are apt to
it

imagine, fince before they can be completely eftabliihed,

muft

be proved that
poffible

my

choice

on one

fide or the other

can in no

way

contribute to the benefit or injury of myfelf or of

in the world.

any other perfon

Thofe muft indeed be

rights

well worth the contending for, the very effence of which confifts

in their abfolute nugatorinefs and inutility.

In

reality

nothing can appear more wotfderful to a careful

enquirer, than that

fliould ever

two

ideas fo incompatible as

man and
it is,

rights^

have been affociated together.

Certain

that

one
of

RIGHTS OF MAN.
of them mufl be utterly exclufive and annihilatory of the other. ^
'

113
I'OOK
'
^^

11.

C H AP. V.
'

Before

we

afcribe rights to

man, we

mijfl;

conceive of

him

as a
dif-

behig endowed with

ferences and
intelleft,

intelleiSt,

and capable of difcerning the

tendencies of things.

But a being endowed with

and capable of difcerning the differences and tendencies

of things, inftantly becomes a moral being, and has duties in-

cumbent on him

to dlfcharge

and duties and

rights, as has al-

ready been fliewn, are abfolutely exclufive of each other.

It

has been affirmed

by the

zealous advocates of liberty, " that

rights ;"

Rights of

princes and magiftrates have

no

and no pofition can be

more

incontrovertible.
its

There

is

no

fituation of their lives that

Is

has not

correfpondent duties.

There

no power intruded

to

them

that they are not

It is

bound

to exercife exclufively for the

public good.
xiid

firange that perfons adopting this principle

not go a ftep farther, and perceive that the fame reftridions

to fubjetSs

were applicable

and

citizens.

Nor

Is

the fallacy of this language

more confplcuous than

Its

immoral
of the duc,,ghts.

Immoral tendency.
rerm right
that

To
it,

this Inaccurate

and unjuft ufe of the

accumulates to no end
to the welfare

we owe
dlfFufed

that the mifer,

who

which

would have conduced

of thou-

fands, that the luxurious

fises

man, who wallows

In Indulgence and
fail

numerous

families

around him pining In beggary, never

to

tell

us of their rights, and to filence animadverfion and quiet

tJie

cenfure of their

own mind by

reminding us, " that they

Q_

came

114

RIGHTS OF MAN.
11.

BOOK
*

came
debts,

fairly

into poffeffion of their wealth, that they

owe no

'

and

that of confequence

no man has authority

that

to enquire
is

^nto- their private

manner of difpofmg of
mankind

which

their

own."

great majority of

are confcious that

they

ftand in need of this fort of defence, and are therefore very ready
to

combine againft the

infolent intruder,

who

ventures to enforget, that

quire into " things that do not concern him."

They

the wife

man
is

and. the Koneft

man, the friend of

his country andJ

his kind,
'
.

concerned for every thing

by which they may be

affeded, and qaxries about with^him a diploma, conftituting

inquifitor general of the moral

him

conduit of his neighbours, with'

to virtue,

a duty annexed to recal

truth can enable

them

by every

leffon

that
plaitt.

him

to read,

and every punilhment

that

fpeaking

is

competent to

Inflid..

RiVhts of

It

Is.

fcarcely necefFary to add, that, if individuals have

no

commumj-Jg^ts,

neither has fociety,

which

poffeffes

aothing but what in-

dividuals have brought into a

common

flock.

The

abfurdity of
is: ftill

the

common, opinion,

as applied to this

fubjefl,

more

glaring, if

poffible, than in the view in which

it.

we

have already

confidered

According to the ufual fentiment every club aflem-

bling for any ci-^^ purpofe, every congregation of religionifts

aC

fembling for

"the worfliip

of God, has a right to

matter

eftablifli

any

provifions or ceremonies,,

na

how

ridiculous, or deteftable,

provided they do not interfere with the freedom of others.

fon
lies'

Rea-

proftrate

under their

feet.

They have

a right to trample
upofi

RIGHTS OF MAN.
upon and
have been
infult

u?
fame
fpirit

her as they pleafe.

It is

in the

wc pS9 p
its
'

v*
'

told- that

every nation has a right to

choofe

form of government.

moft acute, original and ineftimable

author was probably mifled by the vulgar phrafeology on this

fubjet,

when he

aflerted, that,

"

at a

time

when

neither the peo-

ple of France nor the national affembly

were troubling themfelves

about the

affairs

of England or the Englifli parliament, Mr.

Burke's condudl was unpardonable in commencing an unpro-

voked attack upon them *."

There

are various objecflions that fuggeft themfelves to the Objeaiom.

theory which fubverts the rights of

men

and

if

the theory

be true, they will probably appear in the

refult to

be fo far

from

really hoftile to

it,

as to
its

be found more fairly deducible

from and

confiftent with

principles, than

with any of thofe

with which they have inadvertently been conneded.

In the
r
1

firfl
1

place
r

it

refult

it from the reafonings already adduced under the head of jufr

has fometlmes been alledged, and feems to

ii

i.

The rights

of mutual aid.

tice, that

"

men have a

right to the afliftance

and co-operation

of their fellows in every honeft purfuit,"

this propofition,

But,

when we

affert Explanation.

we mean fomething by
what
is

the

word

right exceed-

ingly different from

commonly underftood by

the term.
if

We

do not underftand fomething difcretionary, which,

not

voluntarily fulfilled, cannot be confidered as a matter of claim.

* Rights of

Man, page

Q^a

On

ii6

RIGHTS OF MAN.
ir.

BOOK
*

On

the contrary every thing adduced

upon

that occafion

was

'

calculated to

fhew

that

it

was a matter of

llrid;

claim

and perif

haps fomething would be gained with refpedl to perfpicuity,

we

rather chofe to diftinguifh

fo

it

by

that appellation, than

its

by a

name

much

abufed, and fo ambiguous in

application, as

the term right.

Orr^nofthe
term, right.

The
ftate

true Origin of this latter term

political

is
,

relative ^to
r
i

the prefent
r

of

government,

m
.

which many of thole actions

which moral duty

mofi: ftridly enjoins us are In

legiflative fanftion.

no degree brought
uninfluenced

within the fphere of

Men

by

comprehenfive principles of
temperance, are
felfifh,

juftice,

commit every

fpecies of in-

hard-hearted, licentious and cruel, and

all

maintain their right to

their country are filent
political enquirers

thefe caprices, becaufe the laws

of

with regard to them.

Philofophers and

have too frequently adopted the fame princidegree of accommodation

;

ples with a certain

though in

fadt

men

have no more right to thefe erroneous propenfities in their

fenfe,

moft qualified
extravagance.

than they had to them originally in

all

their

It is true, that,

under the forms of fociety

now
But

exifting in the world, intemperance

and the caprices of perfonal

intercourfe too frequently efcape without animadverfion.

in a

more

perfect form,

though they

may

not

fall

under the

cognifance of law, the offender will probably be fo unequivocally

reminded by the

fincerity of his neighbours of the error

he has

com-

RIGHTSOFMAN.
committed, as to be in no danger of running away with the
opinion that he had a right to commit
it.

117
pu^^p
*

v'
'

fecond and more important objelion to the dodi-ine

is

am

2.

Rights of

private jiidg-

maintaining

derived from the rights as they are called of pri- ment

and of

vate judgment, and the liberty of the prefs.

But

it

may

eafily

be

fhewn, that

thefe,

no more than the

articles

already mentioned,

are rights of difcretion.

If they were, they

would prove,

that a

man was

ftridtly juftifiable in
falfe,

publifhing what he believed to be

pernicious or
difference
fucius, of

and that

it

was a matter of

perfedt moral in-

whether he conformed

to the religious rites of

ConExplanation.

Mahomet, or of

Chrift.

The

political
it is

freedom of

confcience and of the prefs, fo far from being as

commonly
of rights

fuppofed an extenlion,

is

new

cafe of the limitation

and

difcretion.

Confcience and the prefs ought to he unreftrained,

a right to deviate

not becaufe

men have

from the exadl

line that

duty

prefcribes, but becaufe fociety, the aggregate

of individuals,

has no right to afllime the prerogative of an infallible judge, and

to undertake authoritatively to prefcribe to
ters
its

members

in mat-

of pure fpeculation.

One
fociety

obvious reafon againfl

is

this

affumption on the part of the

Rraionaof
tion upon' the

the impoifibility

by any compulfatory method of bring

c mg men to unitormity 01r opmion.

'

--ni

he judgment

we form upon

,-

fundions of
the
i.

commuinu-

topics of general truth,

is

or

is

imagined to be founded upon

be foothed by gentle applications
to

The

tility

of atre-

evidence

and, however

it

may

tempting
Ihaiiit.

ii8

RIGHTS OF MAN.
IT.

BOOK
*

to the betraying

its

impartiality,

it is

apt to repel with

no

little

'

pertinacity whatever

comes under the form of compulfion.

Perfub-

Tecution cannot perfuade the underftanding, even

when
;

it

dues our refolution.

It

may make

us hypocrites
therefore,

but cannot
is

make
above

us converts.
all

The government
imbue
its

which

anxious

things to

fubjedls

with integrity and virtue,

will be the fartheft in the

explicit

world from difcouraging them in the

avowal of their fentiments.

3. Its perni-

But there

is

another reafon of a higher order.

Man

is

not, as

cious ten-

dency.

has been already fhewn, a perfect being, but perfectible.

No

government,

that has yet exifted, or

is

is

likely prcfently to exift

upon

the face of the earth,

faultlefs.

No

government ought
its

therefore pertinacioufly to
tions
;

refift
it

the change of

own

inftitu-

and

ftill lefs

ought

to fet

up

a ftandard

upon the

vari-

ous topics of

human

fpeculation, to reftrain the excurfions of

an

inventive mind.

It is

only by giving a free fcope to thefe ex-

curfions, that fcience, philofophy

and morals have arrived

at their

prefent degree
that
ftill

of perfection, or are capable of going on to

perfection, in comparifon of

greater

which

all

that

has been already done

will perhaps appear childifh.

But

a pro-

ceeding, abfolutely necefTary for the purpofe of exciting the

to thefe falutary excurfions, and
ftill

mind
to,

more

necefTary in order

give them their proper operation, confifts in the unreftrained

communication of men's thoughts and

If every

dijloveries to each other.

man have

to begin again at the point

from which

his

neigh-

RIGHTS OF MAN.
neighbour
fet out,

119

the labour will be endlefs, and the progrefs in

BOOK
*

IT.

an unvarying

circle.

There

is

nothing that more eminently conthan for every

tributes to intellectual energy,

man

to be habi-

tuated to follow without alarm the train of his fpeculations, and

to utter without fear the conclufions that have fuggefted
felves to

them-

ConcluGoi.

him.

But does
It

all

this

imply
to

that

men have

a right to
?

adt

any thing but

virtue,

and

utter

any thing but truth

Certainly not.
fociety has

implies indeed that there are points with

which

no

right to interfere, not that difcretion

and caprice

are

more

free, or

duty

lefs

flrid

upon
is

thefe points, than

upoa

any others with which huinaa adtion

converfant*

CHAP,

I20

OF

THE EXERCISE
C

HA

P.

VI.

OF THE EXEPvCISE OF PRIVATE JUDGMENT.

FOUNDATION
I.

OF VIRTUE.

BY THE NATURE

HUMAN ACTIONS REGULATED*. OF THINGS. BY POSITIVE INSTI2.

TUTION.
VIRTUE.

TENDENCY
ITS

OF THE LATTER:

I.

TO EXCITE

EQUIVOCAL CHARACTER IN THIS RESPECT.

INAPTITUDE FOR
PROVINCE OF CONSCIENCE CONSIDERED.

2. TO INFORM THE JUDGMENT. ITS

THAT
PURPOSE.

TENDENCY OF AN INTERFERENCE WITH THAT PROVINCE.

RECAPITULATION. ARGUMENTS IN FAVOUR OF POSITIVE INSTITUTION:

I.

THE NECESSITY OF REPELLING PRI:

VATE INJUSTICE.
EVIDENCE.

OBJECTIONS

THE UNCERTAINTY OF
THE UNSUIT-

THE DIVERSITY OF MOTIVES.

ABLENESS OF THE MEANS OF CORRECTION EITHER TO IMPRESS NEW SENTIMENTS OR TO STRENGTHEN OLD
ONES.

PUNISHMENT FOR THE SAKE OF EXAMPLE CONURGENCY OF THE CASE.

SIDERED.
3.

2.

REBELLION.

WAR.
^

OBJECTIONS. REPLY.
one rule of condud,
rule, the exer-

BOOK
"::

IL

f 's

CHAP.VL
y~.

a rational beins; there can be but

'

-^
^-.fQ

juflice,

Foundation
of Virtue,

and one mode of afcertaining that

If in

Qf

j^-.g

underftandlng.

any inflance

be made the meI

fall

chanical inftrument of abfolute violence, in that inftance

under

OF PRIVATE JUDGMENT.
eood or bad. under no defcription of moral conduit either ^ ^
if,

'

121
But,
'

BOOK
"^

ir.

CHAP. VI.
v '

not being operated upon by abfolute compulfion,

that
is

be wholly

prompted by fomething
and
adl

frequently called by that name,

fear

from the hope of reward or the

is

of punifhment,

my

conduct

pofitively

wrong.

Here however

a diftindlion

is
is

to be

made.

Juflice, as

it

was

defined in a preceding chapter,

coincident with utility.

am

myfelf a part of the great whole, and

that

my

happinefs
is

is

a pait of

complex view of things by which

juftice

regulated.

The

hope of reward therefore and the

fear of punifhment, confined

within certain ftrid limits, are motives that ought to have influence with

my

mind.

There

are

two

defcriptions

of tendency that
it

may

belong to Human
gulated,

ac-

any adion, the tendency which

univerfal laws of exiftence,

poffefles

by the

neceflary and
refults

and the tendency which

from

tureof
things
:

the pofitive interference of

fome

intelligent being.
is

The

nature
all

of happinefs and mifery, pleafure and pain,

pofitive inftitution
:

independent of

that

is,

it

is

immutably true
is

that whatever

tends to procure a balance of the former

to be defired,
latter is to

and

whatever tends to procure a balance of the

jeled.
political

be re-

In like manner the promulgation of virtue, truth and

juflice

muft always be

right.

There

is

perhaps no

adtion of a rational being that has not fome tendency to promote

thefe objedts, and confequently that has not a moral character

founded in the abflrad nature of things.

The

i^^

OF THE EXERCISE
'^^^ tendency of pofitive inftitution
is

CUAF. vi
a^TBTpoJi^
'

of two

forfs, to fur-

^^^

"^^

"^'^^^

^^ additional motive to the pradice of virtue or

""

tion.'"

^^g^^

^"^^

^'^

inform

my
are

underftanding as to what adtions are

the"ktte7^

right and

what adlions

wrong.

Much cannot

be faid in com-

mendation of either of thefe tendencies.

I.

To

excite

Firfl:,

pofitive inftitution

may
'

furnifh
I

me

with an additional

virtue.
Its equivo. cal charafter
in this re-

motive to the praftice of virtue.

have an opportunity of con;

tributiug Very eflentially to the advantage of twenty individuals

fpeft,

they will be benefited, and no other perfons will fuftain a material injury.
I

ought to embrace

this

opportunity.

Here

let

us fuppofe pofitive inftitution to interfere, and to annex fome

great perfonal reward to myfelf to the performance of

my

duty.

This immediately changes the nature of the adlion.

preferred
-

Before I

it

for

its

intrinfic excellence.
it,

Now,

fo far as the

po-

fitive

inftitution operates, I prefer

becaufe fome perfon has

arbitrarily

annexed

to

it

a great weight of felf-intereft.

But

vir-

tue, confidered as the quality of

an intelligent being, depends

is

upon

the difpofition with

which the adlion

accompanied.

Under

a pofitive inftitution then this very adlion,

which

is

in-

trinfically virtuous,

may,

fo far as relates to the agent,

become

vicious.

The

vicious

man would

before have negledied the ad-

vantage of thefe twenty individuals, becaufe he would not bring

a certain inconvenience or trouble

upon

himfelf.

The fame man

with the fame difpofition will

caufe his

now promote
it.

their advantage, be-

own

welfare

is

concerned in

Twenty, other things

equal,,

OF PRIVATE JUDGMENT.
equal,
is

123

twenty times better than one.

the cafe, or

He

that

is

not gOA'erned ^^2p' vi

a difpo'
*

by

the moral arithmetic of

who ads from

is

fition

dlredly

at

war with

that arithmetic,

unjuft.

In other

words, morahty requires that

we

fhould be attentive only to the

tendency which belongs to any alion by the neceflary and univerfal laws of exiftence.
ple,

This

is

what

is

meant by the

princi;"

" that

we

fhould do good, regardlefs of the confequences

and by that other, " that

STOod to refult

we may
The

not do

evil,

from the profped of

ftill

from
if,

it."

cafe

would have been rendered

more

glaring,

inftead of the welfare of twenty,

we had

fup-

pofed the welfare of millions to have been concerned.

In reality,

whether the
be the fame.

difparity be great or fmall, the inference

ought to

Secondly, pofitlve inftitution

as to
it is

may

inform

my
are

underftanding

2.

To

inform

the judg-

what

actions are right

reflect

and what adlions

wrong.

Here

ment.
Its inaptitude

proper for us to

upon the terms underftanding and

it is

for that pur-

pofe.

information.

Underftanding, particularly as
is

concerned with
is
its

moral fubjeds,
fphere.

the percipient of truth.

it is

This
is

proper

Information, fo far as

genuine,

a portion detached
that Euclid

from the great body of

aflerts the three

truth.

You inform me, "

angles of a plane triangle to be equal to

two

right

angles."
fition.

Still I

am

unacqviainted with the truth of this propoit;

" But Euclid has demonftrated

His demonftration has

exifted for

two thoufand

years,

and during that term has proved

it

fatisfadtory to every

man by whom

has been underftood."

I

am

124
I

OF THE EXERCISE
am
neverthelefs uninformed.

The knowledge

of truth

lies

In

the perceived agreement or difagreement of the terms of a propofition.

So long

as I

am

unacquainted -with the middle term

fo

by means of which they may be compared,

incommenfurate to

long as they are

furnifhed

my

underftanding,
I

you may have

me

with a principle from which

may

reafon truly to farther

I

confequences, but as to the principle

to

itfelf

may

llridily

be faid

know

nothing about

it..

Every propofition has an

intrinfic evidence
it

of
;

its

own Every

eonfequence has premifes from which

flows

and upon them,,

If

and not upon any thing

elfe, Its validity

depends.

you could

work

a miracle to prove, " that the three angles of a triangle were

equal to two right angles," I

tion

fhouM

ftill

know,

that the propofi-

was
;

either true or falfe previoully to the exhibition of that

miracle

and that there was no neceffary connediion between,

its

any one of

terms and the miracle exhibited.

The

miracle

would

take off

my attention
thfit

from the true queftion

to a queftion

altogether different,

of authority.

By

the authority adaffent to

duced

might be prevailed on to yield an irregular

;

the
its

propofition
truth.

but

could not properly be faid to perceive

But

this

Is

not

all.

If

it

were,

it

might perhaps be regarded

of

as a refinement foreign to the concerns

human

life.

Pofitive

inftitutions

do not content themfelves with requiring

my

affent
to-

OF PRIVATE JUDGMENT.
to certala propofitions, in confideratlon of the refpecftable teflliiioiiy

12^

BOOK II.
*^

by which they are inforced.

This would amount to no

more, than advice flowing from a refpedable quarter, which after

all

might

reject, if

it

did not accord with the mature judg-

ment of

my own

underftanding.

But

in the very nature of thefe

inftitutions there

is

included a iandion, a motive either of punifh-

ment or reward

to induce

me

to obedience.

It is

commonly

faid,

" that pofitive

infl;itutions

ought to leave
properly in-

Province of confcience
confidered-

me

perfedlly free in matters of confcience, but

may

terfere

with

my

condudl in

civil

concerns."

But

this diftindlion fort

feems to have been very lightly taken up.

What

of moralift

muft he

be,

who makes no
men
is
?

confcience of what pafles in his in-

tercourfe with other

fuppofition, " that

Such a

diftindlion proceeds

upon the
I

it

of great confequence whether

bow

to

the eaft or the weft

whether
I

I call

the objedt of

my

worfhip

Jehovah or Alia
coat.

whether

pay a

priefl in a furplice or a black

Thefe are points in which an honeft

and
inflexible.

man ought

to be

rigid

But

as to thofe other,
;

whether he
fhall

fhall

be

a tyrant, a flave or a free citizen

whether he

bind himfelf

with multiplied oaths impofllble to be performed, or be a rigid

obferver of truth
;

whether he

fhall

fwear allegiance to a king

all

de jure or a king defaBo^ to the beft or the worft of

poffible

governments

refpeding thefe points he

may

fafely

commit

his

eonfcience to the keeping of the civil magiftrate."

there are perhaps

In reality

no concerns of a

rational being, over

which

morality

126
f?L??p^vf
"^

OF THE EXERCISE
inordity does not extend
'

its

province, and refpeding wliich he

''

is

not bound to a confcientious proceeding.

Tendency of
an interte-

fatisficd

at prefent, that a certain J r

condud, funpofe r
'
i.

it

be
in-

tharr'";

^ ''^S^^ attention to the confidence of private converfation,

is

cumbent upon me.

You

tell

me, " there

are certain cafes of

fuch peculiar emergency

think there are not.
If
I

as to fuperfede this rule."

Perhaps
field

admit your propofition, a wide

of

enquiry

is

opened, refpeiSling M'hat cafes do or do not deferve to be

It is little likely

confidered as exceptions.
refpeling
all

that

we

fhould agree

thefe cafes.

How

then does the law treat me, for

I

my confcientious
Becaufe
I will

difcharge of

what

conceive to be
it

my

duty

not turn informer (which,

may

be, I think

an

infamous character) againft

cufes

my Tnoft

valued friend, the law ac-

me

of mifprifion of treafon, felony or murder,''and perhaps

I believe a certain

hangs me.
lain,

individual to be a confirmed vilfociety,

and a moft dangerous member of

duty to

and

feel

it

to be

my

warn

others, perhaps the public, againft the efFed:

I publifli

of his vices.

Becaufe
of

what

know

to be true, the

law
I

convids

me

libel,

fcandalum magnatum^ and crimes of

know

not what complicated denomination.

If the evil flopped here,

it

would be
I

well.

If I only fufFered
it.

a certain calamity, fuppofe death,

hithert been the

could endure
I

Death has
at

common
it.

lot

of men, and
fociety

expet

fome time
later

or other to fubmit to

Human

muft fooner or

be

OF PRIVATE JUDGMENT.
be deprived of ^
its

127

individual

members, whether they be vahiable, /

'

BOOK
*

II.
'

CHAP. VI.
v

or whether they be inconfiderable.

But the punifhment

ad:s not

only retrofpedlively upon me, but profped:ively upon

temporaries and countrymen.

my

con-

My neighbour

entertains the fame,

I

opinion refpedling the condudl he ought to hold as

did.

But

the executioner of public juftice interpofas with a powerful argu-

ment, to convince him that he has miftaken the path of abftratreditude..

What
logic
?

fort
I

of converts- will be produced by

this

unfeeling-

"

have deeply refledled," fuppofe, " upon the nature o

virtue,

and

am am

convinced that a certain proceeding

is

incumbent

on me.
aflures

But the hangman, fupported by an adl of parliament,

me

miftaken."

If I yield

my
of

alion becomes modified, and

is

my opinion to his dilum^ my charadler' too. An inall

fluence like this

fpirit, all

inconfiftent

with

generous magnanimity
all
^

ardent impartiality in the difcovery of truth, and

its aflertion.

inflexible perfeverance in

Countries, expofed to the

perpetual interference of decrees inftead of arguments, exhibit

within their boundaries the mere phantoms of men.

We

can

never judge from an obfervation of their inhabitants what

men

would

be, if they

knew of no

appeal from the tribunal of con-

fcience,

anJ
aft.

if,

whatever they thought, they dared to fpeak, and

dared to

At

prefent there will perhaps occur io the majority of readers

but

128

OF THE EXERCISE
II.

BOOK
CHAP.
^ V

VI.
'

but few inftances of laws, which J

_

may /

be fuppofed to interfere ri

with the confcientious difcharge of duty.

confiderable

num-

ber will occur in the courfe of the prefent enquir)\

readily offer themfelves to a patient refearch.

More would
are fo fuc-

Men

cefsfuUy reduced to a
fitive

common

ftandard

by the operation of polittle

law, that in mofl countries they are capable of

like parrots repeating

more
is

than

each other.

This uniformity

ca-

pable of being produced

in

two ways, by energy of mind and

indefatigablenefs of enquiry, enabling a confiderable

number
;

to

penetrate with equal fuccefs into the receffes of truth

and by

pufillanimity of temper and a frigid indifference to right ajid

wrong, produced by the

as fhall

penalties

which

are fufpended over fuch adt

difmterefledly enquire, and communicate and

It
is

upon

the refult of their enquiries.

thefe
is

eafy to perceive

which of

the caufe of the uniformity that prevails in the prefent

inftance.

Recapitulation,

If there be
that every

any truth more unqueftlonable than the

is

reft, it is,

man

bound

to the exertion of his faculties in the

all

difcovery of right, and to the carrying into effedt

the right
infallible

with which he
ftandard, if
ficial.
it

is

acquainted.

It

may be granted

that

an

could be difcovered, would be confiderably bene-

But

this infallible ftandard itfelf

would be of

little

ufe in

human

affairs, unlefs it

had the property of reafoning as well

as deciding,

of enlightening the mind as well as conftraining the

body.

If a

man

be in fome cafes obliged to prefer his

own

judg-

OF PRIVATE JUDGMENT.
J

129

]ud";ment, he ' to

is

in

all

cafes

obliged to confult that Jiudp-ment, & J fa

BOOK
CHAP.
"^

ir.

VI.
'

before he can determine whether the matter in queftion be of

the fort provided for or no.

So
is

that

from

this

reafoning

it

ulti-

mately appears, that no

man

obliged to conform to any- rule

is

of conduct, farther than the rule

confident with juftice.

Such

are

the

genuine principles of

human
its

fociety.

Such

Ai-gumeius in favour of
pofitiye inItitution
:

would be the unconftrained concord of

where every individual within the

members,

in a ftate

fociety,

and every neighbour

without, was capable of liftening with fobriety to the didlates of

reafon.
gret,
if,

We

fhall

not

fail

to be imprefl'ed

with confiderable

re-

when we

defcend to the prefent mixed charalers of

in

mankind, we find ourfelves obliged

fo fimple

any degree

to depart

from

and grand a
is

principle.

The

univerfal exercife of pri-

vate

judgment

a doftrine fo unfpeakably beautiful, that the

it

true politician will certainly refolve to interfere with

as fpar-

ingly and in as few inftances as poffible.

are the
ception.

Let us confider what

emergencies that

may

be thought to

demand an ex-

They

can only be briefly flated in this place, each of

to be minutely

them requiring
of the enquiry.

examined

in the fubfequent ftages

In the

firfl:

place then

it

feems neceflary for fome powerful

i.Thenecefling private

arbitrator to interfere,

where the proceedings of the individual

threaten the moil injurious confequences to his neighbours, and

where the

infiant nature of the cafe will not accord

with the
uncertain

I30

OF THE EXERCISE
ri.

BOOK
*

CHAP.vr.

uncertain prosirefs of argument and convidion addrefled to the ^ ^ -^

-V

'

mind of
or, to

the offender.

man, fuppofe, has committed murder,

feveral

make

the cafe

more aggravated,
all

murders

and,

having thus

far over-ftepped

thofe boundaries of innocence

and

guilt

which

reftrain the generality of

men.

It

is

to

be pre-

fumed from analogy

other murders.

that he
firft
it

may

be led to the commiffion of

At

may

appear to be no great infringe-

ment upon the

exercife of private

judgment,

to put

it

under fome

degree of reftraint,
crimes.
are

when

it

leads to the commiffion of atrocious

There

are

however

certain difficulties in the cafe

which

worthy

to be confidered.

Objeaions

Firft, as

foon as

we

admit the propriety of a rule fuch

as that

above

ftated,

our next concern will be with the evidence, which

or convi<tion of the perfon accufed,,

fhall lead to the acquittal

the uncertainty of evi-

Now
been

it

is

wcU known,

that

no

principles of evidence have yet.

dence

laid

down

that are infallible.

proceed upon prefumption and probability.

identify the perfon of the offender,

Human affairs univerfally An eye-witnefs muft

this

and in

he

may

be mif-

taken.

We muft neceffarily be contented with prefumptive proofs

j

of his intention
to

and often are or imagine ourfelves

fal
itfelf.

to be obliged

admit prefumptive evidence of the

is

The

confe-

quence

inevitable.

And

furely

it

is

no

trivial evil, to fubjedt

an innocent

man

eventually, to the public

award and the

efta-

blifhed puniihiiient

aonexed to the moft atrocious crimes.

Secondly,

OF PRIVATE JUDGMENT.
Secondly, the fame external adion will
^
_

131

aditiit

of every pof^
'

BOOK
^

ir.
'

CHAP.VI.
the diverfity

fible

fhade of virtue or vice.

One man
his

fhall

commit murder,

to

i^^

remove a troublefome obferver of

will otherwife counteract

depraved difpofitions,

who

of motives.-

and expofe him to the world.

A fe-

cond, becaufe he cannot bear the ingenuous fmcerity with which

he

is

told of his vices.

third,

from

his intolerable

envy of

fuperior merit.
ditates

fourth, becaufe he

knows

his adverfary

me-

an ad: pregnant with extenfive mifchief, and he perceives

its

no other mode by which

fifth,

perpetration can be prevented.

A
adt

in the adlual defence of his father's life or his daughter's

chaftity.

Each of

thefe

men, except perhaps the

lafi:,

may

either

from momentary impulfe, or from any of the

infinite

fnades and degrees of deliberation.

dividual punifliment to
all

Would you award one

adion
?

in-

thefe varieties of

Can you

pretend in each inftance to afcertain the exadl quantity of wrong,

equivalent to each
?

Stridly fpeaking no tv/o

men were

ever
its

guilty of the fame crime; but here

Procruftes's bed,

comes in

pofitive

law with

and

levels all charaders,

and tramples upon

all

diftindions.

Thirdly, punifhment

is

not the appropriate

It

mode of corred-

the unfm'tablenefs of

mg
1

the en-ors ol
1

c
^

mankmd.
r
'r,

will probably be admitted, that

.

the means of correftion:

the only true end of punifhment

is

corredion.

That queflion
"
I

will be difcuffed in another part of the prefent enquiry.

have
to be

done fomething, which though wrong

right
;

in

itfelf,

I i)elieve

or

have done fomething which

ufually admit to be

S 2

wrong;

132

OFTHEEXERCISE
wrong
;

but

my

conviiflion

upon the

fubjedl

is

not fo clear and

forcible, as to

prevent

my

yielding to a powerful temptation."

There can.be no doubt,

that the proper

I

way

of conveying to

my
ac-

underftanding a truth of which

-

am

ignorant, or of irnpreffing

upon me
quainted,
tulation
fions in

a firmer perfuafion of a truth with

is

which

am

by an appeal

to

my

reafon.

Even an angry expof-

with

me upon my
way

condudl will but excite fimilarpaf-

me, and cloud inftead of illuminate

certainly a

my

underftanding.

There

is

of expreffing truth, with fuch benevo-

lence as to

command
all

attention,

and fuch evidence

as to inforce

convidtion in

cafes whatevei",

cithei- to

im-

Punifhment inevitably excites In the

cxcItc, a fenfe of Injuftlce.

fufferer,

and ought to

prefs

new

feutiments:

Let

its

purpofe be to convince
I

me

of the truth of a propofition, which

falfe.

at

prefent believe to be

It is

not abftradtedly confidered of the nature of an arguIt

ment, and therefore

cannot begin with producing convidion.

is

Punifhment

is

a fpecious name, but

in reality nothing

more

than force put upon one being by another

ftronger.

who

happens to be

Now
The

ftrength apparently does not conftitute juftice,

trite

nor ought " might," according to a

right."
is

proverb, to " overcome

cafe of

punifhment, which
I differing In

we

are uovn' confidering,

the cafe of

you and

opinion, and your telling

me

that

you muft be

right,

fmce you have a more brawny arm, or

fkill

have applied your mind more to the acquiring

in your-

weapons than

have.

But

OF PRIVATE JUDGMENT.
But
that
let

i>3
error, but

us fuppole, " that ^

is

am

convinced of

my

^5*?J^ \ I. CrlAP. -t
*

my

convid;ion
is

fuperficid and fluftuatins;, and the object

it

r^^

-f

you propofe

to render

durable and profound."

?

Ought

it

to

^" old ones,

be thus durable and profound

There
it

are
Is
it

no doubt arguments
in reality

and reafons calculated

tical,

to render

fo.

problema_

and do you wifh by the weight of your blows to make

up

for the deficiency of

your

logic

This can never be de-

fended.

An

appeal to force muft appear to both parties, in pro-

portion to the foundnefs of their underftanding, to be a coafeffion of imbecility.

He

that has recourfe to

if

it,

would have no

occafion for this expedient,

he were

fufficiently acquainted

with the powers of that truth

there be

it is

his office to

communicate.
is

If

any man, who,

in fuffering punifliment,

not confcious

of injuftice, he muft have had his mind previoufly debafed by

llavery,
feries

and

his fenfe of

moral right and wrong blunted by a

of oppreffion.

The
not for

cafe

is

not altered for the better,

if I fuffer

punirnment,

punlfli ment

my own

corredion, but for an example to others.

Upon

of'exampl7
confidered,

this fuppofition a

new

difficulty is introduced, refpedting the pro-

priety of one man's being fubjeded to pain, for the fake of im-

proving the charadler and

eradicating the vices

of

another.

The

fuffering

is

here alfo involuntary.

Now, though

will cannot

alter the nature

of juftice,
leaft

it

muft be admitted that the voluntary

fufferer has

at

one advantage over the involuntary, in the

confcious liberality of his purpofe.

He

that fuffers, not for his

134

OF THE EXERCISE
VI.
'

^OOK II.
CHAP,
''

ov/n correftion, but for the advantage of others, Hands, fo far ' ' ' b
as relates to that fufFering, in the fituation

>-^

of an innocent perfon.

If the fufFering

had
it

relation to

him

perfonally as a vicious or

imperfeft charadlei-,

mufl have
It

relation to

him

in refped: either
as to

to the pall or the future. the paft, for that

tion or remedy.
is

cannot have relation to him

concluded and beyond the reach of

the fuppofition
it

altera-

By

has not relation to

him

but to others as to the future.

It

ought to be obferved in

this place, that

is

by innocence

do

not underftand virtue.

Innocence

a fort of neutral character,

and flands in the mid way between good and harm. Undoubtedly
it

were

better, that a perfon ufelefs to fociety

fhould be deftroyed

than a

man

of eminent worth, and a perfon likely to prove inI

jurious than either.

fault already

fay likely to prove injurious

for the

committed, being irrevocable, ought not to enter into

the account, and

we have
It is

nothing to do but with the probability

of

its

repetition.

in this fenfe that the fufFerer ftands

upon

a level with

many

of thofe perfons,

who

are ufually

denomi-

nated innocent.

It

muft

alfo

be allowed, that there are cafes in which

it

is

proper that innocent

this
is

men

fhould fuffer for the public good.

Bul|

a queftion of a very delicate nature, and the fevere moralift

will be very reludant to

nefit

condemn

that

man

to die for the be-

of others,

who

is

defirous to live.

As

OF PRIVATE JUDGMENT.
As
to every other circuinftance in
it

135
is

punifked for an example to others,

as

...
It
is ftill

the cafe of

him who

I^OOK

II.

CHAP.

VI.
'

remains precifely the fame

when we

fuppofed him to be punilhed for his

own

reformation.

It is ftill

an argmnent of the moft exceptionable nature employed

to con-el the opinions of

mankind.

menace of

vio-

lence

made

ufe of to perfuade
It

them of the

truth or falfliood of

a propofition.
fcarcely fail of

has

little

chance of making them wife, and can

timid, diflembling and corrupts

maldng them

Not with (landing

all

thefe objedtions,

it

would be

difficult to

Urgency of

find a country, refpeding

tants

which we could

fay, that the inhabi-

might with

fafety be difmiffed
is

from the operation of punifhits

ment.

So mixed

human

charadler, fo wild are

excurfions,
it

fo calamitous

and deteftable are the errors into which

that

occa-

fionally

falls,

fomething more than argument feems neceflary

for their fuppreffion.

Human

beings are fuch tyros in the art

of reafoning, that the wifeft of us often prove impotent in our

attempts,

where an
ftand
ftill

inftant efFed:

was moft powerfully wanted.

aflliffin

While

to reafon with the thief, the

or the

oppreflbr, they haften to

new
all

fcenes of devaftation, and with un-

fparing violence confound

the principles of
abolitior.

human

fociety.

Ihould obtain
I could at the

little

fuccefs

by the

of puniftiment, unlefs
generate tempt-

fame time

abolifti thofe caufes that

ation and

make puniftiment

neceflaiy.

Meanwhile the arguto flaew that punifti-

ments already adduced

may

be

fufficient

ment

135

OF THE EXERCISE
^^^^
'

rHAP^VT
^

is

always an

evil,

and

to perfuade us never to recur to

It

^^

but from the moft evident heceffitv.

2. Rebellion.

Thg remaining
recourfe to
the

cafes in

which

it

may

feera requiiite to

have

3.

War.

general will

of the fociety, and to fuperfede

the private

judgment of

individuals, are,

when we

are called

upon
Objeaions.

to counteract the hoftilities of an internal

enemy, or

to re-

pel the attacks of a foreign invader.

ftance the evils that arife

Here

as in the

former in-

from an ufurpatlon upon private judgIt is

ment
in

are

many and

various.

wrong

that I fhould contribute

any mode

to a proceeding, a
I to

war

for example, that I believe to

be unjuft. Ought
to

draw

my fword, when the adverfary appears

wanton aggreflion
?

me

to be

employed

in repelling a
all

The

cafe feems not to be at

different, if I contribute

my

property,

the produce

it

may

be of

my

perfonal labour; though cuftom

has reconciled us to the one rather than the other.

The

confequences are a degradation of character and a relaxa-

tion of principle, in the perfon

who

is

thus

made

the inftrument

of a tranfadlion, which his judgment difapproves.

as has

In this cafe,
is

been already

ftated generally, the

it

human mind

<;om-

preffed and unnerved, -dll

affords us fcarcely the femblance

of

what

it

might otherwife have been.

And,
it

in

addition to the

general confi derations in limilar cafes,

the frequent and obftinate wars

may
at

be obferved, that

which

prefent defolate the

human

OF PRIVATE JUDGMENT.
human
race

137

would be nearly

extirpated, if they

were funported ,ri?P^/J; CHAP. VI.

prin*

only by the voluntary contributions of thofe by

ciple

whom their

'

was approved.

The

objection,

which has

hitherto been permitted pradlically

is

Reply.

to fuperfede thefe reafonings,

affair, in

the difficulty of

conducing an

the fuccefs of

which millions may be

interefted,

upon

fo precarious a fupport as that of private judgment.

The men,
of fo
is

with

whom we

are ufually concerned in

human

fociety, are

mixed

a character, and a felf-love of the narroweft kind

fo

deeply rooted in

many

of them, that

it

feems nearly unavoidable

upon the fcheme of voluntary

contribution, that the moll gene-

rous would pay a very ample proportion, while the

avaricious,

mean and

though they contributed nothing, would come in for

their full (hare of the benefit.

He

that

would

reconcile a perfed

freedom

in this refpedt

with the

interell

of the whole, ought

felfifhnefs

to propofe at the

fame time the means of extirpating

is

and

vice.

How

far fuch a propofal

feafible will

come

hereafter

to be confidered.

AN

A N

ENQUIRY
CONCERNING

POLITICAL JUSTICE,
BOOK
III.

PRINCIPLES OF GO FERN ME NT.

H A

P.

I.

SYSTEMS OF POLITICAL WRITERS.

THE (QUESTION STATED.
FIRST HYPOTHESIS
:

GOVER>7-

MENT FOUNDED IN SUPERIOR STRENGTH. SECOND HYPOTHESIS ; GOVERNMENT JVRE DIFINO. THIRD HYPOTHESIS
SIS
:

THE SOCIAL CONTRACT.

THE
2.

FIRST HYPOTHE-

EXAMINED.
I.

THE

SECOND

right;

PATRIARCHAL DESCENT

CRITERION OF DIVINE JUSTICE.

upon the na- BOOK
it

IT has appeared
rr

in the courfe of our reafonlngs

III.
I
'

ture of fociety, that there are occafions in w^hich

neceiTary, to fuperfede private
r

may

CHAP
^

be

judgment

for the fake of public

'^^^ queflion
ftated.

good,

I40

SYSTEMS OF
I.
'

BOOK III.
CHAP.
""

^ ' performed in the

crood,

and to

cftntrol

the ahs of the Individual

It is

by an ad ^
^

to be

name of the whole.

therefore an intereft-

ing enquiry to afcertain in what manner fuch ads are to be

originated, or
litical

in other

words

to afcertain the foundation of po-

government.

hypogovernment founded in
FIrft
thefis
:

There
tained
to

are three hypothefes that

this fubjed.
Firft,

have been principally main-

upon

the fyftem of force, according

as
it is

fupeiior
ilrength.

which

it is

affirmed, "
_

that,

inafmuch

neceflary that the

/
_

great mafs of

mankind fhould be held under the fubjedion of

can be no other criterion of that re-

compulfory
ftraint,

reftraint, there

than the power of the individuals

who

lay claim to

its

exercife, the foundation of

which power

exifts in the

unequal

degrees, in
diftributed

which

corporal ftrength

and intelledual

fagacity are

among mankind."

Second hypotheiis
:

There
2A.

Is

a fecond clafs of reafoners,

right,

who

deduce the origin of

go-

vernment
jure d'mno,

government from divine

and

affirm,

"

that, as
firft,

men

de-

rived their exiftence from an infinite creator at

ftill

fo are

they
alle-

fubjed to his providential care, and of confequence owe

civil

giance to their

governors, as to a

power which he has

thought

fit

to fet over them."

Third hypothefis
:

The
tained

third fyftem

Is

that

which has been moft ufually mainand

juftice
;

the

focial con-

by the

friends of equality

the fyftem Accord-

ing to which the Individuals of any foclety are fuppofed to have

entered

POLITICAL WRITERS.
entered into a contrad; with their governors or with each other,
_

141

BOOK *
v

ill.
'

CHAP. I.

and which founds the rights of government in the confent of

the governed.

The two

firft

of thefe hypothefes
to

may

eafily
total

be difmifled.

Tlie

fiift

hy.

potheiis exa-

That of force appears

ftradl

proceed upon the

negation of ab-

'"i""!.

and immutable
is

juftice, affirming

every government to be

right, that
It

poflefTed of

power

fufficient to inforce its decrees.

puts a violent termination

upon
fit

all

political

fcience

and

feems intended to perfuade men, to

prefent difadvantages, whatever they
felves to difcover a

down
be,

quietly under their

may

and not exert them-

remedy

for the evils they fufFer.

It

The

fecond

The

fecond.

hypothefis
the
firft,

is

of an equivocal nature.
affirms
it

either coincides with

and
;

all

exifting

power

to be alike
till

of divine de-

rivation

or

muft remain

totally ufelefs

a criterion can be

found, to diftinguifh thofe governments which are approved by

God, from
criterion

thofe

which cannot lay claim

to that fanlion.
avail,
till

The

Critoiion of divine right.

i. Patriarchal dcfccnt*

of patriarchal defcent will be of no

the true
utility

claimant and rightful heir can be difcovered.

If

we make

yuftice.

and

juftice the teft

of God's approbation, this hypothefis will be

;

liable to little objection

but then on the other hand

little

will

be gained by

it,

fince thofe

who

have not introduced divine

right into the argument, will yet readily grant, that a

government
juftice,
is

which can be fliewn

rightful

to be agreeable to utility

and

government.

The

142

SYSTEMS OF POLITICAL WRITERS.

The
any
third hypothefis

demands a more

careful examination.
it

If

error have infmuated itfelf into the fupport of truth,

to detedt
it.

be-

comes of particular confequence

Nothing can be of
and miftake on the

more importance, than

to feparate prejudice

one hand, from reafon and demonftration on the other.

Where-

ever they have been confounded, the caufe of truth muft neceffarily

be a

fufferer.

That

caufe, fo far

from being injured by the

be expected to derive
luftre.

diifolution of the imnatural alliance,

may

from that

difTolution

an eminent degree of profperity and

CHAP.

H3

H A

P.

II.

OF

THE SOCIAL CONTRACT.

QUERIES PROPOSED.
TIES
?

WHO

ARE THE CONTRACTING PAR-

WHAT

IS

THE FORM OF ENGAGEMENT?

OVER

HOW LONG A PERIOD DOES THE CONTRACT EXTEND? TO HOW GREAT A VARIETY OF PROPOSITIONS? CAN IT
EXTEND TO LAWS HEREAFTER TO BE MADE? ADDRESSES OF ADHESION CONSIDERED. POWER OF A MAJORITY.

UPON

the

firft

ftatement of the fyftem of a fecial contract

various difficulties prefent themfelves.

to this contrad
?

Who are
is

BOOK ill. CHAP II

^

the parties

For
?

whom
how

Qiienes pro-

did they confent, for themfelves

puled.

only or for others

For
?

long a time

this

contrad

to be

confidered as binding
neceffary, in

If the confent of every individual be

is

what manner

that confent to be given

?

Is

it

to be tacit, or declared in exprefs terms

Little will

be gained for the caufe of equality and

at the firft inftitution

juftice, if

Who are the

coiitrafting

our anceftors,

of government, had a right

parties?

indeed of choofmg the fyftem of regulations under which they

thought proper to

live,

but at the fame time could barter

all

away
them
to

the underftandings and independence of

that

came

after

144

OF THE SOCIAL CONTRACT,

1^0

^9PA WCHAP. II.

*^

the

lateft ^ pofterity.
'

But, '

if

the contradl mull be renewed la

'

each fucceflive generation, what periods muft be fixed on for

that purpofe^

And

if I

be obliged to fubmit to the eftabUflied

it,

government
ciple
is

till

my

turn comes to aflent to

upon what prin-

that obligation

founded

Surely not upon the contrail

into

which

my

father entered before I

was born

What

Js

the

Secondly, what

is

form of engagement ?

the nature of the confent, in confequence

of which

I
?

am
It

to be reckoned the fubjeit of

is

any

particular
is

go-

vernment
and that

ufually faid,
is

"

that acquiefcence

fufficient;

this acquiefcence

to be

inferred

from

my

living

quietly under the protedlion of the laws."

But

if this
all

be true,

an end

is

as effedlually

put to
as

all political

fcience,

difcrimina-

tion of better
flavifh

and worfe,

by any fyftem invented by the moil

fycophant that ever exifled.

that
is

Upon
is

this hypothefis

every

government
whether
it

quietly fubmitted to

a lawful government,,
the tyranny of Cali-

be the ufurpation of
is

Cromwel or

gula. Acquiefcence

frequently nothing

more than a choice on the

leall evil.

part of the individual of

cafes
it is

what he deems the

In

many

not fo

much

as this, fince the peafant

and the

artifan,

who form

the bulk of a nation,

their country,

however

diffatisfied with,
it

the
to

government of

feldom have
It
it is

in their

power

itranfport themfelves to another.

is

alfo to
little

be obferved upon

the fyftem of acquiefcence, that

eftablilhed opinions

in

agreement with the

and practices of mankind.

leafl:

Thus what has

allegiance

been called the law of nations, lays 5

ftrefa

upon the

of

tjF
of a foreigner
tainly

THE SOCIAL CONTRACT.

among
;

145
Is

fettling

us,

though his acquiefcence

cer-

p9R^^U*
*

mod

complete

while natives removing into an unin-

'
>'

feabited region are

claimed by the mother country, and removing

into a neighbouring territory are punifhed

by municipal law,

if

they take arms againft the country in which they were born.

Now

furely acquiefcence can fcarcely be conftrued into confent,

while the individuals concerned are wholly unapprifed of the

authority intended to be refted

upon

it.

Mr. Locke, the

great

champion of the dodrine of an

original

contradl, has been aware of this difficulty,

that " a tacit confent indeed obliges a

and therefore obferves,

to

man

obey the laws of

any government,

as

long asiie has any pofleffions, or enjoyment

;

of any part of the dominions of that government

can make a

but nothing but

his

man

member
it

of the commonwealth,

adlually entering into

by

pofitive

engagement, and exprefs

;

promife and compadt. f"

the face of
fcribed,
is
it,

A fingular diftinftion
man amenable own

implying upon

that an acquiefcence, fuch as has juft been de-

fufficient to
;

render a

to the penal reis

gulations of fociety
entitle

but that his

confent

neceffary to

him

to

its

privileges.

A
foon

third objedion to -the focial contrail will fuggeft

as

Itfelf,

as

Over how
does the cintraft extend
?

we

attempt to afcertain the extent of the obligation, even

Hume's
Eflays.

* See

Part

II.

Eflay
II.

x'ri.

t Treatife of Government. Boole

Ch.

viii. .

no,

122.

fuppofing

14$

OF THE SOCIAL CONTRACT.

TIT.
II.
'

BOOK
CHAP.
'

^^ ner by every
called

fuppofing:

It

to

have been, entered into in the moft folemn manthe community.

member of

Allowing

that I am^

upon,

at the

period of ray coming of age for example, to

declare

my

afTent or diflent to
inilitutes
?
;

any fyftem of opinions or any

code of pradlical
claration bind

for

how
And,

long a period does this de-

me

Am I
my

precluded from better information for

life?
if

the whole courfe of

not for
?

why
what

for a year, a

week or even an hour

my whole life, If my deliberate

in.
is.

judgment or
fenfe

my

real
it

fentiment be of no avail in the cafe,

all

can

be afBrmed that

lawful government

founded in

my

confent t

I^Aet^^ot
propoiitions
.

^^^^ *^^ queftion

jj^-^^^j^j

of time

is

not the only

it

difficulty.

If you.

^j

affent to

any proportion,

is

necelTary that the

propofition fliould be ftated fimply and clearly.

are the varieties of humian underftanding, in
all

So numerous
cafes

where

its

independence and integrity are

is little

fufficiently preferved, that there

chance of any two

men coming

to a precife

agreement
nature

about ten fucceffive propofitions that are in their

own

open
to

to debate.

What

then can be more abfurd than to prefent

call

me

the laws of England in fifty volumes folio, and

upoa;

me

to give an honeft
?.

and uninfluenced vote upon their whole,

contents at once

Cankextend
to laws hereafter to

But the

focial contradl, confidered as the

foundation of
I

civil'

be

government, requires more of

me

than

this.

am

not only
obliged;

made

OF THE SOCIAL CONTRACT.

obliged to confent to
all

147
record.
'

the laws that are adually

^

upon
^
It

BOOK
CHAP.
^^
^^

11^.
II.

but to
this

all

the laws that fhall hereafter be made.

fubjeft,

was under

view of the

that

Roufleau, in tracing the conaflert, that

fequences of the fecial contract, was led to

" the great

body of the people,

in

whom

the fovereign authority refides,

ir.

can neither delegate nor refign

rity,"

The
;

effence of that authowill cannot be repre;

he adds, "
It

is

the general will

and

fented.

muft either be the fame or another

there
its

is

no

alternative.
tatives
;

The

deputies of the people cannot be

its

reprefen-

they are merely

attorneys.

The

laws, that the

com-

munity does not

ratify in perfon, are

no laws,

are nullities.*"

The
againft

difficulty here ftated has

been endeavoured

to

be provided of addrefles

AddrefTes of
fidered.

by fome
;

late

advocates for liberty, in the

way

of adhefion

addreffes, originating in the various diftrid;s

and

departments of a nation, and without which no regulation of

conftitutional

importance

is

to be

deemed

valid.

But

this

is

very inadequate and fuperficial remedy.

liave feldom

The

addreflers of courfe

any other remedy than

that above defcribed, of in-

" La fouyerainete
;

ne pcut etre reprefentee,par la tn^me rat/on qu'clle ne pent lire

.alienee

elie conjijle ejfentielleinent

dans la volonte gene rale,

autre
ils
;

et la volant e

ne fe repre-

fente point

elk

ejl

la

meme,ou

elle eft

il n^y

a point de milieu.
;

Lcs deputes du
ils

peuple

tie

ford done point fes reprefenians,

definitivcment.

ne font que fes commiffaires

le

ne peuvent
eft
xv-.

rien conclure
aiulle ;

Toute

loi

que

peuple en peifofme n'a pas ratifiee,

ce n' eft point

unc lei"

Du

Contrail Social. Liv. 111. Chap.

difcriminate

148

OF THE SOCIAL CONTRACT:

III.
II.
'

BOOK
CHAP.
^

difcrlmlnate admifTion or rejection.

-^

There

is

an

infinite differ--

ence between the

firft

deliberation, and the fubfequent exercife

is

of a negative.

The former
fhadow of

a real power, the latter

is

feldonx

more than

the

a power.

Not

to add, that addreffes

are a moft precarious

and equivocal mode of collecting the fenfe

a-

ef a nation..

They

are ufually voted; in

tumultuous and fumtide

mary manner ; they

are carried along

by the

of party

and
ac-r

the fignaturcs annexed to

cidental

them

are obtained

by

indiredt

and

methods, while multitudes of byftanders, unlefs upoa

occafion, remain ignorant of or indifferent

fome extraordinary
to the tranfadion.

Power of a
majonLj-.it

Laftlv, if

government be founded in the"confent of the r r peoplei. jig

v^

can have no power over any individual by

refufed.
to

whom

that confent

is

If a tacit confent be not fufhcient^

ftill lefs

can

be
an.

deemed

have confented to a meafure upon wiiich T put

exprefs negative.
tions of Rouffeau.

This immediately follows from the obfervaIf the people, or the individuals of

whom
rC'^

the people

is

conftituted, cannot delegate their authority to a

prefentative

neither can

any individual delegate which he

is

his authority

to a majority, in an affembly of

himfelf a member..

The

rules

by which

my

actions IBall be directed are matters of a

;

confideration entirely perfonal

and no

man

can transfer tO'

another the keeping of his confcience and the judging of his

duties.

But

this brings us

back to the point from which

we

fet

out*.

OF
out.

THE SOCIAL CONTRACT,

^^r^^

>49

No
is

confent of ours can diveft us of our moral capacity,

This
refign

a fpecies of property

which we can neither

impoffible for

barter nor

m* *v-

and of confequence
its

it is

any government

to derive

authority from an original contract..

CHAP.

^50

HAP.

HL

OF
THE VALIDITY

PROMISES.
SHEWN TO BE INFOREIGN TO THE
THE
VALI^-

OF PROMISES EXAMINED.

CONSISTENT WITH JUSTICE.

TO BE

GENERAL GOOD. OF THE EXPECTATION EXCITED. FULFILLING EXPECTATION DOES NOT IMPLY THE
DITY OF A PROMISE.
CONCLUSION.

BOOK
'

III.

r~|~^HE whole
-"-

principle of an original contract proceeds

upon
our

"

The

validity

the obligation under

which we

ofpromif-s examined.

promifes.

The

reafoning

upon which

...

are placed to obferve

it is

founded

is,

" that

we

have promifed obedience to government, and therefore are bound

to obey."
It

may confequently

be proper to enquire into the na-

ture of this obligation to obferve our promifes.

Shewn

to be

We

have alvcady eftablifhed juftice as the fum of moral and

Is juftice

linconfiftent

Avith juftice

political duty.

then in

its

own

nature precarious or
as

immutable
condud:
fame.
I

Surely immutable.
to obferve

As long

men

are

men, the

am bound

refpeding them muft remain the

good man muft always be the proper objedl of

;

my

fupport and cooperation

vice of

my

cenfure

and the vicious

jnan of iaftruftion and reform.

.1

What

OF PROMISES.
What
What
There
clafs
;

ijr
?

Is It

then to which the obhgation of a promife applies

is

il^^p
'

l\\'

have promifed

either right,

or wrong, or indifferent.
that
fall

are

few

articles

of

human condudt

under the

latter

and

the greater fhall

be our improvements in moral fcience

the fewer

ftill

will they appear.

Omitting
"
I

thefe, let us then con-

iider only the tvro preceding

clafles.

have promifed to do
I

fomething juft and right."

This certainly

ought to perform.
it.

Why
"
I

Not becaufe

promifed, but becaufe juftice prefcribes

have promifed to beftow a fum of

money upon fome good and

refpedtable purpofe.

In the interval between the promife and

itfelf,

my
calls

fulfilling

it,

a greater and nobler purpofe offers

and

with an imperious voice for

I

my

cooperation."

Which.

ought

to

prefer

That which

beft

deferves
cafe.
I

my

preference.

promife can make no alteration in the

intrinfic merit

ought to be guid-

ed by the

of the objedts, and not by any external

and foreign confideration.

their intrinfic claims.-

No

engageiBents of mine caa change

AU
ed

this

muff be exceedingly plain to the readerwho has follow-

me

in

my early reafonings

upon the nature of juftice.

If every

fhilling of

our property, every hour of our time and every faculty

of our mind, have already received their deftination from the principles of

immutable
for

juftice,

promifes have no department

Juftice
it

left

up-

on which

them

to decide.

appears therefore ought

or not.
If
it,

to be done,

whether

we have

promifed

it

we

difcover

any thing

to be unjuft,

we ought

to abftain

from

with whatever

IJ2
i|^^^'' 1^^"

OF PROMISES.
ever folemnky

we have engaged when

for

its

perpetration.

We

were
this

'

.erroneous and vicious

affords

the promife
its

was made; but

no fufEcient reafon for

performance.

.to be fo-

But
be not

it -^vill

be

fald,

"

if

promifes be not made, or

affairs

when made

vreign to ge,ijeial

good,

fulfilled,

how

can the

of the world be carried on ?"

as if

By
and

rational

and

intelligent beings

ading

they

v.-ere rational

intelligent.
it

promife would perhaps be fufEciently innoas declaratory

cent, if

were unda'ftood merely

of intention, and
in
-this

not as precluding farther information.

fenfe

Even

reftrained

however
it

it

is

far

from being
affairs

generally neceffary.

Why

Ihould

be fuppofed that the

of the world would not go

on

fufficiently well,

though

my
it

neighbour could no farther deappeared rational to grant

if I
it ?

pend upon

my

afliftance

than

This would be a fufEcient dependence

^

were honeft, nor

If I

would he

if

he were honeft delire any thing more.

were
of

difhonefl, if I could not be

bound by the reafon and

juflice

the cafe,
call in

it

would

afford

him

a flender additional dependence to

:

the aid of a principle founded in prejudice and miftake

let it afford

not to fay, that,

ticular cafe,

ever fo great advantage in any par-

the evil of the immoral precedent

would outweigh

the individual advantage.

It

may

be farther objected, " that

this principle
flate

might be

fuf-

ficiently fuited to a better

and more perfedl

of fociety, but

that at prefent there are difhonefl:

members of

the

community,

who

O
fome
it fo.

RO

M
if

S.

153
it

who will not f erform their duty,

grofler motive, than the

they be not bound to

by

^^^p ^u
'
'

mere moral confideration."

from
that

Be

This

I3

a queftlon altogether different

we have

been examining.

We

are not

now
man

enquiring whether the comits

munity ought

to

animadvert upon the errors of

is

members.

This animadverfion the upright

ter,

not backward to encounthe' fociety

and willingly
is

rifks the penalty,

which

(for the

fociety

more competent

to afcertain the juft

amount of

the

penalty than the preceding caprice of the parties)

has awarded

in cafes apparently fimilar, if he conceive that his duty requires

from him
But
*'

that riik.

to return to the cafe

of promifes.

I fhall

be told, that, Oftheexpec

tatio: tation esci-

in choofing

between two purpofes about which

to

employ

my

ted.

money,
tlal

my

time or

my

talents,

my
it

promife

may make an

effen-

difference,

and therefore having once been given ought to

party to

be

fulfilled.

The

whom
I

was made has had expelato difappoint

;

dons excited in him, which

to

ought not

the party

whom

am

under no engagement has no fuch difappoint-

ment

to encounter."
this

What
I

is

this tendernefs to

which
?

am
ex-

bound,

expectation
I

muft not dare to difappoint

I

An

peftation that

fhould do wrong, that

I

fhould prefer a
;

lefs

good

to a greater, that
the refult

fhould commit abfolute evil

for fuch

muft b&

when

the balance has been ftruck.

" But

his expefla-

tion has altered the nature of his fituation,

has engaged

him

in

under-

154

OF PROMISES.
III.
'

BOOK III.
CHAP.
""^

undertakings from which he would otherwife have abftained.^ ^

He and all other men will be taught to depend more upon their own exertions, and lefs upon the afliftaace of others^ which caprice may refufe, or juftice oblige me to withhold. He
Be
it

fo.

and

all

others will be taught to acquire fuch merit,

fliall

and

to en-

gage in fuch purfuits, as

oblige every honeft

man

to comer

to their fuccour, if they fliould ftand in

need of

affiftance.

Thc:

refolute execution of juftice, without liftening to that falfe pity,

which, to do imaginary kindnefs to

the whole,

one,,

would, lead us to injure

would

in a thoufand

ways

increafe the independence,,

the energies and the vutue of mankind;^

The

fulfilling

Let US howevcr fuppofe, "-that

fluenced

my

condudt ought to be In-

expeftation does not imply the validity of a proaiife.

by

this

previous expedtation of the individual."

a.

Let
officCj^.,

US fuppofe, "

that, in feleiting an individual for

certain

my choice

ought not to be governed merely by the abftradl fitnefs

of the candidates, but that I ought to take into the account the

extreme value of the appointment from certain circumftances to

one of the candidates, and

its

comparative inutility to the other."

Let US farther fuppofe, " that the expectation excited in one of

them has
the office,
that this

led

him

into ftudies
will

and purfuits to qualify himfelf for

he do not fucceed to
it
;

which

be

ufelefs if

and;

is

one of the confiderations which ought to govern

my

determination."-

All

this

does not

come up

to

what we have been;

taught refpeding the obligation of a promife..

2-

Eor,.

OF PROMISES.
For,
firft, it

r^5
little

may

be obferved, that

It

feems to be of

con-

BOOK
*-

ill.

CHAP.III.

iequence in this ftatement, whether the expeilation were excited

-^

by a

direct:

promife or in fome other manner, whether

declaration of

it

were

excited

by a
it

mine or of a

third perfon, or laftly,

cafe

whether

arofe

fmgly out of the reafon of the

and the pure

deductions and reflections of the expedter's mind.

Upon

every

one of
fuftain
all that

thefe fuppofitions his condudl,

and the injury he may

from

a difappointment, will remain the fame.

Here then

has been
is

commonly underftood by

the obligation of a

promife

excluded.

The motive

to be attended to, flows

from

no folemn engagement of mine, but from an

quence of

incidental confe-

my

declaration,

and which might

juft as eafily

have
con-

been the confequence of

fideration

many

other circumflances.

The
is,

by which

it

becomes

me

to be influenced

not a reintegrity,

gard for veracity, or a particular defire to preferve

my

both of which are in reality wholly unconcerned in the tranfaction, but

an attention to the injury to be fuftalned by the lofmg

candidate, whatever might be the original occafion of the condudl

out of which the injury has proceeded.

Let us take an example of a

Weftminfter
Blackwal
;

fl:ill

fmipler nature.

"

I live in

and

engage to meet the captain of a

fliip
is

from

at the

Royal Exchange.

My
I ihall

engagement
be
at the

of the
at

nature of information to him, that

Exchange

a certain hour.

He

accordingly lays afide his other bufmefs,

and comes

thither to

meet me."

This

is

a reafon

why

fhoulJ
.not

156
not
fail

O
him
unlefs for

P R

S.

fome very material

I

caufe.

But

It

would

feem

as if the reafon
I

why

fhould not

fail

him would be

equally
there,

cogent, if

knew from any

other fource that he

would be

and

that a quantity of convenience equal to the quantity

upon the
It

former fuppofition would accrue from

be
faid,

my meeting him.

may

" that

it is effential

to various circumftances of human in-

tercourfe, that

we

fhould be able to depend on each other for a

fteady adherence to engagements of this fort."

The

ftatement

however would be fomewhat more

was
effential to various

accurate if

we

faid,

" that

it

circumftances of
to

human

intercourfe, that

we

fhould be

known

beftow a fteady attention upon the

quantities

of convenience or inconvenience, of good or evil, that

might

arife to others

from our conduct."

ConelnfioB.

It is

undoubtedly upon
as

this hypothefis a part

of our duty

to

make

few

promifes or declarations exciting appropriate

expectations as poffible.

He who

lightly gives to another the

idea that he will govern himfelf in his future conduift, not

by

the views that fhall be prefent to his

fhall

mind when

the conduit
fhall

come

to be determined on, but

it

by the view he
is

be able

to take of

at

fome preceding period,

is

vicious in fo doing.

But the obligation he

under refpedting

his future

condudt

is,

to

adt juftly, and not, becaufe he has

committed one

error, for that

reafon to become guilty of a fecond.

GHAP,

157

CHAP.

IV.

OF POLITICAL AUTHORITY.
COMMON DELIBERATION THE TRUE FOUNDATION
OF GO-

VERNMENT OF MANKIND FROM THE NAlURE OF OUR FACULTIES FROM THE OBJECT OF GOVERNMENT FROM THE EFPROVED FROM THE EQUAL CLAIMS
FECTS OF

COMMON DELIBERATION. DELEGATION

VIN-

DICATED.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE DOCTRINE HERE MAINTAINED AND THAT OF A SOCIAL CONTRACT APPARENT FROM THE MERELY PROSPECTIVE NATURE OF

THE FORMER

FROM THE NULLITY OF PROMISES

FROM

THE FALLIBILITY OF DELIBERATION.

CONCLUSION.
BOOK
CHAP.
'^

AVING

rejeded the hypothefes that have moft generally

to account for the

lir.

IV.
-'

been adduced

origin

of govei'nment
let

confiftently with the principles of moral juftice,

us enquire
in-

whether we

may

not arrive

at the

fame

objed:,

by a iimple

veftigation of the obvious reafon of the cafe,

without having re-

courfe to

any refinement of fyftem or

fidtion of procefs.

Government then being introduced

affigned, the
firft

for the reafons already Common

de-

liberation the

and moft important principle that can be ima~

tyue foundation of go-

gined relative to

its

form and ftrudure, feems

to be this

that^ as

vernnifat

government

ijS

OF POLITICAL AUTHORITY.
III.

BOOK
^^

CHAP.IV.
-^'-^

fvovernment

is

a tranfadlon in the

name and

for the benefit of

to

the whole, every

fhare in
its

member of the community ought

have fome
of
this

adminiftration.

The arguments

in fupport

propofition are various.

proved from
the equal claims of

i. It

has aheady appeared that there

fet

is

no

criterion perfpicuoufly

defignating any one man or

of

men

to prefide over the reft.

mankind,:

from the natare of our

faculties
:

2.

All

men are parta"kers

of the

common faculty reafon, and may

common
prein an affair of fuch

be fuppofed to have fome communication v^ath the

ceptor truth.
It

would be wrong
any chance

momen-

tous concern, that

for additional
cafes
till

wifdom Ihould be
experiment

rejeded

nor can

we

tell

in

many

after the

how

eminent any individual

may one day

be found in the bufi-

nefs of guiding

and deliberating

for his fellows,

from theobjeft of go-

3.

Government
;

is

a contrivance inftituted for the fecurity of in-

yernment

dividuals

and

it

feems both reafonable that each

man

fliould

have a fhare in providing for his

partiality

own
this

fecurity,

and probable that

effeitually

and cabal Ihould by

means be moft

excluded.

fefts of

from the efcom-

^. Laftly, to give cach

man a

voice in the public concerns comes

mon

delibe-

neareft to that admirable idea of

fight, the uncontrolled exercife

which we fhould never

lofe

ration.

of private judgment.

Each man
importance.

would thus be

infpired with a confcioufnefs of his

own

OF POLITICAL AUTHORtTY.
ance, and the flaviih feelines that fhrink o '

159

up the r-

foul in the r pre-

BOOK
CHAP.
^
^'

iir.

IV.
'

fence of an imagined fuperior

would be unknown.

Admitting then the propriety of each

direting the affairs of the

man having
firfl

a fhare ia
it

whole

in the

inftance,

feems

neceffary that he fhould concur, in eledling a houfe of reprefentatives,

if

he be the

member of
aflift

a large ftate

or,

even in a fmall
officers

one, that he fhould

miniftrators
;

in the

appointment of

and ad-

which

implies,

firft,

a delegation of -authority to-

thefe officers, and, fecondly, a tacit confent, or rather an admiffion

of the

neceffity,

that the queftions to

be debated fhould abide

the decifioji of a majority,.

But

to this fyftem of delegation the

fame objedions

may

be

Delegation
vindicated,

urged, that were cited from Roufleau in the chapter of the Social
Contrad:.
It

may

be alleged that, "

if

it

be the bufmefs of every can in no inftance fur-

man

to exercife his

own judgment, he

render this fundlion into the hands of another."

To

this objeftion

It

may

be anfwered,

firft,

that the parallel

is

by no means complete between an

judgment
in a cafe that
is

individual's exercife of his

his exercife

truly his

own, and

of his

judgment
vernment

in an article

where the

neceffity

and province of gothere

is

are already admitted.

Wherever

a government,
It is

there muft be a will fuperfeding that of individuals.

abfurd.

to

i6o

OF POLITICAL AUTHORITY.
rv"
'^

PH AP
*

^xped

that every

member of a

fociety fhould agree

it

with every.

other

member

in the various meafui^es

neceffity,

may

be found neceflary

to adopt.

The fame

that requires the introdudlion

of

force to fupprefs injuftice

on the

part of a

fev^r,

requires that the

fentiments of the majority fhould diredt that force, and that the

minority fhould either fecede, or patiently wait for the period

when

the truth

on the

fubjedt contefted fhall be generally

un-

derftood.

Secondly, delegation
be, the at
ftridtly

is

not, as at

firft

fight

it

might appear

to

oi one man
it

committing to another a fundtion,

to exercife for himfelfit

which

fpeaking

became him

Delega-

tion, in every inftance in

is

which

can be reconciled with juftice,

an a6; which has for

its

objel the general good.

is

The

indivilikely
eligi-

duals to

whom

the delegation

made, are either more

from
ble
it

talents or leifure to

perform the function in the moft

manner, or

at leail there is

fome public

intereft requiring that

fhould be performed by

one or a few perfons, rather than

This
is

by

every individual for himfelf.

firft

the cafe, whether in that

and fimpleft of

all

delegations the prerogative of a majority,

or in the eleftion of a houfe of reprefentatives, or in the appoint-

ment of
fhall
it,

public officers.

Now

all

contefl as to the perfon

who

exercife a certain fundion,

frivolous, the

and the propriety of refigning

decided

is

moment

it is

how and by whom

it

,can

moft advantageoully be exercifed.

It is

of no confequence
that

OF POLITICAL AUTHORITY.
that I

i6i

am

the parent of a child,

when

it

has once been afcertain-

^^^^^
"^

^^'^

cd that the child will receive greater benefit by living under the
fuperintendence of a ftranger.

'

Laftly,

it is

a miftake to Imagine that the propriety of reftrain-

ing

me when my
The

condudl

is

injurious, rifes out of any delegation

of mine.

juftice

of employing force
is

when

every other

means was

infufficient,

even prior to the exiftence of fociety.

Force ought never to be reforted to but in cafes of abfolute neceflity

;

and,

when

fuch cafes occur,

violation.

it is

the duty of every

is

man

to defend himfelf

from

There

therefoi'e

no delega-

tion neceffary

on the part of the offender

it

but the

community

in the cenfure

exercifes over

him

ftands in the place of the in-

jured party.

It

may

perhaps by fome perfons be imagined, that the dodrine

,

r i_ nhere delivered of the juitxce

of proceeding in
is

common

concerns

by

common
.

deliberation,
1 1

nearly coincident with that other

all

doctrine which teaches that

Difference between the doftrine here maintained and that of a focial contraft appa-

lawful government derives

its

rent

authority from a focial contraft.

true difference

Let us confider what

is

the

between them.

In the

firft

place, the

dodrine of
^
.

common

deliberation
Is

is

of a

prolpettive, and not a retrofpeiSlive nature.

the queftion re-

from the merely profpeaive naformer:

fpeding fome future meafure to be adopted in behalf of the

community

Here

the obligation to deliberate in

common

prefents

i62

OFru
'

POLITICAL AUTHORITY.
eminently to be preferred to every other
interelts

rHAP
^

^^^^^ itfelf,

as

mode of
queftiori

deciding

upon the

of the whole.

Is

the

whether
gated
?

I fhall yield obedience to

any meafure already promul-

Here

have nothing to do with the confideration of

;

how

the meafure originated

deliberation has in

unlefs perhaps in a country

where

common

fome

fort

been admitted as a Handbe to

refill

ing principle, and where the objed

tion

may

an innova-

upon

this principle.
firft,
it

In the cafe of fhip

fair to refift

money under king

the tax, even fup-

Charles the

was perhaps

pofing

it

to be abftradledly a
it
;

good one, upon account of the authat reafon

thority impofing

though

might be

infufficien't,

in

a country unufed to reprefentative taxation.

Exclufively of this confideration, no meafure

is

to be refifted
it

on account of the irregularity of

is

its

derivation.

If

be

juft, it

entitled

both to
far as

my

chearful fubmiflion and

my

zealous fupto
refift.

port.

So

it is

deficient in juftice, I
is

am bound
different

My fituation
it

in this refpeiSt

in

no degree

from what

was previoufly

to

all

organifed government.
affent,

Juftice

was

at

that time entitled to

tion.
till

my

and

injuftice to

my

difapproba-

They can never

fliall

ceafe to

have the fame claims upon me,

they

ceafe to be diftinguifhed

by the fame

unalterable

properties.

The meafure of my

refiftance will

however vary

with circumftances, and therefore will demand from us a feparate examination.

Secondly,

OF POLITICAL AUTHORITY.
Secondly, the diftindion between the dodrlne here advanced ^
_

i6 o

BOOK ill.
CHAP.
*

IV.
*

and

that of a fecial

contrad will be better underftood,

faid

if

we

re-

from the
""^'');f promiles

colled:

what has been

upon ^

the nature and validity of pro/ r

mifes.

If promife be in

all

cafes a fallacious

mode of binding

man
all

to a fpecific

mode of adion, then muft

the argument be in

cafes impertinent, that I confented to fuch a decifion,

and

am

therefore
to

bound

to regulate myfelf accordingly.

It is

impoflible

imagine a principle of more injurious tendency, than that

fhall

which
folly,

teach

me

to difarm

my

future

wifdom by

and

to confult for

my

diredllon the errors in

my paft which my ig-

norance has involved me, rather than the code of eternal truth.

So

far as confent

has any validity, abftrat juftice becomes a

:

matter of pure indifference

the guide of

fo far as juftlce deferves to be

made
au-

my life,

it is

in vain to

endeavour to fharc

its

thority with compacts

and promifes.

We
and

have found the

parallel to

be In one refped incomplete

f'om the
fallibility

of

between the exercife of thefe two fundlions, private judgment

deliberation.

common

deliberation.

In another refpecl the analogy

is

exceedingly ftriking, and confiderable perfpicuity will be given

to our ideas of the latter

by an

illuftration

borrowed from the

is

former.

In the one cafe as in the other there

an obvious

principle of juftlce In favour of the general exercife.

No No

indi-

vidual can arrive at any degree of moral or intelledual improve-

ment, unlefs in the ufe of an independent judgment.

ftate

can

i54

OF POLITICAL AUTHORITY.
iv'
\

CHAP
*

^^^ ^^ ^^^^

^'^

happily adminiftered, unlefs in the perpetual ufe

it

of

common

deliberation refpefting the meafures

may

be requi-

fite to

adopt.

But, though the general exercife of thefe faculties

be founded in immutable juftice, juftice will by no means uni-

formly vindicate the particular application of them.

Private

judgment and public

deliberation are not themfelves the ftandard

;

of moral right and wrong

vering right and wrong,

they are only the means of difco-

and of comparing particular propor-

tions with the ftandard of eternal truth.

ConcluCon.

Too much

ftrefs

has undoubtedly been laid

upon

the idea, as of
itfelf

a grand and magnificent fpedtacle, of a nation deciding for

upon fome
yielding

great public principle,

and of the higheft magiftracy

its

claims

when

the general voice has pronounced.

at laft

The

value of the whole muft

depend upon the quality of

their decifion.

Truth cannot be made more true by the number

of

its

votaries.

Nor

is

the fpedlacle

much

lefs

interefting,

of a
of

folitary individual bearing his

juftice,

undaunted teftimony
millions.

in favour

though oppofed by mifguided

Within

certain

limits however the beauty of the exhibition muft be acknow-

ledged.

That

a nation ftiould dare to vindicate

is

its

fundion of

comxmon

deliberation,

a ftep gained,

and a

ftep that inevitably

leads to an improvement of the charadter of individuals.

That
evi-

men

fliould unite in the aflertion

of truth,

is

no unpleafing

dence of their virtue.

Laftly, that

an individual, however great

ma.j

OF POLITICAL AUTHORITY.
may
be his imaginary elevation, fhould be obliged to yield his

165

BOOK
^

III.
'

perfonal pretenfions to the fenfe of the

community,

at

leaft

bears the appearance of a practical confirmation of the great

principle, that
ral
all

private confiderations muft yield to the gene-

good.

CHAP.

is

HA

p.

V.

OF LEGISLATION.
SOCIETY CAN DECLARE

AND INTERPRET, BUT CANNOT

ENACT.

ITS AUTHORITY ONLY EXECUTIVE.

'AVING
tions,
it

thus far inveftigated the nature of political func-

feems neceffary that fome explanation fhould be

given in

this place

upon the

fubjet of legiflation.
?

Who is
in

it

that

has the authority to

make laws

What
is

are the charateriftics

by
the

which
faculty

that
is

man

or

body of men

to be
?

known,

whom

veiled of legiflating for the reft

Society can
declare and
interpret,

To

thefe queftions the anfwer

it

is

exceedingly fimple
is

Legifla-

but

tion, as

has been ufually underftood,

not an

affair

of human

fiannot enadt.

competence.

Reafon

is

the only legiflator,

and her decrees

are irrevocable and uniform.

The

fundtions of fociety extend,

;

not to the making, but the interpreting of law

it

it

cannot decree,

can only

declare that,

which the nature of things has already

which
irrefiftibly

decreed, and the propi^iety of

flows from the

circumftances of the cafe.

Montefquieu

fays, that

" in a

free
ftate

OF LEGISLATION.
ftate

167
is

every

man

will be his

own

legiflator *."

This

not true,

521^"'
*

fetting

apart the fundtiQns of the

community, unlefs in the

the office of confcience to

'

limited fenfe already explained.

It is

determine, " not like an Afiatic cadi, according to the ebbs and
flows of his

own

paffions, but like a Britifh judge,

who makes
al-

no new

law, but faithfully declares that

law which he finds

ready writtenf."

The fame
rity.

diflindion

is

to be
is

made upon

the fubjet of authoIt

Its authority only executive.

All political

power

flridly fpeaking executive.

has

appeared to be neceflary, with refped to

find them, that force fhould fometimes be
injuftice
;

men

as

we

at prefent

employed

in reprefllng

and for the fame reafons

it

appears that this force

fhould as far as poffible be veiled In the community.

public fupport of juftice therefore the authority of the

To

the

commuan

nity extends.

But no fooner does

it

wander
its

in the fmalleft
is

degree from the great line of juftice, than

end,
it

authority

at

ftands

upon a
bound

level

with the obfcurefl individual, and

its

every

man

is

to refift

decifions.

" Dans

tin etat

hire, tout hoinme qui

eft ceiife

avoir une

ame

lihre, deit etre

gouver^

m par lui-meme."
I Sterne's Sermons.

EJprit des Loi^, Liv. XI. Ch. vL.

" On

Good

Confcience."

CHAP.

i6S

HA

p.

VI.

OF

OBEDIENCE.

OBEDIENCE NOT THE CORRELATIVE OF AUTHORITY.

NO
CASE
CASE

MAN BOUND
ENCE.

TO YIELD OBEDIENCE TO ANOTHER.

OF SUBMISSION CONSIDERED.

FOUNDATION

OF OBEDI-

USEFULNESS OF SOCIAL COMMUNICATION.

ITS LIMITATIONS.

OF CONFIDENCE CONSIDERED.

MIS-

CHIEF OF UNLIMITED CONFIDENCE.

SUBJECTION EX-

PLAINED.

BOOK

III.

CHAP. VI.

AVING

enquired into the juft and legitimate fource of

authority,

we

will next turn

its

our attention to what has This has

ufually been confidered as

correlative, obedience.

always been found a fubjel of peculiar

lation to the meafure

difficulty, as well in re-

and extent of obedience,

as to the fource

of our obligation to obey.

Obedience
not the correlative of
authority.

The

truc folution will probably be found in the obfervation

is

that obedience

by no means the proper

correlative.

The obis

jel of government, as
exertj.on of force.

has been already demonftrated,

the

Now force
;

can never be regarded as an apis

peal to the underftanding

and therefore obedience, which

an
aft

OF OBEDIENCE.
ciCt

691
leQ;ltlinate "

of

tlie

unJcrftanding or will, can have no '^

it.

connec-

BOOK
^

III.
'

CHAP. VI.
v

tion with

am bound

to fubmit to juflice

and
I

truth, be-

caufe they approve themfelves to

my judgment.
it

am bound

to

co-operate with government, as far as

cide with thefe principles.

appears to

me

to coin-

But

fubmit to government
I

when

think

it

erroneous, merely becaufe

have no remedy.

No

truth can be

more

fimple, at the fam.e time that

no truth No

mas
to

bound

has been more darkened by the glolles of nitereited individuals,

yield obediei:ce to

than that one

to

man

can
fet

m
of

no

cale be

bound
earth.

to yield obedience

another.

any other man or

men upon

There
form

is

one rule to which

we

are univerfally

bound

to con-

ourfelves, juftice, the treating every

man

precifely as his

ufefulnefs

and worth demand, the ading under every circum-

ftance in the

manner

that fhall procure the greateil quantity of

general good.
left

When we

have done thus, what province

?

is

there

to the difpofal of obedience

am fummoned

to appear before the magiftrate

to
I

anfwer
con-

Cafeoffubdered."

for a libel,

an imaginary crime, an at which perhaps

fall

am

vinced ought in no cafe to

I

under the animadverfion of law.

comply with
a

this

fummons.

My compliance proceeds, perhaps

I fhall

from

convidion that the arguments

exhibit in the court

form the

beft refiftance I can give to his injuftice,

or perhaps

from

70
III.

OF OBEDIENCE.
fi-om perceiving that

BOOK
'

my

non-compliance would frlvoloully and

'

without real ufe interrupt the public tranquillity.

quaker refufes to pay

to diilrain

tithes.

He

therefore fuiTers a tithe

proSor

upon

his goods.

In this action morally fpeak-

ing he does wrong.

The

diftindtion
trifles.

he makes

is

the ai-gument;

of a mind that delights in

That which

will be taken

from

me by
hand.
think

force,

it is

no breach of morality to deliver with

the robber extorts

my own
I

The money which

it

from me,

do not
If I
tO;

neceflary to oblige

him
this

to take

from

my

perfon.

walk quietly to the gallows,

be hanged.

does not imply

my

confent

'

In

all

thefe cafes there

is

a clear diftindllon between

my
I

comconto

pliance with juflice and

my

compliance with

injuftice.

form

to the principles of juHice, becaufe I perceive

them

be
I

intrinfically

and unalterably

right.

yield to injuftice,

though

perceive that to

which
leaft

yield to be abftradledly
inevitable evils.

wrong, and

only choofe the

among

Foundation of obedience.

The

cafe of volition, as

it is

commonly termed, feems

parallel

to that of intelled.

You

prefent a certain propofition to

my

mind, to which you require

my

aiTent.

If

you accompany the

propofition with evidence calculated to

fhew the agreement be-

tween the terms of which

I

it

confills,

you may obtain

my

aflcnt.

If

OF OBEDIENCE.
If

171

you accompany the propofition with J J

I.

ir
it

authority, tclUnc:

/'to
j

me BOOK
'
^^

III.

CHAP.

VI.
'

that

you have examined

difintereiled

and find

it

to be true, that thoufands

it,

of wife and

men have
I

admitted

that angels or
bur,
its

Gods have

affirmed

it,

may

afient to
itfelf,

your authority

with refpedl to the propofition

reafonablenefs,
ftridlly

my
its

underftanding of

my

perception of that in the propofition which

its

fpeaking conPcitutes
I

truth or

falfliood,
I

remain

jufl:

as

they did.

believe fomething e!fe, but

do not believe the

propofition.

Juft fo in morals.

may

be perfuaded of the propriety of

I

yielding compliance to a requifition the juftice of which

can-

not difcern, as
quifition

may
I

be perfuaded to yield compliance to a reto be unjufl.

which
is

know

But neither of

thefe

requifitions

flridly fpeaking a proper fubjeft of obedience.

to

Obedience feenis rather

imply the unforced choice of

thef

mind and

aflent

of the judgment.

But the compliance

yield

to government, independently of
fures,
is

my

approbation of

its

mea-

of the flune fpecies as

my

compliance with a wild beaft,

that forces

me me

to to

run north, when

my judgment

and

hiclinatioa

prompted

go fouth.

But, though morality excludes the idea of one

1

in

its

purcft

conftruftion

altogether
to another,

man

yieldmg

IT obedience

Ufefulncfs of focial coinmimicaiiou.

yet the greateft benefits will refult from mutual communication.

There

is

fcarcely

any man, whofe communications

will

not

fome-

172

OF OBEDIENCE.
vi'
'

CHAP
'^

^"^ti"^6S enligiiten

-^'

the perfons to
in this

my judgment and redify my condul. But whom it becomes me to pay particular attention
are

refpedt,

not fuch

as

may may

exercife

any

particular
as

magiftracy,
-

but fuch, M-hatever

be their

flation,

are

wifer or better informed in any refpedt than myfelf.

Caeofconndence conli""^
'

There

are

two ways '

in

which a man wifer than myfelf may J

-

be of ufe to

me
is

by the communication of

thofe arguments

by which he
formed
;

convinced of the truth of the judgments he has

and by the communication of the judgments themThis

laft is

felves independent of argument.

of ufe only in re-

fpet to the narrownefs of our

that

own

underftandings, and the time

might be

requifite for the acquifition of a fcience

of which

we

are at prefent ignorant.

if I

On
nor

this

account

am

not to be

blamed,

employ a builder

to conftruit

me

a houfe, or a

mechanic to fmk
if I

me

a well

fliould I be liable to

blame,

worked

in perfon

under their diredlion.

ability^ to acquire
I

In this cafe, not

having opportunity or
truft to the fcience

the fcience myfelf, I

of another.

choofe from the deliberation

;

of my own judgment
that the
I

the end to be purfued

;

am

convinced

end

is

good and commendable

and, having done this,

commit the feledlon of means .to

a perfon

whofe

qualifications

are fuperior to ftance

is

my

own.

The

confidence repofed in this in-

precifely of the nature of delegation in general.

No

term furely can be more unapt than that of obedience, to exprefs

our duty towards the overfeer

we

have appointed in our

affairs.

Similar

OF OBEDIENCE.
Similar to the confidence
attention
It is
I

^73

repofe in a
to the

flcilful

mechanic

Is

the

BOOK
CHAP.
*
>-

lir.

which ought
duty in the

to be

/ paid

VI.
'

commander of an army.

my

firft

place to be fatisfied of the goodnefs of

the caufe, of the propriety of the war, and of the truth of as

many

general propofitions concerning the condudl of

it,

as

can poffibly
It

be brought within the fphere of my underftanding.

may

well

be doubted whether fecrecy be in any degree neceffary to the

conduct of war.
It

may

be doubted whether treachery and furthe legitimate

prife are to be claffed

among
after

means of defeating

our adverfary.

But

every dedudlion has been made for

confiderations of this fort, there will ftlU remain cafes,

where

fomething mull; be confided,

as to the plan

of a campaign or the

an-angement of a
exifts,

battle,

to the fkill, fo far as that fkill really

of the commander.
ability, there

When

he has explained both to the

parts, the propriety
I

utmoft of his

may remain

of

which

cannot fully comprehend, but which

have

fufficient

reafon to confide to his judgments

This dodrine however of limited obedience,

or, as

it

may

Its limita-

tions.

more properly be termed, of confidence and

be called Into adion as feldom as poffible.

delegation, ought to

Every man

fliould
arlfe

difcharge to the utmoft pradlcable extent the duties

which

from

his fituatlon.

If he gain as to the ability with

which they
he
lofes

may

be difcharged,

when he
fidelity
;

delegates

them

to another,

with refped to the

fiucerlty of his

every one being confclous of the

own

Intention,

and no one having equal proof

of

174
SR-?*;^ ^^^; CHAP. VI.
'

OF OBEDIENCE.
of that of another.
obligation under

A virtuous
is

man

will not fail to perceive the

'

which he

placed to exert his

own

under-

ftanding, and to judge for himfelf as widely as his circuraftances

will permit,

Mifchiefof
luiliniited

Tfi-^e

abufe of the doftrine of confidence has been the fource of

confidence.

more

calamities to

mankind than

all

the

other errors of the

little

human

underftanding. Depravity would have gained

ground

in the w^orld, if every

man had been -in

The

the exercife of his inde-

pendent judgment.
chiefs

inftrument by which extenfive mif-

have in

all

ages been perpetrated has been, the principle

of

many men

being reduced to mere machines in the hands of

a few.

Man, while he confults his

univerfe.

own

underftanding,

is

the or-

nament of the

Man, when he
implicit faith

furrenders his reafon,

and becomes the partifan of

is

and

palTive obedience,

the moft mifchievous of

all

animals.

Ceafing to examine every

propofition that comes before

dut, he
is

him

for the direction of his confubjedl of moral inflruiflion.

no longer the capable

He

is,

in the inftant of fubmiffion, the blind inftrument of every

;

nefarious purpofe of his principal

and,

when

left

to himfelf,

is

open

to the

fedudion

of injuftice, cruelty

and profligacy.

Snb^eaion

Thefe reafonings lead

fubjedx.

to a

proper explanation of the word

a perfon

If

by the
it is

fubjedl of

any government we mean

whofe duty
principles

to obey, the true inference

from the preceding

fubjedls.

is,

that

no government

ht^s

any

If

on the

contrary

OF OBEDIENCE.
contrary ^

lyy
Is

we mean
.

a perfon,
.

whom

the 2;overnment

bound

to

POOK
'^

ill.
'

CHAP. VI.
v

proted, or

may juflly

reftrain, the

word

is

fufficlently admiffible.

This remark enables us to folve the long-diiputed queftion, what

it is

that conftitutes a
is

man

the fubjed: of any government.

Every

man

in this fenfe a fubjeit,

whom

the government
other,

is

competent

to protect

on the one hand, or who on the

by the violence

of his proceedings, renders force requifite to prevent him from

difturbing that
th.e

community,
is

for the prefervation of

whofe

peace.

government

inftituted

APPENDIX.

APPENDIX.
iMOT^AL PRINCIPLES

FREQJJENTLY ELUCIDATED BY INCIIN

DENTAL REFLECTION BY INCIDENTAL PASSAGES

VARIOUS AUTHORS.
EXAMPLE.

^S^^p

^'^t'

XT

will generally be

found

that,

even where the truth upoa

its

Appendix.
Moral
cipks
prinire-

any fubjedl has been moll induftrioui]y obfcured,

fjonal irradiations

occa-

have not been wholly excluded. '

The mind

^^'d'^db'^"
incidental re-

^^^ ^ fooner obtained evidence of any

new

truth, efpecially in

fcieucc of morals, but

it

recollects

numerous intimations of
is

that truth

which have

occafionally fuggefted themfelves, and

aftonifhed that a difcovery

which was

pei-petually

upon the eve

of being made, fhould have been kept

at a diftance fo long.

by

JncI-

This
treating.

is

eminently the cafe in the fubjed; of which

we

are

dental paf^"es'i^vafages in various authors.

Thofe numerous paflages

in poets, divines*

and phi-

lofophers,

which have placed our

unalterable duty in the ftrongeft

contrail with the

precarious authority of a fuperior, and have

all

taught us to difclaim

fubordination to the

latter,

have always

been received by the ingenuous mind with a tumult of applaufe.

There
*

is

indeed no fpecies of compofition, in which the feeds of

that kill the body, and after that have no

" Be not

afraid of

them

more
4.

that they can do."

Luke, Ch. XII. Ver.

a morality

OF OBEDIENCE.
a morality too perfed for our prefent improvements in fclence. ^

177
r>OOK irr. CHAr. VI.
*

-may more reafonably be exped:ed to difcover themfelves, than in

'

Appendix.

works of imagination.

When

the

mind
it

fhakes off the fetters

flight, ip/.o

of prefcription and prejudice, when

the world

boldly takes a

unknown, and employs

which
it

itfelf

in feardi of thoie grand

and

interefting pi-inciples

fhall
is

tend to impart to every

fuch

reader the glow of enthufiafm,

at

moments

that the

enquiring and philofophical reader

may

expel to be prefented

with the materials and rude fketches of intellectual improvement*.

Among
-well

the

many

paflages

from writers of every denominaunder

this

Example.

tion that will readily fuggefl themfelves

head to a

informed mind,

we may

naturally recoiled: the fpirited

reafoning of

young Norval

in the tragedy of Douglas,

when he

* This was the opinion of

the celebrated

INIr.

Turgot.

" He thought

that

the moral fentiments of mankind might be confiderably ftrengthened, and the

perception of them rendered more delicate and precife, either by frequent exercife, or the perpetually fubjeting

them

to the

anatomy of

pure and enas holding

lightened underftanding.
a place

For

this reafon

he confidered romances
as the

among

treatifes

of morality,
feen

and even

only books in which

in

he was manner."
Jentmiem

aware of having

moral

principles

treated

an impartial

"

Jll.

'Turgot penfoit qu^on pent parvtntr a fortifier dans

ks hommes

leurs

nioratix,

les reiidre

plus delicats

.et

plus

jt.Jles, foit

par

I'exercice de ccs

fciitunens, foit en apprenant a les foumettre a rannlyfe d'une raifon faitu et eclair ee^

Cejl par
difoit-il,

ce

motif qu'il regardoit

les

les

romans comme des

la

livres de morale, et

iiicnii',

comme

feu Is ou

il eiet

vu de

morale."
Jll.

Vie de II. Turgot, par

de Condorcet. is

Aa

178

OF OBEDIENCE.
III. is

BOOK
'

CHAP. VI.
'

called

upon bv r /

lord
is

Randolph t
'

to ftate the particulars r

of a

Appendix.
*

conteft in which he

ene-aged, that lord b t>

Randolph may be xr /

ahle to decide

between the difputants.

lord,

" Nay, my good

though

I revere

you much,

My
To
I

caufe I plead not,

the liege lord of
a fubjeft's

nor demand your judgment.

dear native land

my

owe

homage ; but even him

And

his high arbitration I rejeft.

Within

my bofom
;

reigns another lord^itfelf."

Honour

fole

judge and umpire of

Act

IV.

Nothing can be more accurate than a confiderable part of the

philofophy of this paflage.

The term "honour"

to the

indeed

has

been too much abufed, and prefents

mind too

fantaftical

an image,

to be fairly defcriptive of that principle

by which the

actions of every intelledual being ought to be regulated.

principle to
fion of our

The

which

it

behoves us to attend,
;

is

the internal deci-

own

underflanding

and nothing can be more evident

than that the fame reafoning, which led Norval to rejedl the
authority of his fovereign in the quarrels and difputes In

which

he was engaged, ought

to

have led him to rejed

it

as the regula-

tor of any of his adions, and of confequence to abjure that

homage which he
fibly be

fets

out with referving.

Virtue cannot pof-

meafured by the judgment and good pleafure of any

man

with

whom we

are concerned.

CHAR

179

CHAP.

VII.

OF FORMS OF GOVERNMENT,
ARGUMENT
IN FAVOUR OF A VARIETY OF FORMS

COMPAR~

ED WITH THE ARGUMENT IN FAVOUR OF A VARIETY OF

THAT THERE IS ONE BEST FORM OF GOVERNMENT PROVED FROM THE UNITY OF TRUTH
RELIGIOUS CREEDS.

FROM THE NATURE OF MAN. OBJECTION FROM HUMAN WEAKNESS AND PREJUDICE. DANGER IN ESTABLISHING

MANNERS OF NATIONS PRODUCED BY THEIR FORMS OF GOVERNMENT. GRADUAL IMPROVEMENT NECESSARY. SIMPLICITY CHIEFLY TO BE DESIRED. PUBLICATION OF TRUTH THE GRAND INSTRUMENT BY INDIVIDUALS, NOT BY GOVERNMENT THE TRUTH ENTIRE, AND NOT BY PARCELS. SORT OF
CODE.

AN IMPERFECT

PROGRESS TO BE DESIRED.

A
ters,

PROPOSITION

that

by many
;

political

been vehemently maintained,

different political

is

/ that

reafoners has

BOOK
CHAP.
"

in.
VII.
;>

of the propriety of

Argument

in

jnflituting

governments

fuited to the charac-

favour of a variety of
^''^
'

the habits and prejudices of different nations,

is

"

The

Englifh

conftitution," fay thefe reafoners, "

ful,

adapted to the thoughtthis

rough and unfubmitting character of

ifland race

the

a 2

flownefs

i8o

OF FORMS OF
flownefs and complication of
tic

GOVERNMENT.
Dutch formality
to the

phlegma-

Hollander; and the fplendour of the grand monarque to the

vivacity of Frenchmen.

Among

the ancients

what could be

better aflbrted than a pure nefs

democracy

to the intelleiStual acute;

and impetuous energy of the Athenians

while the hardy

and unpolilhed Spartan flouriihed much more under the rugged

and
inflexible
difcipline

of Lycurgus

The

great art of the

legiflator is to penetrate into the true character

of the nation

with

whom

he

is

concerned, and to difcover the exadl ftrucSture

is

of government which
Ing and happy."
reafon

calculated to render that nation flourifh-

Accordingly an

Englifhman
fay,

who

Ihould

upon
affert

thefe poftulata

might

"

It is

not necefTary I

fhould

the Englifh conftitution to be the happieft and

fublimell conception of the

human mind

do not enquire

into-

the abfl;rat excellence of that government under

which France

made

herfelf illuftrious for centuries.

contemplate with en-

thufiafm the venerable republics of Greece and

Rome.

But

am

an enemy to the removing ancient land-marks, and difturbing

ages.
I

with our crude devices the wifdom of

regard ^vith

horror the Quixote plan, that would reduce the irregular greatnefs of nations to the frigid

and impracticable llandard of meta-

phyfical accuracy*."

This
* Thefe

arguments

bear fonie
fliould

refemblance to

tliofe

of

Mr. Burke.

It

was not neceffary that they

do fo

precifely, or that

we

fhould take ad-

vantage of the argumentitm ad hominem built upon his fervent admiration of the
Englifli

OF FORMS OF
prefent

GOVERNMENT.
BOOK
'

i8i
III.

This queftion has been anticipated in various parts of the

work

but the argument

is

fo
it

popular and plaufible to a

to a feparate examination.

fuperficial view, as juflly to entitle

The
infifted

idea bears

fome refemblance
certain

to

one which was formerly

in
religion.
all

compared
with the arin fa.

upon by

latitudinarians

"It

is gamcnt

vour of a va-

impious," faid they, " to endeavour to reduce

formity of opinion upon this fubjet.
various as their faces.

men

to uniare
as

'5ty of reU-

gious creeds.

Men's minds
fo
;

God

has

made them

and

it is

to be

prefumed

that

he

is

well pleafed to be addrefled In different

languages, by

different

names, and with the confenting ardour

of difagreeing fedls."

Thus

did thefe reafoners confound the

;

majefty of truth with the deformity of falfhood

that that being

and fuppofe

who was

all

truth,,

took delight in the errors,

falfhood in fome

the abfurdities, and the vices, for

all

way

or

other engenders vice, of his creatures.

At

the fame time they

is

were employed
fmgle fource of
in reality

in

unnerving that adivlty of mind, which

If truth

the

human improvement.
a level, I fhall be very

and falfhood be
in a

upon

weakly employed

ftrenuous endeavour either to difcover truth for myfelf, or to

imprefs

it

upon

others.

Truth

is

in reality

fmgle and uniform.

There mufl in the

That
IS

there

one bdl

EngUlh

conftltutlon.

Not

to fay that

we

fliall

feel ourfelves

more upon

at

our eafe in

examining the queftion generally, than in

and virtuous hero of former times.

a perfonal attack

this illuflrious

nature

1^2
'^^t^^'^6

0F FORMS OF
'

GOVERNMENT.
all

CH^S'^^^vu

f things be one beft form of government, whieh

f~~~Y~~^
vernment

intelledlts, fufficiently
^^^jj ]^q irrefiftibly

roufed from the flumbsr of favage ignorance,

If an equal participation
itfelf,
it

incited to approve.

of the benefits of nature be good in

-you and

muft be good for

be of ufe to keep

me and

all

mankind.

Defpotifm

may

Jiuman beings

in ignorance, but can .never

conduce to render

them

wife or -virtuous

or happy.

If the general tendency of

it

defpotifm be injurious, every portion and fragment of

from tne
unity of truth :

muft
to

-be

a noxious ingredient.
its

Truth cannot be

fo variable, as

change

nature

by

croffing-^n

arm of

the fea, a petty brook

or an ideal line, and become fallliood.

^.11

On

the contrary

it is.

at

times and in

all

places the fame.

from the narturc of man.

The

fubjedl

of legrllation

is

every where the fame, man.

are infinitely

The

points in

which human beings refemble

more

confidei-able than thofe in

which they

differ.

We

have the fame

fenfes, the
-reafon,

fame

inlets

of pleafure and paiq, the fame faculty to

.to

to

judge and
will

infer.

The lame

caufes that
differ in
is

make

me happy
jiions

make you happy.

We

may

our opi-

upon
and

this fubje.t at firft,

is

but this difference

only in pre-

judice,

by no means

invincible.

An
leaft

event

may

often

conduce moft to the benefit of a human being, which

his erro-

neous judgment perhaps regarded with

wife fuperintendent of
affairs

complacency.

A
of

would purfue with fteady

attention

^he
"the

real

advantage of thofe over

whom

he prefided,

carelefs

temporary difapprcbation he incurred, and which would laft no

.2

longer

OF FORMS OF GOVERNMENT.
longer than the partial and mifguided apprehenfion from which
it

i8j

BOOK
''^

iii.
'

flowed.

"

Is there a

country In which a prudent director of education

objedt for his labours than to
?

would propofe fome other

his pupil temperate

make

and juft and wife

be

Is

there a climate that

requires

its

inhabitants to

hard drinkers or horfe-jockies

or gamefters or bullies, rather than

men

Can

there be a corner

of the world, where the lover of juftice and truth would find himfelf

out of his element and ufelefs

If

no

then liberty muft be

recSlI-

every where better than flavery, and the government of

tude and impartiahty better than the government of caprice.

But to

this
1

It

may

be objected that "

men may

not be every Obj-aion

t r fi where capable of liberty. r*

A
n

'r gift

from'

human

however valuable

in

itfelf,

if weaknefs and
prejudice.

it

be intended to be beneficial, muft be adapted to the capacity

In

of the receiver.

human

affairs

every thing muft be gradual

and

it is

contrary to every idea that experience furniflies of the

nature of mind to expert to advance

at-

men

to a ftate of perfedtion

once.

It

was

in a fpirit

fomewhat

fimilar to this, that Solon,

the Athenian lawgiver, apologifed for the imperfedion of his

code, faying, " that he had not fought to promulgate fuch laws
as

were good in themfelves, but fuch

as his

countrymen werC'

able to bear."

The experiment

of Solon feems to be of a dangerous nature. Danger in

1

code,

fuch as his, bid

r fair

for permanence, and

elhiblifliinj

does not

an imperfta

code.

appear

i84

OF FORMS OF GOVERNMENT.
appear to have contained in
it

a principle of improvement.

He"
de--

did not meditate that gradual progrefs

fcribed,
,

which was above

nor contemplate in the Athenians of his

own

time, the

root from

which were

to fpring the polTible

all

Athenians of fome

future period, v/ho might realife

that

he was able to conceive

inflitutions

of good fenfe, fortitude and virtue.

calculated to hold

His

were rather

them down

in perpetuity to one certain de-

gree of excellence and no more.

Manners of
duced by their forn;is of government,

This fugg^ftion fumifhes US with the real clue to that ftriking

Coincidence between the manners of a nation and the form of
its

government, which was mentioned in the beginning of the

chaptei",

and v/hich has furnifhed

fo capital

an argument to the

advocates for the local propriety of different forms of government.

It

was

in reality

fomewhat

illogical in thefe reafoners to

employ

.this as

an argument upon the

fubjedl,

without previoufly afcerto be regarded as a caufe

:taining

which of the two things was

as

and which

an

effedt,

whether the government arofe out of

the manners of the nation, or the manners of the nation out of

the government.

The

laft

of thefe ftatements appears upon the

whole

to be neareft to the fat.

its

The government may be

in-

debted for

exiftence to accident or force.

Revolutions, as

they have moft frequently taken place in the world, are epochas,
in which the temper and wifhcs of a nation are lead confulted*.

When

it

is

otherwife,

ftlU

the real effedl of the

governmeat

* See

Kume's

Effays.

Part

II. EiTliy xii.

which

OF OBEDIENCE.
which
is

1S5 and fentiments,

p,?fp' J|?"
'
*^ ^^

inftituted, is to perpetuate propenfities

its

which without

operation would fpeedily have given place to

other propenfities.

Upon

every iuppofition, the exifting corre-

fpondence between national charater and national government

will be

found

in a jufi: confideration to arife

outof the

latter.

The

c;radual principle of o r i:

improvement advanced
i.

in the lafl
it is

Gradual Improveinent
"eceffaq'.

cited objection
fary, while

muft be admitted for true

adopt
it,

but then

necef-

we

that
it
;

we

iTiould not fuffer ourfelves to fliould choofe the beft

at in direl oppofition to

and that we

and moll powerful means for forwarding that improvement.

Man

is

in a ftate of perpetual progrefs.

He muft grow

either

Si'mpHcky
defued.

better or worfe, either correal his habits or confirm them.

The

government propofed muft

judices

either increafe

our paflions and. pre-

by fanning the

flame, or

by gradually difcouraging tend

fufficiently difficult to

to extirpate them.

In reality,

it is

imagine
its

a government that fhall have the latter tendency.

By

very

nature political inftitution has a tendency to fufpend the elafticity,

and put an end

to the

advancement of mind.
injurious.

Every fcheme
That which

for
is

embodying imperfedlion muft be

to-day a confiderable melioration, will at fome future period, if

preferved unaltered, appear a defedt and dileafe in the body politic.

It

were earneftly

to be defired that each

man was

wife

enough

to

govern himfelf without the intervention of any com;

pulfory reftraint

and, fmce government even in

its

beft ftate

is

Bb

an^

iS6
CHAP^vir'
"

OF OBEDIENCE.
''^"

^^'^^'

^^^ obje(Et principally to be aimed at

is,

that

we

fliould

have

as little

of

it

as the general peace

of

human

fociety will

permit.

Tublicntion

But the grand inftrument for forwarding the improvement of

of truth the grand inftiu-

mind

is

the publication of truth.

Not the

publication

on the

ment

by

iiidiW-

P^^^ ^
fallibly

government

for

it is

infinitely difEcult to difcover in-

ovcnim"ent^

what the truth

is

is,

efpecially

upon controverted

points,

and government
refpeft.

as liable as individuals to
it is

be miftaken in this

In reality

more

liable

for the depofitaries of go-

vernment have

a very obvious temptation to defire,

faith, to

by means

of ignorance and implicit of things.

truth
is

perpetuate the exifting ftate

The

only fubftantial method for the propagation of

difcuffion, fo that the errors of

one

man may

be detect-

ed by the acutenefs and fevere difquifition of his neighbours.

All

we have

to

demand from
is

the ofBcers of government, at leaft

neutrality.

in their public charadler,

The

intervention of
is

authority in a field proper to reafcning and demonftration

alvvays injurious.
truth,

If

on the

right fide,

it

can only difcredit

and

call

off the attention of

it

men

to a foreign confideration.

If on. the
fpirit

wrong, though
it

may

not be able to fupprefs the

of enquiry,

will

have a tendency to convert the calm

purfuit of

knowledge

into paffion

and tumult.

tire,

the truth enand not

" But in v/hat manner

nicated fo
.as

fhall the principles

?

of truth be

commumankind

by

parcels,

bell to lead to the pra<aice

By
.

fliewing to

OF OBEDIENCE.
kind truth in
all its

187
it ?

evidence, or concealinjj; one half of

partial

Shall

BOOK ill.
*

they be initiated by a

difcovery,

and thus
at firft

led

on by

'

regular degrees to conclufions that

alienated their

would

have wholly

minds

?"

This queflion will come to be more fully difcufled in a

fol-

lowing chapter.

In the

mean time

let

us only confider for the

prefent the quantity of efFedt that

may

be expedled from thefe

two

oppofite plans.

An

inhabitant

of Turkey or Morocco

may

perhaps be of

opinion, that the vefting

power
it

in the arbitrary will or caprice

of an individual has in
If
I

more advantages than

I

difadvantages.

be defirous to change his opinion, fhould

to
?

undertake to re-

commend

him
I

in animated language
it

fome modification of
If
I

this caprice

fhould attack

in

its

principle.

do otherprinciple

wife,

fhall

betray the ftrength of

my

caufe.

The

oppofite to his

own,

will

not poflefs half the

it.

irrefiftible

force

which
vigour.

could have given to

His objections

will

affiime

The

principle

am

maintaining being half truth and

half falfhood, he will in every ftep of the conteft pofTefs an advantage in the offenfive,

of which,

if

he be

fufficiently acute,

can never deprive him.

Now

the principle

fhould have to explain of equal law and

equal juflice to the inhabitant of Morocco, would be as

new

to

b 2

him.

i8

OBED

NC

E.

CHA? vn
"^
^

^"^' ^ ^^y principle of the boldeft

'

political defcrlptlon that I

could propagate in this country.

Whatever apparent

difference

may
ov/e

exift
its

between the two

cafes,

may

fairly

be fufpeited to

exiftence to the imagination of the obferver.

The

rule

therefore
fal

which

fuggefts itfelf in this

cafe

is

fitted for

univer-

application.

^refs to be be'
dcfired,

-^^^

^ *^^

improvements which are to be introduced Into the

quantity and their period muft be deterexifting in

political fyftem, their

mined by the degree of knowledge

any country, and

the ftate of prepai^ation of the public

are to be defired.
Political

mind

for the changes that

renovation

may

ftridly be confider-

ed as one of the ftages in intelledlual improvement.

Literature

and

difquifition
;

cannot of themfelves be rendered fufficiently

general

it

will be only the cruder

and grofler parts that can be

;

expefted to defcend in their

genuine form to the multitude

while thofe abftrad; and bold fpeculations, in which the value of

literature principally confifts,

muft

necefTarily continue the por-

tion of th favoured few.

itfelf in aid

It is

here that focial inftitution offers

of the abftrufer powers of argumentative

as

communieftablifhed

cation.

As foon

any important truth has become

to

a fufFicient extent in the

it

minds of the enterprifmg and the

wife,

may

tranquilly and with eafe be rendered a part of the

;

general fyftem

fmce the uninlliruded and the poor are never

the ftrenuous fupporters of thofe complicated fyftems by which

oppreffion
is

maintained

and

fince they

have an obvious intereft

OF OBEDIENCE.
tereft in the prallcal

189

introdudion of fimpliclty and truth,

One BOOK III.

*^

valuable principle being thus realifed, prepares the

realifing

way

for the

v-

of more.

It ferves as a refting-place to

the

human mind

in

its

great bufinefs of exploring

it

the

regions

of truth, and

gives

new

alacrity

and encouragement

for farther exertions.

AN

A N

ENQUIRY
CONCERNING

POLITICAL JUSTICE.
B O O

IV.

MISCELLANEOUS PRINCIPLES.

CHAP.

I.

OF RESISTANCE.
EVERY INDIVIDUAL THE JUDGE OF
OBJECTION.
HIS

OWN

RESISTANCE.

ANSWERED FROM THE NATURE OF GOVERNMENT FROM THEMODESOF RESISTANCE. 1. FORCE RARELY TO BE EMPLOYED EITHER WHERE THERE IS
SMALL PROSPECT OF SUCCESS
15

OR WHERE THE PROSPECT

FIRST ESTI-

GREAT.

HISTORY

OF CHARLES THE

MATED.

2.

REASONING THE LEGITIMATE MODE.

upon
politi-

IT

has appeared in the courfe of our reafonings

BOOK
^^

IV.
'

cal authority, that

every

man

is

bound

to refift every unjuft

Every

indi-

proceeding on the part of the community.

But who

is

the

vidualthe

judge

192

OFRESISTANCE.
IV.

BOOK

judge of

this injuPdce

The

queftion anfwers

Itfelf:

the private

judgment of the

individual.

Were

it

not

fo,

the appeal

would

be nugatory, for w^e have no

infallible

judge to

whom
own

to refer

our controverfies.

He

is

obliged to confult his

private

judgment
confult
it

in this cafe, for the

fame reafon that obliges him to

in every other article of his condudt.

Objeaion.

" But

is

not this pofition neceiTarily fubverfive of

there be a

all
is

governto

ment
obey

Can

power

to rule,

where no man
to confult his

bound

or at leaft where every

firft,

man

is

own

under-

ftanding

and then to yield his concurrence no farther than

?

he

fhall

conceive the regulation to be juft

is

The very

idea of

government

that of an authority fuperfeding private

judgment
left entire
?

how

then can the exercife of private judgment be

degree of order
is

What
every
to

to be expected in a

community, where
and even
is

man

is

taught to indulge his

own
?"

fpeculations,

refift

the decifion of the whole,

whenever

that decifion

op-

pofed to the didates of his

own

fancy

Anfwered
from the natare of goor go vcrnment
,

The
,

true anfwer to thefe queftions

lies

in the obfervation
i

with
,
.

VN^hich

we began

our dilquilition
is

.^

on governm.ent,

that this

boafted inftitution

nothing more than a fcheme for enforcing

by

brute violence the fenfe of one

man

or

fet

of

men upon

another, neceffary to be employed in certain cafes of peculiar

emergency.

Suppofnig the queftion then to

lie

merely between

the force of the

community on one

part>

and the force with

which

OF RESIST AN CE.
which any hidlvldual member fhould think
it

jg^

Incumbeni upon

l^OOK

iv.
I.
'

him

to refift their decifions

CHAP.
*
<-

on the

other,

it is

fufficiently evident

that a certain kind of authority

fult.

and fupremacy M'ould be the

of the queftion.

re-

But

this

is

not the true

ftate

It is farther evident, that,

though the duty of every man

to

exercife his private

to pradlice,

judgment be

unalterable, yet fo far as relates

fubfifts,

wherever government

the exercife of private

judgment
the

is

fubftantially intrenched upon.

The

force put

by

community upon

thofe

who
them

exercife rapine

and

injuftice,
its

and the influence of

that force as a moral motive

upon

mem-

bers in general, are each of

exhibitions of an argument,

not founded in general reafon, but in the precarious interference

of a

fidlible individual.

Nor

is

this

all.

Without

anticipating

the queftion of the different kinds of refiftance and the election

that
it Is
it

may

be our duty to
fa<3:,

make of one kind

rather than another,

certain in

that
I

my condud
ad
number of
is

will be materially altered

by

the forefight that, if

in a certain

manner,

fhall

have

the combined force of a

individuals to oppofe me.

That government
interferes
neceflity.

therefore

the beft,

which

in

no one inftance

with the exercife of private judgment without abfolute

The modes

according to which an individual

may

oppofe any

from die
lidance.

meafure which his judgment difapproves are of two

forts,

adion

and fpeech.

Shall he

upon every occafion have

recourfe to the

'

Force rare-

ly to be

em-

former

F'^yed,

194
former
jei:
?

OFRESISTANCE.
This
it

is

ablurd fo

much

as to fuppofe.

The ob-

of every virtuous

man

is

the general good.

But

how

can

he be

faid to pi-omote the general

good,

who

is

ready to wafte
facrifice his life

his alive force

upon every

trivial occafion,
I

and

without the chance of any public benefit

either

where
is

" But he refcrves himfelf,"

cafion
;

I will
.

fuppofe, " for fome great oc^

there

fmall

profped of
fuccefs,

and then,
little

,-

carelels as to luccels,
1

which

,.,.is

a large object'

only to

minds, generoufly embarks in a cauie where he has

to perifh.

no hope but

He

becomes the martyr of

truth.

He

believes that fuch an

his fellow

example
to roufe

will tend to imprefs the

minds of

men, and

them from

their lethargy."

The

queftion of

martyrdom

is

of a

difficult nature;

had

rather convince

men by my

arguments, than feduce them

for

by

my

example.

It is fcarcely poffible

me

to

tell

what oppor-of

tunities for ufefulnefs

may
is it

offer themfelves in the future years

my
than

exiftence.

Nor

improbable in a general confidcration.

fervices

that long

and perfevering

may
The

be more advantageous
cafe being thus circum-

brilliant

and tranfitory ones.

ftanced, a truly wife

offering

man

cannot

fail

to hefitate as to the idea

of

up

his life a voluntary oblation...

Whenever martyrdom becomes an

nothing can preferve him fhort of the
ciple

indifpenfible duty,
cleareft derelidion

when:

of prin-

and the moll palpable defertion of truth, he will then meet

it

OF RESISTANCE.
It

195
before from any

with perfed ferenky.

He

did not avoid

it

^9?iyy'
'

weaknefs of perfonal

feeling.

When

it

muft be encountered,

'

he knows that

it

is

indebted for that hiflre which has been fo

generally acknowledged
fufferer.

among mankind,
is

to the intrepidity of the

He knows

that nothing

fo eflential to true virtue,

as an utter difregard to individual advantage.

The
force,

objedions that offer themfelves to an exertion of adual

are

where there

no hopes of

fuccefs, are

numerous.

Such

an exertion cannot be made without injury

than a fingle individual.

to the lives of

more

certain

number both of enemies and

friends muft be expected to be the victims of fo wild an undertaking.

as
It is

regarded by contemporaries, and recorded by hiftory

;

an intemperate ebullition of the pafTions

and

ferves rather as
It

a beacon to deter others, than as a motive to animate them.is

not the frenzy of enthufiafm, but the calm, fagacious and de-

liberate effort

of reafon, to which truth muft be indebted for

its

progrefs.

But
ble,

let

us fuppole, " that the profpeit of fuccefs

is

is

confidera-

or where the
great.

and that there

reafon to believe that refolute violence

its

may

in

no long time accompliih

hefitate'.

purpofe."

Even here we may be

allowed to

Force has already appeared to be an odious

it

weapon

and,
it

if

the ufe of

be to be regretted in the hands of

its

government,

does not change

If the caufe

nature though wielded by a

plead be the caufe of truth,
there

band of

patriots.

we

c 2

ig6
I\^OK
'
-^

OF RESISTANCE.
iV.
^

there

is

no douk

thfit

by our reafonings,
purpofe.

if fufficieiitly

ziealouj

and couftant, the

flxine

may

be eiTedied iu a milder and

more

Uberal

way *v
hsre what has been
it-

In a word,

it-

is

proper to

reeolIecSt

effa--

blilhed as to the
to be

dodrine offeree in

general,-- that
is

is

in

no

cafe
In:

employed but where every other means-

ineffefhual.

the queilion therefore of refiflance to government, force ought:

-

never to be introduced without the moft imminent neceffity

never but in ci-rcumftances fimilar to thofe of defending

life

my

from

a ruffian,

where time can by no means be gained, and

to.

the confequences inftantly

enfue

are.

unqueftionably

fatal.

Hiiioryof
Charles the
firil efti-

The

hiftoiy of Icing Charles the

firll

furnifhes an inftrudlve

example in both kinds.

was- that of confining his
limits.

The

original defign of

Ms

opponents

mated.

power within narrow and palpable

of

This objeft,

after a ftruggle

many

years,,

was fully
bloodflxed

accompliftied

by the parliament of 1640, without

(except

indeed in the fmgle

inftance of lord Strafford)

and

without commotion.-

They

next conceived the project of over-

turning the hierarchy and the monarchy of England, in oppofition to great numbers, and. in the
jority of their countrymen.
lail

point no doubt to a

ma-

Admitting thefe objedls

to have-

been in the utmoft degree excellent, they ought not, for the pur--

* See this cafe more fully difcufled in the foUowihg chapter..

pofe

OF RESISTANCE.
fofs of obtaining them, to have precipitated the queflioa to the

[97

BOOK
'

IV.
'

extremity of a

civil war..

" But, fmce force

is

fcarcely
is

under any circumftances to be

refiftance

2.

Reafonmg

the legitimate

employed, of w^hat nature

that

which ought con-

mode,

ftantly to be given to every

mftance of injuftice ?"

is

The

refift-

ance

am bound

to

employ

that of uttering the truth,

of
I

eenfuring in the mofl explicit manner every proceeding that

perceive to be adverfe to the true interefts of mankind.
I

am

bound
which
I

to

difleminate without referve

all

the principles with

am
to

acquainted, and which

it

may

be of importance to

mankind

know

and

this

duty

it

behoves

me

to pradlife

upon
I

every occafion and with the moft perfevering conftancy.

muft

difclofe

the whole fyflem of moral and political truth,

its

without fuppreffing any part under the idea of

being too

bold and paradoxical, and thus depriving the whole of that

complete and

irrefiflible

evidence, without

which

its

effeds muft

always be

feeble, partial

and uncertain.

CHAP.

19S

CHAP.

IL

OF REVOLUTIONS.

SECTION
DUTIES OF
A

I.

CITIZEN.

OBLIGATION TO SUPPORT THE CONSTITUTION OF OUR

COUNTRY CONSIDERED MUST ARISE EITHER FROM THE REASON OF THE CASE, OR FROM A PERSONAL AND LOCAL CONSIDERATION. THE FIRST EXAMINED. THE

SECOND.

BOOK IV.
CHAP.
Section
II.
I,

T^T O
upon
it

queftion can be

more important than

efFeding revolutions.

that

which

relpedts

the beft
Obligation to fupport the conftkution ofourcountry
confidered
:

mode of
it

Before

we

enter

howevcr,
.

may

be proper to remove a

difficulty

which

has fuggcfted

r itfclf to

the minds of

r r

fome men, how

;

far

we ought

generally fpeaking to be the friends of revolution

or, in other

words, whether

it

be juftifiable in a

man

to be the

enemy of the

conftitution of his countr)%

*'

We

live,"
;

it

will be faid,

" under the protection of this con-

ftitution

and protedion, being a benefit conferred, obliges us

to a reciprocation of fupport in return."

To

DUTIES OF A CITIZEN.
To
this
it

199
is

may
;

be anfwered,
and,
it
till

firft,

that this protedion

a very

BOOK
j!
-^

iv.
'

equivocal thino; " ^

the efFedls of

it

can be flaown that the vices, from

Section

I.

which

protects us, are not for the moft part the

produce of that conflitutlon,

ftand the quantity of benefit
it

we

fhall

never fufEciently under-

includes.

Secondly, gratitude, as has aheady been proved *, not a virtue.

is

a vice and
to

Every man and every

colleftion of

men ought

be treated by us in a manner founded upon their intrinfic qualities

and

capacities,

and not according to a rule which has exiftence

only in relation to ourfelves.

Add

to this, thirdly, that

no motive can be more equivocal

Gratitude to the conftiis

than the gratitude here recommended.

tution,

an abftrad idea, an imaginary exiftence,

altogether
better

unintelligible.

Affedion to

my countrymen

will be

much

proved, by

than by

my exertions to procure them my fupporting a fyftem which I

a fubftantial benefit,
believe to be fraught

with injurious confequences.

He who

calls

upon me

to fupport the conftitution

principles.
It

muft found

J""^

arlfe

either

from

his requifition

upon one of two

it is

has a claim upon

it is

^^^ '''^^'^" ^' the cafe, or

^'^^
'

my

fupport either becaufe

good, or becaufe

Britiih.

P"-""-

fonal and lo'

cal confidera-

tion.

* Book

II.

chap.

ii.

p. 83.

Againft

200

DUTIES OF A CITIZEN.
Againft the requifition in the
objeft.
firft

fenfe there

is

nothing to

All that
it.

is

neceflary

is
it

to prove the goodnefs

will be faid,

which

is

afcribed to

But perhaps

"

that,

though not
to

abfolutely good,

more mifchief

will refult

from an attempt

overturn

it,

than from maintaining

it VN^ith its

mixed character of

partly right and partly

wrong."

If this can be

made

evident,
I

undoubtedly

ought to fubmit.

Of

this

mifchief however

can be no judge but in confequence of enquiry.

evils attendant
lefs.

To fome

the

on

a revolution will appear greater,

and to others

Some

vv'ill

imagine that the vices with which the Englifli

tliat
it

conftitution

is

pregnant are confiderable, and fome

Before
I

is

nearly innocent.

can decide between thefe oppofite

evils, I mufl;

opinions and balance the exifting and the poflible

examine for myfelf.

certainty of refult.

But examination

in

its

nature implies unI

Were

I to"

determine before
I

fat

down on

which
faid to

fide the decifion

fhould be,

could not ftridly fpeaking be

its

examine

at all.

He
.a

that defires a revolution for

own

fak-e is to

be regarded as

madman.
ufefulnefs

He

that defires

it

from a

thorough convitlon of

its

and necefTity has a claim

upon

us for candour and refpeft.

Thefccoiid.

As

to the

demand upon me
it is

for fupport to the Englifli conftiis

tution, becaufe

is

Englifli, there

little

plaufibility

in this

arsiument.

It

of the fame nature as the demand upon

me

to

be a Chriftian. becaufe I

am

a Briton, or a

Mahometan, becaufe
I

am

DUTIES OF
I

A CITIZEN.
fPf^i

201
lY*

am

a native of
it

Turkey.

Inftead of being an expreffion of reall

fpedt,

argues contempt of
that
is

government, religion and virtue,

^r^

and every thing

thing as truth,
it

facred

among men.
error.

If there be fuch a If there be fuch a

this

muft be better than

it

faculty as reafon,

ought to be

ex-^rted.

But

demand makes'

truth a matter of abfolute indifference,

and forbids us the exercife

reflsii,
it

of our reafon.

If

men

reafon and

muft neceflarily
will find his
virhat

Iiappen that either the Englifhman or the

Turk

government

to be odious

and

his religion falfe.

For

pur-

pofe employ his reafon, if he muft for ever conceal the conclufions to w^hich
it

leads

him

How

would man have

arrived

at his prefent attainments, if

he had always been contented with

to be

the ftate of fociety in

which he happened
is

born

In

a word, either reafon nature

is

the curfe of our fpecies, and

;

human
to

to

be regarded with horror

or

it

becomes us
and

em-

ploy our underftanding and to ad; upon

it,

to follow truth

wherever

it

may

lead us.

It

cannot lead us to mifchief, fmce

Is

utility, as It

regards percipient beings.

the only bafis of moral

and

political truth.

Dd

SECTION

202

E C T

O N

II.

MODE OF EFFECTING REVOLUTIONS.

PERSUASION THE r?.0?ER IN?TRUMENT NOT VIOLENCE NOR RESENTMENT. LATENESS OF EVENT DESIRABLE.

return to the enquiry refpeding the

If no queilion can be
i
i

mode of

efFeccIng

revokitions.
Section
II.

more important, there

Perfuafion the proper inftrument :

is

fortunately

no queftion perhaps

r that admits ot a

more complete
which

and

fatisfaftory general anfwer.

The

revolutions of ilates,

a philanthropift vs^ould defire to witnefs, or in

which he would

willingly co-operate, confift principally in a change of fentiraents

and

difpofitions in the

members of thofe

ftates.

The

true

inftruments for changing the opinions of

perfuafion.

men

are

argument and
iffiie is

The

beft fecurity for

difcuffion.

an advantageous
field

free

and unreftritled

In that

truth muft

always
the

prove the fuccefsful champion.

focial inftitutions

If then

we would improve

of mankind,

we muft

write,
is

we muft
clofe
;

argue,

we

muft converfe.
fuit

To

this bufinefs there

no

in this pur-

there fhould be

no

paufe.

Every method fhould be cm-

ployed,

not fo

much

pofitively to allure the attention of

man-

kind, or perfuafively to invite

opinions,

them

to

the

adoption

of our

as to

remove every

reftraint

upon thought, and to

throw

MODE OF EFFECTING REVOLUTIONS.

throw open the temple of
the world.
fclence

103
all

and the

field

of enquiry to

BOOK
*
.^

iv.
'

Section

II,

Thofe inftruments

will always be regarded

by the

difcerning

not violence

mind

as fufpicious,

which may be employed with equal profpedt

This confideration
refources of violence.

of fuccefs on both fides of every queftion. fhould

make

us look with averfion

lifted

upon
field,

all

When we
and

defcend into the

we

of courfe defert the

vantage ground of truth, and commit the decifion to uncertainty

caprice.

The phalanx

of reafon

is

invulnerable
;

it

advances
able to

with deliberate and determined pace

refift
it.

and nothing

is

But when we lay down our arguments, and take up

is

our fwords, the cafe

altered.

Amidft the barbarous pomp of

brawls,

war and the clamorous din of

civil

who
?

can

tell

whether

the event fhall be profperous or miferable

We

muft therefore carefully diftlnguifh between informing

Indignation, refentment and fury

nofrefent-

the people and inflaming them.

are to be deprecated
clear difcernment
;

and

all

we

fhould afk

is

fober thought,

and intrepid

difcuffion.

Why
we

were the revoall

lutions of

America and France a general concert of

orders and

defcriptions of

men, without

fo

much

(if

bear in
;

mind

the

multitudes concerned) as almoft a diflentient voice

refiftance againft

while the

our Charles the

Becaufe the

firft

divided the nation into

affair

two equal

parts

latter

was the

of the feven-

teenth century, and the former happened in the clofe of the

d 2

eighteenth.

204

MODE OF EFFECTING REVOLUTIONS.

eighteenth.
II.

BOOK IV.
CHAP.
^

philoBecaufe in the cafe of America and France '^

^~7f'

fophy had already developed fome of the great principles of

political truth,

and Sydney and Locke and Montefquieu and

RoulTeau had convinced a majority of refiedling and powerful

minds of the
pened
ftill

evils

of usurpation.

If thefe revolutions

had hap-

later,

not one drop of the blood of one citizen vi^ould

have been fhed by the hands of another, nor would the event have been marked
fo

much

perhaps as with one folitary inftance

of violence and confifcation.

Latenefs of event defirable.

There

are

two

principles therefore

which the man who

defires

the regeneration of his fpecies ought ever to bear in mind, to

regard the improvement of every hour as eflential in the difco-

very and diffemination of truth, and willingly to

fufFer the lapfe

of years before he urges the reducing his theory into adlual execution.

With

all

his caution

it

is

pofTible that the

impetuous
;

multitude will run before the

ftill

and quiet progrefs of reafon

nor

will

he fternly pafs fentence upon every revolution that

that

fhall

by

few years have anticipated the term

But,
if his

wifdom would
is

have prefcribed.

caution be firmly exerted, there

no doubt

that

he will fuperfede

many

abortive attempts, and con-

fiderably prolong the general tranquillity.

SECTIO

205

SECTION

III.

OF POLITICAL ASSOCIATION S.
MEANING OF THE TERM.
I.

ASSOCIATIONS OBJECTED TO

REVOLUTION SHOULD ORIGINATE

GER OF TUMULT.
CASES ADMISSIBLE.

FROM THE SORT OF PERSONS WITH WHOM A JUST '2. FROM THE DANOBJECTS OF ASSOCIATION.
IN

WHAT

ARGUED FOR FROM THE NECESSITY TO GIVE WEIGHT TO OPINION FROM THEIR TENDENCY UNNECESSARY FOR THESE TO ASCERTAIN OPINION. GENERAL INUTILITY. CONCE6SIONS. IMPURPOSES.

PORTANCE OF SOCIAL COMMUNICATION.

OF

PROPRIETY

TEACHING RESISTANCE CONSIDERED.

QUESTION

naturally fuggefts itielf in this place reat

boOKIV.

fpeding the propriety of aflbciations among the people

purpofe of effedling a change in their

CHAP
'

II
'j

>

large, for the

ftitutions.

political in-

Meaning of

It fliould

be obferved, that the aflbciations here fpoken

of are voluntary confederacies of certain members of the fociety

with each other, the tendency of which

is

to give

weight to the

opinions of the perfons fo affbciated, of which the opinions of

the unconfoderated and infulated part of the

community

are deftitute*

2o6
2^9'i CHAP. II.
1!;

OF POLITICAL ASSOCIATIONS.
^y*
titute.

This queftion therefore has nothins: in ^

*=

common

with that

Section

^"TT^

III.

other, '

whether in a well organized o

flate

every individual would j

ele<flive

not find his place in a deliberative as well as an

capacity

the fociety being diftributed into diftrifls and departments, and

each

man

polTeffing

an importance, not meafured by the capriaccidental confederacy, but

cious ftandard of

fome

by a

rule im-

partially applied to every

mem^ber of the community.

AlTociations

Relative then to political affociations, as thus explained, there

are

two

confiderations, which, if they

do not

afford reafon for

undiftinguifhing condemnation, at leaft tend to diminifh our

anxiety to their introdudlion.

I. from the fortofperfons

In the

firft

place revolutions

with

whom

the people at large, than in the conceptions of perlons of lome

,.,
n

lefs

originate in the energies of

.

_._^
r

jufl revolu-

tion (houid
oi-iginate
:

degree of ftudy and reflediion.

fay,

originate, for

it

mufl

be admitted, that they ought ultimately to be determined on by

the choice of the whole nation.
difFufe
itfelf.

It is

the property of truth to

it

The

difficulty

is

to diftinguifli
it

in the

firft

inftance,

and in the next

it

to prefent

in that unequivocal

form

which

fhall enable

to

command

univerfal affent.
it

This muft

necefTarily be the tafk of a few.

Society, as

at prefent exifts

in the world, will long be divided into

two

claiTes,

thofe

who

have

leifure for ftudy,

and thofe whofe Importunate

to

neceffities

perpetually urge

them

temporary induftry.
be made as

It is

no doubt

to

be defired, that the

latter clafs fliould

much

as poffible

to

OF POLITICAL ASSOCIATIONS.
partake of the privileges of the former. to ^ r b ^
careful,

207

But we fhould be

BOOK
CHAP.
*

IV.
11.
'

while

we

liften to the

imdiftinguifhing demands of be-

Section III.

nevolence, that

we do

not occafion a greater mifchief than that

we

undertake to cure.

We

Ihculd be upon our guard againfl an

event the confequences of which are always to be feared, the

propagating blind zeal, where

we meant to

propagate reafon.

The

ftudlous

and

reflefting only

can be

expelled to fee
order of
before
fociety

deeply into future events.

totally
different

To

conceive
is

an

from

that

which

now

our eyes,
its infti-

and

to

judge of the advantages that would accrue from

ar

tution,

the prerogatives only

of a few favoured

minds.

When
tion,

thefe advantages

have been unfolded by fuperior penetra-

they cannot yet for fome time be expected to be under-

ftood

by the multitude. them

Time, reading and converfation

familiar.

are

neceffary to render
lar gradation

They muft

defcend in regu-

from the

mofl; thoughtful to the mofl: unobfervant.

He,

that begins with

little

an appeal to the people,

may

be fufpeded
finifter

to underftand

of the true character of mind.

;

A
is

de-

fign

may

gain by precipitation

but true wifdom

heft

adapted

to a flow, unvarying, inceflant progrefs.

Human
As
the

affairs,

through every link of the great chain of

neceffity, are

admirably harmonlfed and adapted to each other.

people
leaft

form the

lall

ftep

in

the

progrefs of
to affert
it.

ti'uth,

they need
3

preparation to induce

them

Their

prejudices

2oS

OF POLITICAL ASSOCIATIONS.
prejudices are

few and upon the

furface.

They

are the higher

Section

orders of fociety, that find, or imagine they find, their advantage

III.

in injuftice,

and are eager to invent arguments for

firft

its

defence.

In fophiftry they

feek an excufe for their conduct, and then

thofe errors

become the redoubted champions of

been afliduous to
cultivate.

which they have

The vulgar have no fuch intereft, and

fubmit to the reign of injuftice from habit only and the want of
reflection.

They do

not want preparation to feceive the truth,

it.

fo

much

as

examples to embody
for

very Ihort catalogue of

reafons

is fufficient

them,

when

they fee the generous and

the wife refolved to aflert the caufe of juftice.

very

fliort

period

is

long enough for them to imbibe the fentiments of

patriotifm and liberty,

2.

from the

Secondly,

aflbciations

muft be formed with great caution

tumult.

j^Qj ^Q jjg allied to

tumult.

The

conviviality of a feaft

may

lead

to the depredations of a riot.

While the fympai.hy of opinion

numerous meetings, and

catches

from man

to

man,

efpecially in

among

perfons whofe paffions have not been ufed to the curb of

judgment, actions
tion

may

be determined on, which folitary reflec-

would have rejected.

There

is

nothing more barbarous, cruel

and
'

blood-thirfty, than the

triumph of a mob.

Sober thought

fliould always prepare the

way

to the public afl'ertion of truth. a republic, fhould,

like the

He,
firft

that

would be the founder of

Brutus, be infenfible to the energies of the moft imperious

paflTions

of our nature.

Upon

OF POLITICAL ASSOCIATIONS.
Upon
be made.
this fubjedt

209
is

of anbciations an obvious diftlncllon

to

^[^^^p
'-

^j^"

Thofe, '

who

o-ovcrninent of are dlflatisfied with the "

either at the corredion of old errors, or

OKCTION
0^J-.'^^^.

^-~rr:!
111.

their country,

may aim

the counteracting of
legitimate.

new encroachments.

Both thcfe objefts are

The

wife and the virtuous

man ought

to fee things

precifely as they are,

and judge of the actual conftitution of

if

his

country with the fame impartiality, as

it

he had funply read of

in the remotell page of hiflory.

Thefe two obieds

"
.

may be entitled to
'

a different treatment.
leifurely ftep

The
in
all

^" what cafe* admiUible.

firft

ought undoubtedly to proceed with a

and

poffible tranquillity.

The

fecond appears to require fomething

more of adivity.
to
its

It is

the charaderiftic of truth, to truft

refifl

much

own

energy, and to

invafion rather

by the

force of

conviftion than the force of arms.

The

individual opprefTed

feems however particularly entitled to our

beft be afforded

affiflance,

and
cafe

this

can
re-

by the concurrence of many. The

may

quire an early

and unequivocal difplay of opinion, and

fort

this per-

haps will afford an apology for fomc

it

of afTociation, provided

be conducted with
order.

all

pofTible attention to peaceablenefs

and

good

Few arguments

can be of equal importance with that

v>rhlch

we

Argued

for

from the ne-

are here difcuffmg.

Few

miftakes can be

more

to be deplored *

'^':^^^y ^? give weight

than that which fhould induce us to employ immoral and injurious methods for the fupport of a good caufe.
It

' opinion

may

be

alledged,

2IO

OF POLITICAL ASSOCIATIONS.
^^'^dg^^^?

CHAP ^n'
^^"^'^^TTj'

" ^^^^ affociation

is

the only expedient for arming the

fenfe of the country againfc the arts

of

its

oppreffors."

Why arm?
which
feek to

Why
may

fpread a reftlefs

commotion over

the face of a nation,

?

lead to the moft deftrudlive confequences

is

Why
?

beftow upon truth a weight that

not her

own

a weight that

muft always produce fome obliquity, fome blind and unenlightened

zeal
?

In attempting prematurely to

anticipate

the

conqueft: of truth,

we

fhall infallibly

give birth to deformity

and abortion. and

If

we have

patience to wait her natural progrefs,

that are not

to afhft her caufe

by no arguments
and

worthy of

her, the event will be both certain

illuftrious.

from

their

fimilar

anfwer will fuggeft

itfelf to

the objedion, " that

tendency to
afcertain

affociations are neceffary unequivocally to afcertain the

opinioa
ftands
its

opinion.

Unnecefiary
for thefe

of the people." *
-"^

What
The

fort

of opinion

is

that,
it

which thus
to ftart

j^

need of fome fudden violence to oblige

?

from

purpofes.

hiding-place

fentiments of

mankind

are then only equi-

vocal in external appearance,

certain in the conception.

when they

are

unformed and un-

When
will

once the individual knows his

own

meaning,

its

fymptoms

be

clear

and unequivocal.
at prefent exifting

Be
ia

not precipitate.

If the

embryo fentiment
hope
that
it

my
not

mind be
If

true, there is

will gain ftrength

by

time.

you wifh

to

affift its

grov/th,

let it

be

by

inftrudlion,

by attempting
fo.

to pafs that fentiment for

mine which you

only wifh to be
to-day,
it

If the opinion of the people be not

known

will not fail to

Ihew

itfelf

to-morrow.

If the opinion

of

OF POLITICAL ASSOCIATIONS.
of the people be not
'
.

211

known

to-day,

would have fuppofed

opinion.

to be their opinion
as well

....
it is

bccaufe that which

is

vou BOOK IV. CHAP. II.

*^

not fufficiently their

'

SLCTiOnIIL

You might
concealing

think of hiding the inhabitants of

their
as

England,

their

towns and
defert,

cultivation,

and

making
real

their

country pafs for a

of concealing their

and deliberate fentiment.

Thefe are the expedients of men

omnipotent.
fail

who do
If

not

know

that truth
it

is

General
utility.

in-

It

may

appear to die for a time, but

it

will not

to revive

with frefh vigour.

it

have ever
it

failed to pro-

duce gradual convidtion,

is

becaufe

has been told in a

meagre, an obfcure or a pufillanimous manner.

Ten pages

that

ihould contain an abfolute demonftration of the true interefls of

mankind

in

fociety

could

no otherwife be prevented from

literal

changing the face of the globe, than by the

the paper on which they were written.
repeat their contents as widely as
It

deftrudtion of
to
at-

would become us
able
;

we were
it

but, if
.

we

tempted any thing more than

that

this,

would be

a pradtical proof

we

did not

know

they contained a demonftration.

Such

are the reafonings that fhould decide

upon our abftrad

us.

Conceffions.

opinion of every cafe of aflbciation that comes before

But,
is

though from hence

fcarcelyin

it

Ihould fufficiently appear that aflbciation

any cafe

to be defired, there are confiderations that lhoul4

it

lead us fometimes to judge

with moderation and forbearance.

There

is

one m.ode, according to which the benefit of mankind

e 2

m.ay

212
"^'2^

OF POLITICAL ASSOCIATIONS.
p
^^
*

^^'^y

^^^ ^^ promoted, and which ought always

are imperfetSl beines, ^

to be

employed.

!:

bLwTiOK

T"*

But mankind

and there are certain errors

with

111.

of his fpecies which a wife

indulgence.
will

man

will be inclined to regard

Affbciations, as a meafure intrinfically

at leaft to

wrong, he

endeavour

poftpone

as

long

as

he can.

But

it

muft

not be dilTembled that in the crifis of a revolution they will

fometimes be unavoidable.
filent ftep,

While opinion

is

advancing with

imagination and zeal

may

be expeled fomewhat to

outrun her progrefs.

"VVifdom will be anxious to hold them at

flie

bay

and, if her votaries be many,

will be able to

do

this

long enough to prevent tragical confequences.

call is

But,

when

the

thrown,

when

the declaration

is

made and
lefs,

irrevocable,
to take the

fhe will not

fide of truth,

fail,

be the confufion greater or

and forward her reign by the

beft

means

that the

neceffity

of the cafe will admit.

Importance of focial com-

But, though affociation, in the received fenfe of that term,

munkation.

muft be granted to be an mftrument

it

or a

very dangerous nature,

fhould be remembered that unreferved communication in a

fmaller circle,

and

efpecially

among
is

perfons

who

are already

awakened
There
at
is

to the purfuit of truth,

at prefent in the

of unqueftionable advantage.

world a cold referve that keeps

man

a diftance

from man.

There

is

an

art

in the pradice of

which
-

individuals

communicate for

ever, without

any one

telling

his

neighbour what eftimate he fliould form of his attainments

and charader,

how

they ought to be employed, and

how

to

be

improved.

OF POLITICAL ASSOCIATIONS.
improved.
, ,

213

There
,

is

a fort of domeftic tadics,

the obieft of

ROOK
^

TV.
'

CHAP. IL
^

which

is

to inftrudl us to elude curiofity,

and

to

keep up the
of our

SliCTIuN ill.

tenour of converfation,
feelings or our opinions.

without

the

dirclofure

either

The

philanthropift has

no objedt more

deeply
ferve.

at

heart than the annihilation of this duplicity and re-

No man

can have

much

kindnefs for his fpecies,

who

does not habituate himfelf to confider upon each fucceffive occafion of focial intercourfe

cently improved.
to

how that occallon may Among the topics to which he

be moft benefiwill be anxious

fhare.

awaken

attention, politics will

occupy a principal

Books have by

their very nature

but a limited operation

though, on account of their permanence, their methodical

quifition,

dil-

and their eafmefs of

accefs,

they are entitled to the

to

foremoft place.
confidence.

But

their

efficacy

ought not

engrofs our

The number

of thofe by
to

ed

is

exceedingly great.
fort

Books

whom reading is negledthofe by whom they are read

have a

of conftitutional coldnefs.

We review the arguments

It is

of an " infolent innovator" with fullennefs, and are unwilling to

ftretch

our minds to take in

all

their force.

with

difficulty that

we

obtain the courage of ftriking into untrodden paths, and quel-

tioning tenets that have been generally received. But converfation

accuftoms us to hear a variety of fentiments, obliges us to cxerclfe

patience and attention, and gives freedom and elafticity to our
tal difquifitions.

men-

A thinking man, if he will recoiled hisintelledlual

from
;

hiftory, will find that he has derived ineftimable advantage

the ftimulus and furprife of colloquial fuggcRions

and, if he

review

214

'

OF POLITICAL ASSOCIATIONS.
literature, will perceive .that r

BOOK
CHAP.
Si-

IV.
II.

review the hiflory of '

icutenefs

.minds of 6 2;reat

and

ability have'

commonly

exifted in a cluiler.

TJOX III.

It

follows that the promoting of the bell interefts of

focial

mankind

eminently depends upon the freedom of

communication.

Let us imagine
firft

to ourfelves a

number of individuals, who, having

ftored

their

minds with reading and relledion, proceed

and unreferved converfation
to

afterwards in candid

compare

their ideas, to fuggeft their doubts, to

remove

their difficulties,

and

to cultivate a collected

and

ftriking

manner of

delivering

their fentiments.
tual intercourfe, to

Let us fuppofe thefe men, prepared by

mu-

go forth

to the world, to explain with fucarrefh

cinctnefs

and

funplicity,

and in a manner well calculated to

attention, the true principles of fociety.

Let us fupvofe their

hearers inftigated

in

their

turn to repeat thefe truths to their

companions.

We

fliall

then have an idea of knowledge as per-

petually gaining ground, unaccompanied with peril in the means

of

its

diffufion.

Reafon

will fpread

itfelf,

and not a brute and

unintelligent fympathy.

DifcuiTion perhaps never exifts with fo

much
It

vigour and

utility as in the converfation

of two perfons.

may

be carried

on with advantage
their
:

in fmall

and friendly
rarity

focieties.

Does the fewnefs of

?

numbers imply the

of their exiftence

Far otherv/ife

the time perhaps will

come

when

fuch inftitutions will be univerfid.

the- advanta;ge,s

Shev/ to mankind by a

few examples by
political

of

political difcufuon

undebauched

enmity and vehemence, and the beauty of the fpec-

tacle will

foon render the example contagious.

Every man

will

commune

OF POLITICAL ASSOCIATIONS.
commune with
and
to hear
bolts

215
tell

his neighbour.
intereft

Eveiy man
of
all

will be ca^er to

BOOK
CHAP.
'
^^

iv.
11.
'

what the

requires

them

to

know.

SectiunIII.

The

and

fortifications

of the temple of truth will be reit

moved.

The craggy fleep

of fcience, which

was before

difficult

to afcend, will be levelled with the plain.

cefTible to all.

Knowledge

will be ac-

Wifdom

will be the inheritance of

man, from
and
till

which none
prodigality.

will be excluded but

by

their

own

heedleffnefs

If thefe

ideas cannot

completely be reahfed,

the inequality of conditions and the tyranny of government are

rendered fomewhat
the fetting afloat fo
individuals

lefs

oppreffive, this affords

no reafon

againft

generous a fyftem.

The improvement of
inftitutions

and

the melioration

of political

are

deftined mutually to produce and reproduce each other.

Truth

and above
the

all political

truth,
its

is

not hard of acquifition, but from

It

fupercilioufnefs

of

profeffors.

has been flow and

it

tedious of improvement, becaufe the Iludy of

has been rele-

gated to dodlors and civilians.

It

has produced

little effedl

upon

the practice of mankind, becaufe

it

has not been allowed a plain

and
cles,

direl appeal to their underfl:andings.

Rem.ove thefe obftait

render

it

the

common

property, bring

into daily ufc

and you

may

reafonably promife yourfelf confequenccs of the

..

moft inefliimable value.

But

thefe confequenccs are the property only of independent

difcuflion.

and impartial
circles

If

once the unambitious and candid

of enquiring

men

be fwallowed up in the infatiate gulf

is

of noify

afl'emblies, the

opportunity of improvement

inflantly

annihilated.

2i6
BOO"
Section
TV.

OF POLITICAL ASSOCIATIONS.
annihilated.
'

Tlie

happy

varieties;

of fentiment which fo emilofl.

III.

nentlv contribute to iucellectual acutenefs are ^

Adivity of

thoueht
us.

is

fliackled bv the fear that our afibciates fnould difclaim

Is

fallacious uniformity of opinion

produced, which no
carries all

man efpoufes from convidion, but which

with a
refiftlefs tide.

men

along
is,

Clubs, in the old Englifh fenfe, that

the periodical meeting of fmall

and independent

circles,

may

be admitted to

fall

within the line of thefe principles.

But they

ceafe to be admiifible,
ratus of articles

when

united with the tremendous appa-

of confederacy and committees of correfpondbeings fliould meet together,

not to enforce,

ence.

Human
enquire.

but to

Truth

difclaims

the alliance

of marfiialled

numbers.

It

feems fcarcely neceuliry to add, that the individuals

who

are

engaged in the tranfalions here cenfured, have frequently

been inftigated by the beft intentions, and informed with the

moft

liberal views.

It

would be

in the higheft degree unjuft, if

their undertakings fhould be

'

found of dangerous tendency, to

involve the authors in indifcriminate cenfure for confequences

which they did not

forefee.

But

at

the fame time, in propor-

tion to the purity of their views

principles,
it

and the foundnefs of their

be defired
that
It

were earneftly

to

they would

feriouily refiedl

on the means they employ.

would be deeply

to be lamented, if thofe
fare of

who were

the trueft friends to the welinjudicioufneifi

mankind, fhould come, by the

of their

eonduCt, to rank

among

its

enemies.

From

OF POLITICAL ASSOCIATIONS.
From what
has been f.m]
It is

217
I'-OOK IV.

fufficlently evident, that

^

no alarm

CHAP.
'

II.
'

can be more groundlefs, than that of violence and precipitation

Reciiom

III.

from the enlightened advocates of

political J iuftice.
1

There

is

P't^pi'^}- of terxhiug: reg

iiltanci=

hov/ever another objetftion which has been urged againft them,

built

eon-

fidcre.

upon

the fuppofed inexpediency of inculcating

upon the peo-

ple at large the propriety of occafional refiflance to the authority

of government.

" Obedience," fay thefe objecSlors

"

is

the rule

refiftance the exception.

Now
with

what can be more prepofterous,

the

than perpetually to

infift

all

pomp of

eloquence upon

an expedient, to which only an extreme neceffity can oblige us

to

have recourfe*

?"

ft

has already been fhewn that obedience, that

is

is,

a furrender

of the underftanding to the voice of authority,

It

a rule to

which
Tran-

can never be creditable to

human

beings to conform.
fhall
leaft

quillity indeed, a ftate in wlilch a

man

be difturbed

in the exercife of his private

violence,
Is

judgment by the

interpofition of
5

an object

we

fhould conftantly endeavour to promote

but

this

tranquillity the principles here inculcated

have

little

tendency to difturb.

There

is

certainly

no truth which
It

It

can be for the general

Intereft to conceal.

muft be confeffed indeed, that a fmgle

* This argument, nearly in the words here employed,

may be found
xiii.

in

Hume's

Eflay on Paflive Obedience.

Eflays, Part II, EfTay

Ff

truth

2i8

OF POLITICAL ASSOCIATIONS.
^n'
;-;'

PHAP
^
.!;

^^^^^^^

^^J

^^ ^^ detached from the

feries to

which

it

belongs, as,

when
is

feparately told, to have the nature of falfliood.

cafe in the prefent inftance.

But

this

by no means the

To

infornj

mankind
fiitutions

of thofe general principles

upon which

all

political in-

ought to be

built,

is

not to difFufe partial information.

To

difcover to
ftate

them

their true interefts,

and lead them to conceive

of a

of fociety more uncorrupt and more equitable than

live, is

that in

which they

not to inculcate fome rare exception

to a general rule.

If there be

any government which muft be

is

indebted for
curfe of

its

perpetuity to ignorance, that government

the

mankind.

In proportion as

men

are

made

to under-

ftand their true interefts, they will condut themfelves wifely,.

both

when

they at and

when they

forbear,

and

their

condudt

will therefore promife the moft advantageous iflue.

He,, whofeis

mind

has carefully been inured to the didates of reafon,

leaft likely to

of

all

men

convert into the rafh and headftrong invades;

of the general weal..

SECTION-

219

SECTION

IV.

OF THE SPECIES OF REFORM TO BE DESIRED.

OUGHT NOT
TO BE PARTIAL OR ENTIRE ? TRUTH MAY PARTIAL REFORMABE PARTIALLY TAUGHT. CONSIDERED. OBJECTION. ANSWER. PARTIAL TION
IT

REFORM INDISPENSIBLE. NATURE OF A JUST REVOLUTION

HOW DISTANT
is

THERE
atlon.

one more queftion which cannot

fail

occa-

BOOK IV.
CHAP.
*

ir.
'

fionally to fuggeft itfelf to the advocate of fecial reform-

" Ought we

to defire to fee this reformation introduced

Section IV. Ought it to

be partial or
<^"t'r^

gradually or at once ?"

Neither fide of this dilemma prefents

US with the proper expedient.

No

project can be
it

more

injurious to the caufe of truth, than Truth may

that of prefenting

imperfedtly and
its

by

parcels to the attention

not be part^'^'b' taught.

of mankind.
fail

Seen in
;

juft light, the effedt

produced cannot
and imperfetl:
its

to be confiderable
it

but,

fhewn

in

fome

partial

way,

will

afford

a thoufand advantages to

adverfaries.

Many
fubjeft

objelions will feem plaufible,

which a

full

view of
is

tlie

would have

diffipated.

Whatever

limits truth
fall to

error;

and of confcquence fuch a limited view cannot

include a

Ff

confiderable

220
S?.R^5. ^Yr

OF THE SPECIES OF
conficierable
;* -

CHAP.

mixture of
.

error.

Many
-'

parts of a o ereat whole, which, ^ 7 J faEcnoN IV. *

II.
^

ideas mary be excellent as '

when

violently torn J

from
in

their

conned:ion, will not only ceafe to be excellent, but

cafes

may

fome
and

become

pofitively

injurious.

In

this

war of

pofts

fkirmiihes victory will perpetually appear to be doubtful, and

men

will either be perfuaded, that truth itfelf

is

of

little

value,

or that

human

intelledl is fo

narrow

as to

render the difcoverj

of truth a hopelefs purfuit.

Partial re-

It

may

be

alledged, that "

one

of the confiderations of
of the gradual decline

formation
confidered.

greateft influence in

human
till

affairs is that

Objeftion.

of

ill

things to worfe,
its

at

length the mifchief, having proceeditfelf

ed to

higheft climax,

can maintain

no

longer.
lofe

The

argument
its

in favour of fecial

improvement would

much of

relative energy, if the

opportunity of a fecret comparifon of

evil

pofllble

good with

actual

were taken away.

All partial

reforms are of the nature of

difeafed part

palliatives.

They

Ikin over the

inftead of extirpating the difeafe.

By

giving a

fmall benefit, perhaps a benefit only in appearance, they cheat

us of the fuperior good

we ought
its

to

have demanded.
they give
it

By
freft

ftripping error of a part of

enormities,

vigour and a longer duration."

Anfwer.

We
far.

muft be cautious however of pufhing

this

argument too
foil,
is

To

fuppofe that truth Hands in abfolute need of a

or that fhe cannot produce full convidion

4.

by her

native light,

a con-

REFORM TO
.
.

BE DESIRED.
.

221
true

a conception unworthy of her enlijrhtened advocates.

folution will

probablybe found

in the accurately

... diftiuguifhine
iliall

The

BOOK
CHAP.
"^

IV.
II.
*

the fources of reform.

W hatever reform, general

at large

Section IV.

or partial,

be fuggefted to the

community

by an unmutilated view

of the fubjed, ought to be feen with fomc degree of complacency.

But a reform, that

fuppofed to
lie

fhall

be offered us by thofe whofe intereft

is

in the perpetuating of abufe,

and the intention of

which

is

rather to give
features, is

permanence
little

to error

by

diverting

it

of

its

moft odious

entitled to
lies

our countenance.

The

true principle of focial

improvement
is

in the corredling public

opinion.

Whatever reform

ftolen

upon the community unflov'

regarded, and does not fpontaneoufly

the

from the energy of

It
is

general

mincj,

is

unworthy of
as

congratulation.

in

this refpedl

with nations

with individuals.

He

that quits a
his

vicious habit, not

appetites

from reafon and convidion, but becaufe

folicit

no longer

him

to

its

indulgence, does not deferve

it

the epithet of virtuous.

The objea

becomes us

to purfue

is,

to give vigour to public opinion, not to

fmk

it

into liftleffnefs

and

indifference.

When
the
it

partial

reformation proceeds from

has

its

legitimate caufe,

Gradual re
penfibie.

progrefs

fociety

made

in

the

acquifition

of

truth,
is

may

frequently be entitled to our applaufe.

Man

the

creature of habits.

Gradual improvement

is

moft confpicuous

law of his nature.

is

When

therefore

fome confiderable advantage

fufficiently

underftood by the community to induce them to

defire

222

OFTHESPECIESOF
defire
its

BOOK IV.
CHAP.
'

eftablifhment, that eftablifliment will afterwards

read
It

II.
'

to the enlightening of intellect

is

and the generating of

virtue.

Section IV.

natural for us to take our

Hand upon fome leading

truth,

and

from thence explore the regions

we have

ftill

to traverfe.

There

is

indeed a fenfe in which gradual improvement

is

the

only alternative between reformation and no reformation.

All

human
and

intelleds are at fea

upon the

great ocean of infinite truth,

their

voyage though attended with hourly advantage will

an end.
If therefore

never be

at

we

will ftay

till

we
no

fhall

have

devifed a reformation fo complete, as fhall need

farther re-

formation to render
in inadion.
ciples

it

more complete, we
is

fhall eternally

remain

Whatever

fairly

underftood upon general prin-

by

a confiderable part of the

community, and oppofed by

as fufficiently ripe for

none or by a very few, may be confidered

execution.

Nature of a
juft revolu-

'j'q

recapitulate the principal obie(l of this chapter, I J I r r J ^

would

^'""

once

again repeat, that violence

may

fuit

the plan of

any

political

partifan, rather than of

tice.

him

that pleads the caufe of fimple jufat

There

is

even a fenfe in which the reform aimed

be affirmed to be
lefs

by the

true politician

may

a gradual than

an entire
re-

one, vvithout contradifting the former polition.

The complete

formation that
It

is

wanted,

is

not inftant but future reformation.

can in reality fcarcely be confidered as of the nature of action.

confifts in

It

an univerfal illumination.

Men

feel their fitua-

tion,

REFORM TO
tion, '

BE DESIRED.
them
before, vanifh like a

223

and the

reftraints, that Ihackled

EOOK
CHAP.
"^

iv,
II.
*

mere deception.
will

When

the true

crifis fhall

come, not a fword

up.

Section IV.

need to be drawn, not a finger to be

will

lifted

The

adverftand

faries

be too few and too feeble to dare to

make a

againft the univerfal fenfe of

mankind.

Nor do

thefe ideas imply, as at

is at

firft

fight

they might feem to Howdlftant?

It is

imply, that the revolution

an immeafurable diftance.

of the nature of
to be fudden,

human

affairs that great

changes fhould appear

and great

difcovcries to be

made unexpedledly,
mind of a young

and

as

it

were by

accident.

In forming the

perfon, in endeavouring to give a

new

bent to that of a perfon

of maturer years,
little effedl,

I fliall for

a long time feem to have produced

and the

fruits will fliew

themfelves

when

I leall

ex-

pedted them.

The kingdom of truth comes

not with oftentation.

The

feeds of virtue

may

appear to perifh before they germinate.

To

recur once

more

to the

example of France, the works of

little

her great political writers feemed for a long time to produce

profpedt of any pradical effeft.

Helvetius, one of the

1

lateft, in

work

publifhed after his death in

771, laments in pathetic ftrains

the hopelefs condition of his country.

" In the hiftory of every

people," fays he, " there are moments, in which, uncertain of

the fide they
fliall

choofe, and balanced between political

good
fo

and

evil,

they

feel a defire to
is

be inftruded

in

which the

foil,

to exprefs m^felf,

in

fome manner prepared, and may

eafily

be

impregnated

224
r.OoK
CilAi-.
IV.
II.
"

OF
'-'

THE SPECIES OF
dew of truth.
At fuch
a

imprerrnated with the

incment the pub'

SECTlOr

hcation of a vahiable book

may

give birth to the moft aufpicious

is

reforms

but, Vv-hen that

moment
is

no more, the naticn, become

its

infenfible to the beft motives,

by the nature of
and
;

government

phmged deeper and deeper

of inteliefh
is

in ignorance

ftupidity.

The foil

then hard and impenetrable

the rains

may

fall,

may

fpread their moifture

upon the

furface, but the profpedt

of

fertility is

gone.

Such

is

the condition of France.

Her

people
ever

are

become the contempt of Europe. them

to liberty*."

No falutary

crifis fhall

reflore

But

in fpite of thefe

melancholy predilions, the work of

re-

novation was in continual progrefs.

The American

revolution

gave the finifhing ftroke, and only fix years elapfed between the
completion of American liberty and the commencement of the

French revolution.

Will a term longer than

this

be neceflary,

" Dans chaqne

nation

U eft des

moinens ou
tin

les citoyens,

incertains

du parti qu'ih

doivent prendre, et fiifpendus entre

ton et tin mauvais gouvirnement, eprouvtnt la

foifde

I'inJlriiBion,

olt les

efprits,ft je Voje dire,

preprres
ce

et

ameublis peuvent etrefaparoijfe,

cl

silement p'cnetres de la rofte de la verite.

il pent

^u'en

moment un ban ouvrage

opcrer d'l'enreufes reforvies

mais

cet injlant pajfe, les citoyens, infenjihles

I'

la

gloire,fojtt

par

la forme de leur gotivernement invinciblement entratnes vers

ignorance

et Vahrutijfemcnt.

Alors

les efpriis font la terre

endurcie

I'eau de la verite

y tombe,
efl

coule,

mais fans lafeconder.

Tel eji

I'itat de la

France.

Cetie nation avilie

au-

jourd'hui

nupris de

V Europe.

Ntille crife falutaire ne lui rendra la Uberte."

De

I'Homme, Preface.

before

REFORM TO BE DESIRED,
before France, the moft refined and confiderable nation in the

tzs

529^ T*
<-

world, will lead other nations to imitate and improve upon her
plan
?

Let the true friend of

man

be inceflant in the propagaall

tion of truth,

and

vigilant to counteract

the caufes that might

diuU'rb the regularity of her progrefs, and he

wUl hays every

'

"

rtaron to hope an early and a favourable event.

CJHAP.

226

CHAP.

III.

OF TYRANNICIDE.
DIVERSITY OF OPINIONS ON THIS SUBJECT.
ITS

ARGUMENT

IN

VINDICATION.

THE DESTRUCTION OF A TYRANT

CONSEQUENCES OF TYRAN-

NOT A CASE
NICIDE.

OF EXCEPTION.

ASSASSINATION DESCRIBED.

IMPORTANCE OF

SINCERITY.

QUESTION,
volutions,
Diverfity of opinions on
thisfubjeft.

connected with the

mode of

effedtlng re-

and which has been eagerly difcufled among

is

political rcafoners, ' ^

that of tyrannicide. '

The

moralifts of anti;

qiiity

warmly
it

contended for the lawfulnefs of this prailice

has generally been condemned.

by

the moderns

Argument
its

in

The arguments
principle.

in

its

favour are built upon a very obvious

vindica-

tion,

" Juftice ought univerfally to be adminiftered.

it

Upon

leffer criminals

is

done, or pretended to be done, by the laws

of the community.

But criminals by

whom law is fubverted, and

admi-

who

overturn the

liberties

of mankind, are out of the reach of the

If juftice be partially

ordinary adminiftration of juftice.

niftered in fubordinate cafes,
I

and the rich

man

be able to opprefs
the

OF TYRANNICIDE.
the poor with impunity,
it

227

muft be admitted that a few examples

authorife the
laft

BOOK
CHAP.
^-^

IV.
III.
'

of

this fort are infuflicient to

appeal of

human
and
all

beings.

But no man
is

will

deny

that the cafe of the ufurper

the defpot

of the moft atrocious nature.

In this inftance,

the provifions of civil policy being fuperfeded, and juftice poi-

foned

at

the fource, every

man

is

left

to execute for himfelf the

decrees of eternal equity."

It

may however

be doubted whether the deftrudlion of a ty- The

rant

deflmcnot a

rant be in any refpedl a cafe of exception from the rules proper

to be obferved
tainly
killed

upon ordinary

occafions.

The

tyrant has cer- tba.

no

particular fandity
little

annexed

to his perfon,

and

may

be
is

with as

fcruple as

any other man, when the objed:

In
all

that of repelling

immediate violence.

other cafes, the ex-

tirpation of the offender

by

a felf-appointed authority, does not

appear to be the proper

mode

of counteracting injuftice.

For,
is

firft,

either the nation,

whofe tyrant you would

its

deftroy,
it is

Confequence
cide!"^^""'

ripe for the affertion

it

and maintenance of
to be depofed

liberty, or

not.

If

be, the tyrant

ought

with every appearance

for an affair,
it

of publicity.

Nothing can be more improper, than

interefting to the general weal, to be

conduced
ill

as if

were an

aft of darknefs

and ihame.

It is

an

leffon

we

read to

man-

kind,

when

a proceeding, built

upon the broad

bafis

of general

juftice, is permitted to fhrink

from public

fcrutiny.

The

piftol

and the dagger may

as eafily

be made the auxiliaries of vice as

of

a8
<^Ap!'in,
*'~~^'
'

OF TYRANNICIDE.
f"^i'''^u^'

1" profcribe

all

violence,
is

and negled no means of

information and impartiality,

the moft efFedlual fecurity

we

can have for an

truth.

iflue

conformable to the voice of reafon and

If the nation be not ripe for a flatd of freedom, the

man,
in-

who

affumes to himfelf the right of interpofmg violence,

may

deed ihew the fervour of his conception, and gain a certain degree of notoriety.
fent regard

Fame he

will not gain, for

mankind
;

at

pre-

an at of

this fort

with merited abhorrence

and he

will inflit

new

calamities on his country.

T he confequences

of tyrannicide are well known.

it

If the attempt prove abortive,

renders the tyrant ten times

If
it

more bloody,

ferocious,

and
it

cruel

than before.

fucceed, and the tyranny be reftored,

pro-

duces the fame effed upon his fucceffors.

In the climate of def-

potifm fome folitary virtues

plots

may
is

fpring up.

But in the midft of

and confpiracies there

neither truth, nor confidence, nor

love, nor humanity.

AfTaffinatJon

Secondly, the true merits of the queftion will be

underftood,
miftake,
if

ftill

farther

defcribed.

we

refled on the nature of aflaflination.

this

The
be im-

which has been incurred upon

fubjed,

is

to

puted principally to the fuperficial

it.

view that has been taken of

all

If

its

advocates had followed the confpirator through

left

his

windings, and obferved his perpetual alarm

truth fhould be-

come known, they would probably have been

lefs

indifcriminate
in

OF TYRANNICIDE.
in their applaufe.

229
at
all

No

adtlon can be imasined ^

more dircdlv ^
Like

BOOK
CHAP.
^^

iv.
III.
'

war with a
that
rity.
all
is

principle of ingenuoufnefs and candour.

it

moft odious in the catalogue of vices,

It

delights in obfcuIt

Ihrinks

from the penetrating eye of wifdom.

avoids
It

queftion, and hefitates

and trembles before the queftloner.

and
It
Is

ftruggles for a tranquil gaiety,

is

only complete where there

the moft perfect hypocrlfy.

changes the ufe of fpeech, and

compofes every feature the better to deceive.

felf the confplrators,

Imagine

to

your-

kneeling at the feet of Ccefar, as they did

the

moment

before they deftroyed him.

Not

all

the virtue of

Brutus can fave them from your indignation.

There cannot be a

better inftance than that

of which
'

we
r

are

1 r J r treatmg, to prove the importance of general Imcerity.

-ytT

We

fee

Importance ^ lincerity.

this

example, that an atIon, which has been undertaken from

'

the beft motives,

may by

a defedl In this particular tend to over-

turn the very foundations of juftlce and happlnefs.

there
is

Wherever

aflafli nation,

there

is

an end to

all

confidence

among
prev

men.

Protefts

and affeveratlons go for nothing.

his neighbour's intention.
to divide virtue

No man
gone.

fumes to

know

The

boundaries, that

have hitherto ferved

true Interefts of

and

vice, are

The

mankind

require, not their removal, but their

confirmation.

All morality proceeds

true, will

upon the aflumption of

in proportion,

fomething evident and

as thefe indications are

grow and expand

more
if

clear

and unequivocal, and could

not exift for a

moment,

they were deftroyed.

CHAP.

230

CHAP.

IV.

OF THE CULTIVATION OF TRUTH.

JjERHAPS
-*-

there cannot be a fubjeft of greater political

importance, or better calculated to lead us in fafety through

the mazes of controverfy, than that of the value of truth.

Truth

may be confidered by us, either

to the daily incidents

abftraftedly, as

it

relates to certain
it

general and unchangeable principles, or pi-atically, as

relates
life.

and ordinary commerce of human

it,

In whichever of thefe views we confider

meditate
its

the

more deeply we

nature and tendency, the

more

fhall

we

be ftruck

with

its

unrivalled importance.

SECTION

231

SECTION

I.

OF ABSTRACT OR GENERAL TRUTH.

ITS

IMPORTANCE AS CONDUCING

IMPROVEMENT
SON

TO OUR INTELLECTUAL TOOUR MORAL IMPROVEMENT. VIRTUE

THE BEST SOURCE OF HAPPINESS.

PROVED

BY COMPARI-

BY

ITS

MANNER OF ADAPTING

ITSELF TO ALL

SITUATIONS

BY ITS UNDECAYING EXCELLENCE

CAN-

NOT

BE EFFECTUALLY

VATED MIND.

PROPAGATED BUT BY A CULTIIMPORTANCE OF GENERAL TRUTH TO

OUR POLITICAL IMPROVEMENT.

ABSTRACTEDLY confidered,
tUtionS.

it

conduces to the perfedion

political infti-

BOOK
CHAP.
'
.^

iv. IV.
'

of our underftandings, our virtue and our

Section

I.

Its importance as con-

ducing

In the difcovery and knowledge of truth

is

comprifed

all

that toourintdleiTtual iin-

which an impartial and

It is

reflefting

mind

is

accuftomed to admire,

proveracnt;

not poffible for us ferioufly to doubt concerning the pre-

ference of a capacious and ardent intelligence over the limited

perceptions of a brute.

All that

we can imagine of

angels and
alfo
?

Gods
It will

condfts in fupcrior wifJom.

prefently appear that

Do you
is

fay in

power

wifdom

power.

The

truths of

general

232

OFTHECULTIVATION
IV. IV.
' I. *^

BOOK
CHAP.
'
-'

p-cncral nature, thofe truths

_

which preceded,
.

either fubftantially
.

or in the nature of things, the particular exiftences that fur-

Section

round
Is
it

us,

and are independent of them

all,

are inexhauftible.

poffible that a

knowledge of thefe

truths, the truths

of ma-

thematics, of metaphyfics and morals, the truths which, accord-

ing to Plato's conception

'*,

taught the creator of the world the

nature of his materials, the refult of his operations, the confe-

quences of

all

poffible fyftems in all their detail, fhould

?

not exalt

and elevate the mind

tory of man, the

The

truths of particular nature, the hif-

charal:ers

and propenfities of human beminds, the capacity of our natures,

reafon they are fo will beft ap-

ings, the procefs of our

own

are fearcely lefs valuable.

The

pear

if

we

confider, fecondly, the tendency of truth in con-

ducing to the perfedion of our virtue.

to our moral

Virtue Cannot exill In an eminent degree, unaccompanied by

an extenfive furvey of caufes and their confequences, fo

that,

having ftruck an accurate balance between the mixed benefits

and

injuries that for the prefent adhere to all

human

affairs,

we

may

adopt that condud which leads to the greateft poffible adIf there be fuch a thing as virtue,
If
it

vantage.
degrees.

it

mull admit of

admit of degrees, he muft be moft virtuous,

who

choofes with the foundeft judgment the greateft poffible good of

his fpecies.

But, in order to choofe the greateft poffible good,

* See the jParmenides.

OF TRUTH.
he muft be deeply acquainted with the nature of man,
ral features
its

233
gene-

529 p
*; -^

v'

and

its

varieties.

In order to execute

it,

he muft

-^
I.

Section

have confidered
the different the proper

all

the inftruments for imprefllng mind, and

modes of applying them, and muft know exadlly

for bringing

moment

them

into adlion.

In what-

ever light

we

confider virtue, whether

its

we

place

it

in the

adion

or the difpofition,

degree muft be intimately connected with

the degree of knowledge.

No man

can love virtue

its

fufficicntly,

who
its

has not an acute and lively perception of

folid

beauty, and

tendency to produce the only

and permanent happinefs.

What
and

comparifon can be made between the virtue of Socrates

?

that of a Hottentot or a Siberian

humorous example
might be drawn

how
from

univerfally this truth has been perceived Tertullian,

who,

as a father

of the church, was obliged to

maintain the hollownefs and infignificance of pagan virtues, and

accordingly
afllires us,

" that the moft ignorant peafant under the

Chriftian difpenfation poflefled

more

real

knowledge than the

wifeft of the ancient philofophers *."

We
virtue

ftiall

be

ftill

more
if

fully

aware of the connedion between

confider that the higheft employitfelf.

viitu? the

and knowledge,
virtue
is

we

ofhapphiefs:

ment of

to propagate

Virtue alone

is

happinefs.
life

proved by
compaiifuii
:

The

happinefs of a brute that fpends the greater part of his

is

in liftleflhefs and fleep,

but one remove from the happinefs of

a plant that

is full

of fap, vigour and nutriticn.

See
this fubjedl farther

The
in

happinefs
I.

* Apologia, Cap. xlvi.

purfued

Appendix, No.
,

of

234
of a
Skction
I.

OF
man who
inten^als

THE CULTIVATION
purfues licentious pleafure
is

momentaiy, and

his

of wearinef^ and difguft perpetual.

;

He

fpeedily wears

himfelf out in his fpecious career

and, every time that he

em-

ploys the means of delight which his corporeal exiftence affords

him, takes fo

much from

his capacity of enjoyment.

If

he be

wdfe enough like Epicurus to perceive a part of thefe difadvantages, and to find in frelh herbs and the water of the Ipring
the trueft gratification of his appetite, he will be obliged to feek

fome addition

to his flock

of enjoyment, and
fenfuality.

like

Epicurus to

become benevolent out of pure

But the virtuous

man

has a perpetual fource of enjoyment.

The

only reafon on

account of which the truth of this affertion was ever controverted,

is,

that

men have

not underftood what

it

was

that con-

ftituted virtue.

by

Its

manner

It is

impoffiblc that

any

fituation can occur In

which
is

virtue

of adapting itfdftoall
Situations
:

cannot find

room
its

to expatiate.

In fociety there
I

continual

opportunity for
courfe with any
that intercourfe.
lities

adive employment.
being

cannot have inter-

human
If

who may

not be the better for

he be already juft and virtuous, thefe quaIt

is

are

improved by communication.
it

from a

fimilar

principle that

has been obferved that

great

geniufes

have
fire

ufually exifted in a clufter, and have been

Ilruck into

awakened by the

them by

their neighbours.

If he be imperfed;
I

and

erroneous, there mufl be always fome prejudice

may

contri-

bute to deftroy, fome motive to delineate, fome error to remove.

If

O
my prejudices
his.

TRUT

H.
it

235

If I be prejudiced and imperfet myfelf,

that

cannot however happen

be exactly coincident
the truths that
is
I

BOCK
^;

iv.

and imperfedlions

fhall

7^

with

may

therefore inform

him of

know,
It
is

and even by the coUifion of prejudices truth

impoffible that
1

elicited.

fhould flrenuoufly apply myfelf to his mind

.:--.

with fincere motives of benevolence without fome good being

the
refult.

Nor am

more

at a lofs in

folitude.

In folitude

may

accumulate the materials of

focial benefit.
efforts.

No

fituation can

be fo defperate as to preclude thefe

fliut

Voltaire,
life,

when

up

in the Baftille,

and for ought he knew for

deprived

of books, of pens and of paper, arranged and in part executed

the projedt of his Henriade *.
vv..

Another advantage of virtue

in this perfonal view,

is

that,

by its undecaying excclicnce

while fenfual pleafure exhaufts the frame, and paffions often excited

become

frigid

and

callous, virtue has exadtly the oppofite

propenfities.

Paffions,

in the ufual acceptation

of that term,

having no abfolute foundation in the nature of things, delight

only by their novelty.
virtue, the
lefs

But the more we are acquainted with

it

more

eflimable will

appear

and

its field is

as

endit

as the progrefs

of mind.
it is

If

an enlightened love of
it

be

once excited in the mind,

tinually increafe.

impoffible that

fhould not conit

By

its

variety,

by

its

activity

perpetually

* Fie de Voltaire, par

1"]%^. Chap. iv.

M***

(faid to

be the marquis de Villette).

A Geneve,
has
*
.

This

is

probably the beft hiflory of this great

man which

yet appeared.

Hh

renovates

236

OF
IV.
IV.

THE CULTIVATION
'

BOOK
CKAP.

renovates

itfelf,

and rend( renders the intelled in which

it

refides

ever
SliCTlON
I.

new and

ever young.

cannot be

ef-

All thefe reafonings are calculated to perfuade us that the moft

fcClually pro-

pagatedbut by a cultivatedmind.

precious ^
higheft
virtue

boon we can beftow upon

others

is

virtue, that the

itfelf.

employment of
is

virtue

is

to

propagate

But, as

infeparably connected with

knowledge

in

my own

mind,

fo

can

it

only by knowledge be communicated to others^

How
getic

can the virtue

we have

jufl

been contemplating be created,

but by infufmg comprehenfive views and communicating enertruths

?

Now

that

man

alone

is

qualified to give thefe

is

views, and communicate thefe truths,

who

himfelf pervaded

with them

Let us fuppole for a

moment

virtuous difpofitions as exifting

laft

without knowledge or outrunning knowledge, the

is

of which
little

certainly poflible,
is

and we

ihall prefently find

how

fuch

virtue

worthy

to be propagated.

The moft

generous views
aftions.

will in fuch cafes frequently lead to the

moft nefarious

Calvin will burn Servetus, and a

treafon.

Digby generate

the gunall

powder
cafes

But, to leave thefe extreme inftances, in

virtue leads to cruel

where miftaken

and tyrannical adlions^

it

the

mind

will be foured

and made putrefcent by the adlions

is

perpetrates.

Truth, immortal and ever prefent truth,

in fpite of
all

fo

powerful, that,
upright

his

inveterate prejudices,
refolves

the

man

will

fufped himfelf^

wheu he

upon an

O
ation that
is

TRUT

H.
of morality. ^^^5-

237
^X:

at

war

witli the plaineft principles

'

He

will

become melancholy, ^

clifTatisfied

and anxious.

His firm-

I.

Section

nefs will degenerate into obftinacy,

ble feverity.

and

his juftice Into inexora-

The

farther

he purfues
farther
is

his fyflem, the

more
lefs

errowill

neous will he become.

The
As

he purfues

it,

the

he be
lity

fatisfied

with

it.

truth

an endlefs fource of tranquil-

and

delight, error will be a prolific fountain of

new

raiftakes

and new

difcontent.

As

to the third point, the

tendency of truth
is

to the

improve-

Importance of general
t^t'^ ^ ?""
political improvement.

ment of our

political inftitutions, this

in reality the fubjedl of

the prefent volume, and has been particularly argued in fome of

the earlier divifions of the work.

inveftigation of truth

If politics be a fcience, the

it.

muft be the means of unfolding

If

men

refemble each other in more numerous and eflential par-

ticulars

than thofe in which they

differ,

if the beft

purpofes that

can be accomplifhed refpefting them be to make them free and

virtuous and wife, there muft be one beft
thefe

method of advancing
focial

common

purpofes,

one beft mode of

exiftence

deducible from the principles of their nature.

there muft be one code of truths
duties.

If truth be one,

on the

fubjedl of our reciprocal

Nor

is

the inveftigation of truth only the beft

all political inftitutions,
it.

mode of
alfo
is

arriving at the objet of

heft

but

it is

the

mode

of introducing and eftablifhing

leads to difcovery

Difcuflion

the

path that

and demonftration.
till

Motives ferall
is

ment

in the

minds of great bodies of men

ripe for

adlon^

23?
52^9 D ^Y;

OF SINCERITY.
adion.

The more

familiar the

mind becomes with

the ideas of

^^^^^^^~[^ .which they confift

and

the propofitions that exprefs them, the

more

fully

is it

pervaded with their urgency and importance.

SECTION

II.

OF SINCE Rirr.
NATURE OF THIS VIRTUE. ITS EFFECTS UPON OUR OWN ACTIONS UPON OUR NEIGHBOURS. ITS TENDENCY TO

PRODUCE FORTITUDE.

EFFECTS OF INSINCERITY.

CHA-

RACTER WHICH SINCERITY WOULD ACQUIRE TO HIM

WHO
OF

PRACTISED

IT.

OBJECTIONS. THE
ANSWER.
LIFE.

FEAR

OF

GIVING UNNECESSARY PAIN.

THE

DESIRE

PRESERVING

MY

THIS OBJECTION PROVES

ANSWER. SECRECY CONSIDERED. THE SECRETS OF OTHERS. STATE SECRETS. SECRETS OF PHITOO MUCH.
LANTHROPY.
Section
IT.

TT

is

evident in the

laft

place, that a

fl:rit

adherence to truth
in the ordinary

Nature of this
Tirtue.

wiU havc

the beft effect

life.

upon our minds

commerce of

This

is

the virtue which has

;

commonly been

known by

the denomination of fmcerity

and, whatever certain

accom-

OF SINCERITY.
accommodating moralifts may teach
,

239

us,

the value of nncenty

^
it is

BOOK
CHAP.
^
Sec

iv.
IV.
II.

will be in the higheft degree obfcured,

when

not complete.

Real fmcerity depofes

me from

all

authority over the ftatement

of

fa(ls.

Similar to the duty which Tully impofes

it

upon the
is
flilfe,

hiftorian,

compels
true."

me
It

not to dare " to utter what

or

conceal

what is
inllrudl

annihilates the baftard prudence,

which

would

me

to give language to
interefts.
It

no fentiment
the

that

may

be

prejudicial

to

my

extirpates

low and

felfifli

principle, v/hich

would induce me

to utter nothing " to the difIt

\

advantage of him from

compels,
concerns.

whom

have received no injury."

me

to regard the concerns of

I

my

fpecies as

my own

What
it

know

of truth,
to

of morals, of religion, of
All the praife
I

\
^

government,

compels

me

communicate.

which

virtuous

man and

an honeft adion can merit,

I

am

obliged to

pay
to
all

to the

uttermoft mite.

am

obliged to give

language

the

blame to which profligacy, venality, hyI

pocrify and circumvention are fo juftly entitled.

am

not
it

emtend

powered
to

to conceal

any thing

know of myfelf, whether

I

my

honour or

to

my

difgrace.

am

obliged to treat every

other

man with

equal franknefs, without dreading the imputation

his refentment

of

flattery

on the one hand, without dreading

and enmity on the other.

Did every man impofe

this

law upon himfelf, he would be

itsefFea*
aaions^'^''^'*

obliged to confider before he decided

upon

the commiffion of an

equivocal adion, whether he chofe to be his

own

hiftorian, to

be

240

C E R

Y.

be the future narrator of the fcene in which he was engaging.

Section
It
II.

has been juftly obferved that the popifh practice of auricular

confeflion has been attended with

fome

falutary efFedls.

How

much
ous,

better

would

it

be,

if,

inftead of a practice thus

ambigu-

and which

may

be converted into fo dangerous an engine

of

ecclefiaftical defpotifm,

every

man would make

the world his

confelfional,

and the human

fpecies the

keeper of his con-

fcience

upon our
nelghbourf.

How

extenfive an effedt

would be produced,

if

every

man

were fure of meeting in

his

neighbour the ingenuous cenfor,

to the world, his virtues,
?

who would
his

tell

to himfelf,

and publifh

good

deeds, his meanneffes and his^'follies

have no right

to rejedl

any duty, becaufe

it

is

equally incumbent
it.

upon
have

my
dif-

neighbours, and they do not pradlife

When
Nor

charged the whole of

my

duty,

it is

weaknefs and vice to make

is it

myfelf unhappy about the omiffions of others.

to fay

poifible
his ad-

how much good

one

man

fufficiently rigid in

herence to truth would

effedt.

One

fuch man, with genius,

information and energy, might redeem a nation from vice.

niicr.c

^^^^ confequence to myfelf of telling every

regardlefs of perfonal danger or of injury to

man

the truth,

to produce

my
I

interefis in the

world, would be
fortitude that
tionS;

uncommonly
rr^e

favourable.

fhould acquire a
tiying fituaentire in fpite

would render

equal to the

mod
mind

that

would maintain

my

prefence of

of

C E R

Y.

241

furnifh urrences, cf unexpedied occurrences, that would furnlfh ^

me

with extem-

BOOK iv.
CHAP. IV
Section
11.

porary arguments and vvUtJom, and endue

irrefiftible

my
alert,

tongue with
truth,

eloquence.

Animated by the iove of

my
Aniits

underftanding would always be vigorous and

frequently fubjed to
liftleflhefs,

not as before

timidity znd infipidity.

mated by the love of

nature, and

truth,

and by a pafTion infeparable from

which

is

almoft the fame thing under another name,

the love of

my

fpecies, I fhould carefully feek for fuch topics as

might mofl conduce to the benefit of

my

neighbours, anxioully

watch the progrefs of mind, and inceffantly labour for the extirpation of prejudice.

What

is it

that at this

day enables a thoufand

errors to keep

-^^^^^ ^f
'"'^'^"'y-

;,

their ftation in the world, prieftcraft, tefts, bribery, war, cabal,

and whatever

elfe is

the contempt and abhorrence of the enlight?

ened and honeft mind

Cowardice.

Becaufe, while vice walks

eret with an unabafhed countenance,

men

lefs

vicious dare not

at

paint her with that truth of colouring,

which fhould
guilty.

once
the

confirm the innocent and

majority of thofe

reform

the

Becaufe

who

are not involved in the bufy fcene,

fee that things are

and

who,

poflefling

fome difcernment,

not alto-

gether right, yet fee in fo frigid a way, and with fo imperfedt a

view.

Many, who

deteiS the impofture, are yet abfurd

is

enough
in

to imagine that

impofture

neceflary to keep

the world

awe, and that truth being too weak to curb the turbulent paffions of

mankind,

it is

exceedingly proper to

call

in

knavery
to-day

and

artifice as the abettors

of her power.
I i

If every

man

would

2^2
^?,^^5:

OF SINCERITY.
^}l:

CriAP. IV.

would

tell all

the truth he

knows, three years hence there

vfoufcf

>~-'7^ be

fcarcely

falfhood

of any magnitude remaining in th&

civilifed

worlds

S^?"'^''

There

is

no

fear that the' character here defcribed fhould

de-

cemy

would

acquire to

c;enerate into ruir^ednefs " ^^

'^^

and
a

brutality-*.
'

The motive by which

'

'^^

raalf dit

animated affords

fufficient

fecurity againft fuch con-

fequences.

"

I tell
it is

an unpleafant truth to

my
is

neighbour from a
it is

convidlion that

my
the

duty.

am

convinced

my

duty,
his

becaufe
benefit."

perceive

communication
is

calculated

for

His

benefit therefore
it Is

the motive of

my

proceeding,

and vdth fuch a motive

impoffible I

fhould not feek to

communicate
refentment,

it

in the moft efficacious form,

not roufing his

but awakening his moral feelings and his energy.

happieft of
is

Meanwhile the
truth palatable,

all

qualifications in order to render

that

which

rifes

fpontaneoully In the fituation

to the terms

we have been
fuppofition
Is

confidering.
to be

Truth according

of the
face,It is

fpoken from the love of

truth.

But the

the voice, the geflure are fo

many

indexes to the mind.

v^^ith

fcareely poffible therefore that the perfon

whom lam
motive
is

con-

verfing fhould not perceive, that I

nity,

am

influenced

by no maligpure,

acrimony and envy.

In proportion as

my
will

at leaft after a

few experiments,

my

manner

become unem-

barraffed.

There- will be franknefs In

in

my

voice, fervour in

my

geflure,

and kindnefs

my

heart.

That man's mind mufl be

Appendix, No.
II.

* See
I

a particular cafe of this fincerity difcufled in

of

OF SINCERITY.
of a very
perverfe texture, that can convert a beneficent potion ^
felfiih

243

BOOK
CHAP.
"^

iv. IV.
'

adminiflered with no ungenerous retrofpedl", no

Into rancour and averfion.

triumph,
fincerity

SSCTION IL

There

is

an energy in the
can
refift.

of a virtuous mind that nothing

human

I flop

not to confider the objections of the

puriuits.
title

man who

is

im-

OLjeaions.

merfed in worldly profpedts and

He

that does not

know

that virtue

is

better than riches or

mufl; be convinced

by arguments

foreign to this place.

But

it

will be afked, "

What

then, are painful truths to be dif- The

fear

of

clofed to perfons
ftances
?

who
a

are already in the moft pitiable circumis

ceflary pain,

Ought

woman that

dying of a fever

to be

informed

of the
fall

fate

of her hufband whofe fkuU has been fradured by a

from

his horfe ?"

The moft
Is, that this

that could poflibly be conceded to a cafe like this,

is

Anfwcr.

perhaps

not the

moment

to

begin to treat like a ralife

tional being a perfon

who

has through the courfe of a long

been treated

like

an infant.

But

in reality there
fafely

is

mode

in

which under fuch clrcumftances truth may

cated
it
;

be communi-

and,

if

it

be not thus done, there

is

perpetual danger that

may

be done in a blunter

way by

the heedlefs loquacioufnefs

of a chambermaid, or the yet undebauched fmcerity of an infant.

How

many

arts

of hypocrify, ftratagem and falfliood muft be

?

employed

to cover this pitiful fecret

I
i

Truth was

calculated in

the

244

C>F
IV. IV.
'

SINCERITY.
mind
to fortitude,

BOOK
CHAP.
*^

tj-ie

nature of things to difcipline the

virtue.

humanity

..

and

Who

are we, that

we

fhould fubvert the nature of

Section

II.

things and the fyftem of the univerfe, that

we

fhould breed up

a
'

fet

of

fummer

infels,

upon which the breeze of fmcerity may

never blow, and the temped of misfortune never beat ?

The
mj

defire

of

" But truth

may

fometlmes be

fatal

to

him

that fpeaks
1

It.

life.

man, who

fought for the Pretender in the year

745,

when

the event happened that difperfed his companions, betook himfelf to folltary flight.

He

fell

in with a party of loyalifts

;

who

were feeking to apprehend

they enquired of
fuit.

him

but not knowing his perfon,

him

for intelligence to guide

them

in their pur-

He

returned an anfwer calculated to cheriih

them

in their

miftake, and faved his life."

This objectoo

This
will

like the

former

Is

an extreme

cafe

but the true anfwer

much.

probably be found

to be the fame.

If

any one fhould quefof the conrebels^ as

tion this, let

him

confider

how

far his approbation

duit of the perfon above cited would lead him.

The

they were called, were treated in the period from which the

example

is

drawn with the molt

illiberal

injuftice.

This man,

guided perhaps by the moll magnanimous motives in what he

had done, would have been put

if

to an ignominious death.

But,

he had a right to extricate himfelf by falfhood,

why

not the

wretch

who

has been guilty of forgery,

who

has deferved pu-

nifhment, but

who may now

be confcious that he has in him

materials

O
materials

S
to

NCERIT
make

Y.

245
?

and inclination

a valuable

member of fociety I

BOOK
Section

iv,

CHAP. IV.
II.

Nor

is

the inclination an effential part of the fuppofition.

it

Where-

ever the materials exift,

unjufi:

will perhaps be

found to be flagrantly
inftead of difcovering
'

on the part of fociety to deftroythem,

the means by which they might be rendered innocent and ufeful.

At

this rate, a

man

has nothing to do but to commit one

a right to
firft.

crime, in order to give

fliall

him

commit a fecond which

fecure impunity to the

But why, when

tented to
pitiful

fo

many hundred

individuals have been con- Anfwer.

become martyrs

to the unintelligible principles of a

fe(St:,

fhould not the one innocent

man

have been deat the fhrine

fcribing be contented to offer himfelf

up a vidim

of
,

veracity

Why

fhould he purchafe a few poor years of exile

?

and mifery by the commiffion of falfhood

Had

he furren-

dered himfelf to his purfuers, had he declared in the prefence of

his judges

and

his country,

"

I,

whom
live,

you think too wicked and

degenerate to delerve even to

have chofen rather to en:

counter your injuftlce than be guilty of an untruth

would
able;

have efcaped from your iniquity and tyranny

but,

if I

had been

hedged
I

in

on

all fidcci,

having no means of deliverance but in

all

falfhood,

chearfully fubmit to

that

your malice can

:"

inflitft

rather than violate the majefty of truth

would he not have

to the

done an honour

to himfelf,

and afforded an example

world, that would have fully compenfated the calamity of his

untimely death

It is in all cafes

incumbent upon us

to dif-

charge

246

OF SINCERITY.
charge our

BOOK IV.
Section
II.

own

influenced duty, without being infiuenci

by the enquliy

whether other

men

will difcharge or negled; theirs.

It
.

muit be remembered however that

this is
lie

not the true jet

of the argument.

The
:

ftrefs
is

does not

upon the good he

as

would have done

;it is

that

precarious.

This heroic adion,

to be feared has

been the cafe with

many

others, migiit be

.configned to oblivion.

The

objet of true
is

wifdom under the

circumftances
is

we

are confidering,

to

weigh, not fo

much what

to be done, as

what

is

to be avoided.

We mull

not be guilty

We muft not feek to obtain a defirable objet by We muft prefer a general principle to the mercvile means. We muft perceive -tricious attradlions of a particular deviation.
of infmcerity.
:in the prefervation
fal

of that general principle a balance of univerarife in

good, outweighing the benefit to

it.

any inftance from

of

fuperfeding
the univerfe
did not

It

is

by general

principles that the bufniefs

is

carried on.

If the laws of gravity

and impulfe

make

us

know

the confequences of our adions,

we

fhould

be incapable of judgment and inference.

in morals.

Nor

is

this lefs true

He

that,

having laid

down

to

himfelf a plan of fm-

.cerity, is guilty

of a fingle deviation, infeds the whole, conta-

minates the franknefs and magnanimity of his temper (for fortitude in

the intrepidity of lying

is

bafenefs),

and

is

lefs virit Is

tuous than the foe againft

whom

he defends himfelf; for

more
.Jiefty,

virtuous in

my

neighbour to confide in

my

apparent ho-

than in

me

to abufe his confidence.

In the cafe of mar-

tyrdom

O
tyrdom there ^
wantonly
are

C E R

Y.
It is

247
an
evil

two

thinf^s to

be confiJered.

not

^>^0KIV.

CHAP.
'^

IV.
'

to be incurred,
It is

for

mains for us to do.

pence of principle, for

not what c;ood yet re^ Section an evil not to be avoided at the exfet-

we know

II.

we

fhould be upon our guard againfl

ting an inordinate A^alue

that truth

upon our own

efforts,

and imagining

would

die, if

we were

to be deflroyed.

*'

But what becomes of the great duty of fecrecy, which the

Secrecy confideied.

incomparable Fenelon has made a capital branch in the education

of his Telemachus ?"

tuous

It is annihilated.

It

becomes a truly

vir-

man

not to engage in any adion of which he would be

all

afhamed though
with
all

the world were fpedator.

Indeed Fenelon

his ability has fallen into the

moft palpable inconfiftency

upon

this fubjedt.

In Ithaca a confiderable part of the merit of

in keeping his mother's fecrets *.
will

Telemachus
he
arrives

confifts

When

in Tyre, he

not be perfuaded to commit or

fuffer a deception,

though

his life

was apparently

at flake \,

What

is

it

of w^hich an honeft

man

is

commonly

afliamed

Of virtuous

poverty, of doing menial offices for himfelf, of hav-

ing raifed himfelf by merit from a humble fituation, and of a

thoufand particulars which in reality conftitute his glory.

refped; to aftions of beneficence

With

we

cannot be too

much upoa

our guard againfl a

fpirit

of oftentation and the charader that

its

imperioully exacts the gratitude of

certainly

beneficiaries

but

it

is

an extreme weaknefs

to defire to hide our deferts.

So

* Telemaque. Liv. XVI.

f Liv. Ill,

far

248

OF SINCERITY.
IV.
'

BOOK
"

C HAP. IV.
^

ij.

ledo;e

Si;ctionII.

00
from

defirlno: '^

to withhold

from the

world

the

know-

of our eood deeds,

we ought o
example.

to be forward to exhibit an

attradtive

and

illuftrious

We

cannot determine to
at

keep any thing

fecret

without rilking
quibbles,

the fame

time

to

commit a hundred
hoods.

artifices,

equivocations and

falf-

The

feciets

But the
bably not
:

fecrets

of others, " have

r

I a

power over them

r

?" Pro

of others.

but you have a duty refpefting them.

are acquainted are a part of

The fats with

and you
cafe,

which you
are as

your

pofieffions,

much

obliged refpeding
for the public good.

them

as in
I

any other

to

employ them

Have

no

right to indulge
affairs,

in myfelf the caprice of concealing

any of

my

and can

another
state fecrets.

man have
of

a right

by

his caprice to
fta;te

hedge up and reThis perhaps

fhall

ftrain the pa:th

is

my duty?" But
how
are

fecrets ?"

a fubjet that ought not to be anticipated.

We

have

occafion to enquire

minifters of the concerns of a nation

to juggle

came by
while
fmcere.

their right to equivocate,

and over-reach,

private

men

obliged to be ingenuous, diredl and

S rets oF philanthropy,

There
fgpg^^j-g

is

one cafe of a fmgular nature that feems to deferve a

;

examination

tlie

cafe of fecrets that are to

is

be kept for
fide

the fake of mankind.

Full juftice

done to the affirmative

his Life of Voltaire,

of

this
is

argument by Mr. Condorcet in

where

he

juftifying this illuftrious friend of

mankind, for

his gentle-

nefs

and forbearance

in aflertir^g the liberties .of the fpecies.

He
iirft

NCERIT
, ,
,

Y.

24c,

..,.. hypocritical
the
let

firfl;

enumerates the inceffant attacks of Voltaire upon fuperllltion,

aulterities

BOOK IV.
CHAP.
IV.
^

and war

and then proceeds

"

It is true,
;

more men

are enliglitened, the

more they
and

will be free

but

us not put defpots

on

their guard,

incite

them

to

form

a league againft the progrefs of reafon.

Let us conceal from

them the
and

ftridt

and eternal union that

fubfifts

between knowledge

liberty.

Voltaire thought proper to paint fuperftition as the

to put kings

enemy of monarchy,
againft the

and princes upon their guard

gloomy

ferocity

and ambition of the priefthood, and

not for the freedom of thought and
fecurity againft the return of

to demonftrate that, inveftigation,

were

it

there would be no

papal infolence, of profcriptions, aflaflinations and religious war.

Had

he taken the other

is

fide

of the queftion, had he maintained,

which

equally true, that fuperftition and ignorance are the

fupport of defpotlfm, he would only have anticipated truths for

which the public were not

his career.

ripe,

and have {een a fpeedy end

to

Truth taught by moderate degrees gradually enand infenfibly prepares the equa;

larges the intellelual capacity,

lity

and happinefs of mankind

but taught without prudential

reftraint

would

either be nipped in the bud, or occafion national

that

concuftions in the world,

therefore abortive*."

would be found premature and

What
*

" Pius ks homines feront

former

eclaires, plus ils ferotit libi'es.

Mais

n^avertiJToiis point

ies oppvtjjeurs de

tine ligue contre la raifon,

cachotis letir Pctroite et nece/fiiire

le

union dcs
ielairera

l:in:i'erjs it

de la liberte.

ce

i^vc/ fcra done

devoir d'un pl.ilofiphe P

//

les

gouvernemens fur tsut

quits ont a craindre des pretres.

//

fera voir
(^ue

Kk

250

OF SINCERITY.
Wliat a co^vardly
diftrufi;

do reafonings IlketHefe exhibit of the

refped: to perfonal fafety,
it

omnipotence of truth
Sf.CTlON 11.

With

will
all

be
his

found upon

an accurate examination that Voltaire with

ingenuity and ftratagera was- for fixty years together the objed'

of perpetual, almoft daily perfeciition from courts and minifters*.

He

was obliged

to retire

from country

to country,

and

at

lafl:

to

take

advantage of a refidence upon the borders of two

a habitation in each*

flates

with

His attempts

to fecure the patronage

of princes led only to viciffitude and difgrace.

If his plan
lefs

had
fafe.

been more firm and

diredl,

he would not have been

Timidity, and an anxious endeavour to fecure to ourfelves a

protedlor,. invite perfecution.

With

the advantages of Voltaire,

with his talents and' independence, he might have held the

tyrants of the world in awe*

Bue fans la liherte de penfir

afpiffinats,
les

le

meme
les

efprit

dans

le clerge
les

rai7teneralt

Us tnemes

mimes fupplkes,

niemes profcriptionsy
ejl

memes guerres civiles.

avant que
la raifon ait

All lien de montrer que la fuperjlition

raffemhle ajfez de force,
tons les
il

I'appui

du

d'efpotifme,

prouvera

qu^elle ejl Veiinemie des rois.

Tel

eft

V efprit de

ouvrages de Voltaire

^le

des

hommes^ inferieurs a

lui,

ne voyent pas que ft

ecrire leurs

Voltaire eut fait autrement,

ni Montefquieu ni

Roujfau n'ouraient pu

ouvrages, que

I'

Europe fer ait encore fuperflitieufe,

avant

et reflerait long-terns efclave.

Ell

(tttaquant les opprejfeurs

et

d' avoir eclaire les citoyens, on rifque de perdre la liberti

ceite

d'etouffer la raifon.

L'hifoire offre la preuve de

verite.

Cambien de foisy

nialgre

les genereux efforts

des amis de la liberie, une feule bataille

n'' a-t-elle

pas reduit

des nations a une fervitude de plnfteurs ftecles

Pourquoi

ne pas profter de cette

txperience funefle, et favoir attendre des

progrh

des lumieres une liberie plus reellty

plus durable

et

plus paiftble P"

* Vie de

Voltaire,

par M***, throughout^

As

OF SINCERITY.
As
to the proerefs
^

251

ful friends

may

of truth, it is not fo precarious as its fear- BOOK IV. ^ CHAP. IV. ' imagine. Air. Condorcet has juftly infinuated ^
*

'

Skctios

II.

in the courfe of his argument, that " in the invention of printin<'

is

contained the embryo, which in

its

maturity and vigour

is

deftined to annihilate the ilavery of the

if

human

race*."

Books,

proper precautions be employed, cannot be defti-oyed.

Its

Knovr;

ledge cannot be extirpated.

progrefs

is

filent,

but infallible

and he

is

the moft ufeful foldler in this war,

who

accumulates

in an unperifhable

form the

greateft

mafs of truth.

As

truth has nothing to fear

from her enemies, fhe needs not

friends.

have any thing to fear from her

lifhes the fublimeft difcoveries. Is

The man, who pubothers the moft likely

not of

all

to inflame the vulgar,

and hurry the great queftion of human

crifis.

happinefs to a premature

The

objet to be purfued un-

doubtedly

is,

the gradual Impi-ovement of mind.

But

this

end

will be better

anfwered by exhibiting

as

much

truth as poffible,

enlightening a few, and fufFering knowledge to expand in the

proportion which the laws of nature and neceffity prefcribe, than

Tjy

any

artificial

plan of piecemeal communication that M'e can

is

Invent.

There

in the nature of things a gradation in difcovery

and a progrefs

in

improvement, which do not need

votaries.

'

to be affifted

by the ftratagems of their

-a

In a word, there cannot be

more unworthy
*

idea,

than that truth and virtue fhould be

/'

"

Peut-ctre avant

P invention de

imprimerie

itait-il impoffibk

a fe

foujii-aire

au

k 2

ynder

252

OF SINCERITY.
IV.

BOOK IV.
CHAP.
Section IL

under the neceffity of feekinc; ^ '

alliance
_

with concealment.
little,

The
doing

man, who would

he may unawares
an impoftor.
fhorn of
its

artfully

draw me

into a

that

by

fo

furprife

me

into

much,

I infallibly

regard as

Will truth, contraded into fome petty

beams, acquire additional evidence
its
\

fphei-e
let

and
iBe

Rather

trufl to its

omnipotence, to

congeniality with the nature of

Intelledl, to its diredl

and

irrefiftible

tendency to produce
fear that I

liberty,

and happinefs, and

it,

virtue.

Let

me

have not enough of

that

my

views are too narrow to produce impreflion, and

anxioufly endeavour to add to

exhibited in
fliould not
its

my

flock
its

not apprehend that^

noon-day brightnefs,

luflre

and genial

nature-

be univerfally confefled *^

* See this fubjeft farther purfued In Appeadix, No.

IIL

APPENDIX,

^S3

APPENDIX,

No.

I.

p.

233.

OF THE CONNEXION BETWEEN UNDERSTANDING

AND VIRTUE.
CAN EMINENT VIRTUE EXIST UNCONNECTED WITH TALENTS NATURE OF VIRTUE. IT IS THE OFFSPRING OF UNDERSTANDING. IT GENERATES UNDERSTAND?

ING.

ILLUSTRATION FROM OTHER PURSUITS

LOVE

AMBITION APPLIED. CAN EMINENT TALENTS EXIST UNCONNECTED V^^ITH VIRARGUMENT IN THE AFFIRMATIVE FROM ANATUE
?

LOGY

IN

THE NEGATIVE FROM THE UNIVERSALITY OF

MORAL SPECULATION FROM THE NATURE OF VICE AS FOUNDED IN MISTAKE. THE ARGUMENT BALANCED.
IMPORTANCE'OF A SENSE OF JUSTICE.

ITS CONNEXION

WITH TALENTS.

ILLIBERALITY WITH WHICH MEN OF

TALENTS ARE USUALLY TREATED.,

A
ferves,

PROPOSITION
.

which, however evident in

.

itfelf,
.

feems
.

BOOK
CHAP.
*
.,

iv. IV,
/

never to have been confidered with the attention

is

it

de-

that

which

affirms the

rf

Appendix,
No.
i.

connexion between underftandas virtuous

Can eminent

ing and virtue.

Can an honeft ploughman be

as
?

virtue exift

CatO

unconnffied with talents ?

254

CONNEXION BETWEEN
IV. IV.
'

BOOK
CHAP.
'

Cato

Is

man

of weak intelleds and narrow education as

Appendix, No. I.

capable of moral excellence as the fublimefl genius or the ^

jnoft ftored with information and fcience
?

mind

Nature of virtue.

To
ledt

determine thefe queftions

it .is

neceflary

we

fhould recol.

the nature of virtue.

Confidered as a perfonal quality

it

confifts in the difpofition

fire to

of the mind, and

may

be defined a dein general, the

promote the

benefit of intelligent beings

quantity of virtue being as the quantity of defire.

is

Novv^ defire

another

name

for preference, or a perception of the excel-

lence real or fuppofed of

any objed.

I fay real or fuppofed, for

an objedt totally deflitute of real and intrinfic excellence,

may

become an
that
is

objet of defire
It.

by means of the imaginary

Is this the

excellence

afcribed to

Nor

only miftake to which hudefire

man

intelligences are liable.

We
real

may

an objed of abfo-

lute excellence,

not for

its

and genuine recommendations'

but for fome

fiditious attradions
cafe,

we may
when

impute to

it.

This
is

is

always in fome degree the

a beneficial

adion

per-

formed from an

ill

motive.

How

far is this mifi:ake compatible

with

real virtue

If I dedift:ind

fire the benefit of intelligent beings, not

from a

clear

and

perception of what

it is

in wliich their benefit confifts, but

from

the unexamined leffons of education, from the phyfical effed of

Sympathy, or from any

fpecies of zeal unallied to

and incom-

jnenfurate with knowledge, can this defire be admitted for vir-

tuous

UNDERSTANDING AND VIRTUE.

tnous
?

255

Nothing feems more

is

inconfiftent with our ideas of virtue.

virtuous preference

the preference of an objel for the fake

of certain beneficial

qualities

which

really belong to that objet.

To

attribute virtue to

any other

fpecies of preference

would be
condud;^it,

the fame as to fuppofe that an accidental eifedl of

my

which was
might

altogether out of

my

view

at the

time of adopting

entitle,

me

to the appellation of virtuous.

Hence

It

appears,

firft,

that virtue confifts in a defire -of the

'

Tt

JstheofF-

benefit of the fpecies

and, fecondly, that that defire only can be

diftindt

dcritanding.

denominated virtuous, which flows from a

perception

of the value, and confequently of the nature, of the thing defired.

But how
full

extenfi ve

muft

be^ the capacity that

is

comprehends
!

tlie It

value of that benefit which

the objed: of virtue

muft begin with a

collelive idea of the

all

human

fpecies.

It

muft difcriminate, among

the different caufes that produce a

pleafurable ftate of mind, that

fite

which produces the moft exquivirtue requires that

I

and durable pleafure.

Eminent

fhould

have a grand view of the tendency of knowledge to produce

happinefs, and of juft political inftitution to favour the progrcfa

of knowledge. ner

It

demands

that I fhould perceive in

what man-

fecial intercourfe

may

be made conducive to virtue and fethat

licity,

and imagine the unfpeakable advantages

a.

may

arife

from

coincidence and fucceflion of generous

efforts.

Thefe

things are neceflary, not merely for the purpofe of enabling

to

me
alfo

employ
2

my -virtuous

difpofition in the beft-

manner, but

for

256

CONNEXION BETWEEN
IV.

BOOK

for the purpofe of giving to that difpofition a juft animation

and

vigour.
Appendix, No. I.

God, according
is

to

the ideas ufually conceived of that

being,

more benevolent than man, becaufe he has a conftant

end which
his pro-

and

clear perception of the nature of that

vidence purfues.

It generates

A farther proof that

from eminent
defire

a powerful underftanding
itfelf, if

is

infeparable

ftanding.

virtue will fuggeft

we

recoiled that earneft

never

fails to

generate capacity.

Illuftration

This propofition has been beautifully

illuftrated

by the

poets,

from other
puifuits
:

when

they have reprefented the paflion of love as immediately

leading in the bread of the lover to the attainment of

love:

many

arduous accompllfhments.

It

unlocks his tongue, and enables

him
It

to plead the caufe of his paffion with Infmuating eloquence.

renders his converfation pleafmg and his manners graceful.

defire to exprefs

Does he

his feelings in the language of verfe

It dictates

to

him

the moft natural and pathetic ftrains, and fup-

plieshim with

a juft

and Intereftlng language which the

man

of

mere refledion and

fcience has often fought for in vain.

iimbJtion

No
human

pidure can be more truly founded in a knowledge of

nature than
this.

The

hiftory of

all

eminent

talents

is

of

a fnnilar kind.

Did Themiftocles defire to eclipfe the trophies

of the battle of Marathon?

The

uneafmefs of this defire would

not

let

him

fleep,

and

all

his

thoughts were occupied with the

invention

UNDERSTANDING AND VIRTUE.

mvention of means
is-

257
It

to accomplifh the
.

purpofe he had chofcn.

.

BOOK
CHAP.
^^

iv. IV.
'

a well

known maxim
which

in the
is

forming of juvenile minds, that

conftraint;j

the

inftrudion,

communicated by mere
;

No..

makes a flow and feeble impreffion

but that,
its

when once you

mind which
;

have infpired the mind with a love for

the progrefs are entirely altered.

objed, the fcene and

The

uneafinefs of

eameft

defire produces, doubles

our intelledlual ativity

and

as

furely carries
goal, as the

us forward with increafed velocity towards our

expedation of a reward of ten thoufand pounds

to

would prompt me
refolution

walk from London

to

York with

firmer

and in a fhorter time.

Let the objel be for a perfon uninftruded in the rudiments

of drawing to make a copy of fome celebrated
ftatue.

At

firft,

wewill

fuppofe, his attempt fhall be

mean

.and unfuccefsful.

If his defire be feeble,

he will be deterred by the mifcarriage

defire be

of this

effay.

If his

ardent and invincible, he will

return to the attack.

He

will derive inftrudion

from

his failure.
will ftudy

He
his

will

examine where and

why
loofe

he mifcarried.

He

model with a more. curious

principally

eye.

He
will

will perceive that

he

failed

from the

and undigefted idea he had

It

formed of the objed before him.

no longer ftand in
it,

his

mind' as one general mafs^ but he will analyfe

each part infucceflion a feparate confideration.

befto wing

upon

The.

cafe, is

fxmikr in virtue as in fcience.

If

Lhave conceived

applied.

sjS

CONNEXION BETWEEN
IV. IV.

BOOK
CHAP.

ceived an earneft defire of beine;

fhall

:a

benefactor of
in

no doubt find out a channel

and
fhall

which

my fpecies, T r for my defire to

/
'

operate,

be quick-fighted in difcovering the defedts or

of the plan
1

comparative

littlenefs

have ch

fen.

But the choice

iOf an excellent plan for the accomplifhmr-nt of an important

purpofe, and the .exertion of a

mind

perpetually watchful to re-

move
ther I

its

defeats,

imply confiderable underfcanding.

The

far-

am

engaged in the purfuit of this plan the more will

If

my

:capacity increafe.
purfuit,
it

my mind
and

flag

and be difcouraged in the

will not be

merely want of underftanding, but want

of

defire.

My
who

defire

my

virtue "will be

lefs,

than thofe of

the man,
.career.

goes .on with unremitted conftancy in the fame

-Can emment
^talents exift

Thus far wc have Only teen

^

confiderlng Iiow impoflible

_

it is
j

uriconnefted
'with virtue
?

that eminent virtue fhould exift in

is

a weak underftanding, and

it

furprifing that fuch a propofition fhould ever have been conIt is

tefted.

a curious queftion to examine,

is

how

far the

con_

verfe of this propofition

talents are compatible

true,

and in what degree eminent

with the abfence of virtue.

Areument

in

Ffom
^^^''^
'^^

the arguments already adduced

it

appears that virtuous

ti'^efromara-

another

name

for a clear

and

diftind: perception

of the

^^"

nature and value of the objeft of virtue.

natural to conclude, that,

Hence

it

feems moft

though underftanding, or ftrong perciit

pient power
1

is

th^ indifpenfible prerequifite of virtue, yet

is

neceflary

UNDERSTANDING AND VIRTUE.

neceflary that this

255

power fhould be

fixed

upon

this
it

obieifl, in
*

^^OK
CHAP.
*^

IV.

'

IV.
>

order to

its

producing the defired effed.

a poet
;

Thus
but
it Is

is

in

art.

Without genius no man ever was

neceflary that
particular

ApTENDIXj No. I.

general capacity fhould have been direfted

to

this

channel, for poetical excellence to be th^ refult-

There
Poetry
all
is

is

however fome

difference

between the two

cafes,

(n

the neg^-

the bufinefs of a few, virtue and vice are the affairs of

univerfalltyof

men.

To

,,

every uitellect that exilts one or other of thefe

It

.^

r-

moral fpeculation:

qualities

mufl properly belong.

is

mufl be granted

that,

where

every other circumflance

equal, that

man

will be mol-l: virtuous,

whofe underflanding has been moft

fludy of virtue.

actively

employed

in the

But morality has been

all

in a certain degree aa-

objedl of attention to
lefs

men.

No

perfon ever failed more or

tc apply the flandard of juft and unjuft to his

this has

own

ationS

and thofe of others; and

with mofl ingenuity by

of courfe been generally done

men

of the greateft capacity.

It
1

mufl farther be remembered that a vicious condud

r
1

is
.

always
,

from the na'"''^

the refult

r
us.

nan'ow views.
is leaft

A
A

man

ot powerful capacity

of vice as
in

and

foimded

extenfive obfer\Mtion

likely to

commit

the mifl:ake, either

of feeing himfelf as the only objed: of importance in the univerfe, or of conceiving that his

own

advantage

may

beft be

pro"

moted by trampling on
are furely in

that of others.

Liberalaccomplirhments
liberal principles.

fome degree connected with

view a whole nation

He,,

who

takes into his

as the fubjeds
'

of his

operation:

25o

CONNEXION BETWEEN
operation or the inftruments of his greatnefs,
^

BOOK IV.
*^;^

may

naturally be

ArPENDIS, No. I.

expected to entertain fome klndnefs for the whole. '

He, whofe
is

mind

is

habitually elevated to magnificent conceptions,

not

likely to
fuits,

fmk without

ftrong reludlance into thofe fordid pur-

which engrofs

fo large a portion

of mankind.

Theargument balaaeed.

[g^f

jo
It
is

though thefe general maxims muft be admitted for o

incline us to

true,
em.i-

^^^ would
nent

hope for
virtues,

a conftant

union between

talents

and great

there are other confiderations

fo agreeable an expedtain

which prefent a ftrong drawback upon

tion.
fufficiently evident that

morality

fome degree
it

enters into the

refledions of

all

mankind.

But
;

is

equally

evident, that
will

it

may

enter for

more or
talents,

for lefs

and that there

be

men

-of

the highefl

who

have their attention

it

diverted to

other objects,

and by
it

whom
may

will be meditated

upon with

lefs

earneftnefs, than

fometimes be by other

men who are

is

in a general

view
of

their inferiors.
its

The human mind

fo ingenious in the

in

fome

cafes fo tenacious

errors,

and

kivention of a fophiftry by which they

fruftrate expe6lations

may

be vindicated, as to

of virtue in other r^fpeds the beft founded.

Importance of a fenfc of
uftice.

From
of

the wholc of the fubjet

it

feems to appear, that

men

talents,

even

when

they are erroneous, are not deftitute of

is

virtue,

and that there

a degree of

guilt

of which they are

incapable.

There

is

no ingredient

that fo eifentially contributes

to a virtuous charadler as a fenfe of juftice.

Philanthropy, as

'

con-

UNDERSTANDING AND VIRTUE.

contradiftineuifhed to jnftice,
is

261
r.OOK
iv.

rather an unrefleaine feelinfr. ^

^'

CHAP. IV,

than a rational principle.

It

leads to

an abfurd indulgence,

which

is

frequently
it

more

injurious than beneficial even to the

It

individual

propofes to favour.

leads to a blind partiality,

infliding

calamity without

remorfe upon

many

perhaps,

in

order to promote the imagined intereft of a few.

But
all,

juftice

meafures by one inflexible ftandard the claims of

their oppofite pretenfions,

weighs

and feeks

to difFufe happinefs, becaufe

happinefs

is

the

fit

and reafonable adjunct of a confcious being.

exifts,
it is

"Wherever therefore a ilrong fenfe of juftice

common

and reafonable
virtue,

to

fay,

that in

that

mind

exifts

confiderable

though the individual from an unfortunate concurrence

of circumftances

may

with

all

his great qualities be the inftru-

ment of
energy

a very fmall portion of benefit.

Can
?

great intellectual

exift

without a ftrong fenfe of juftice

It this,

has no doubt refultcd from a train of fpeculation fimllar to

that
poetical

its

con-

readers have

commonly remarked
It

Milton's

taklus."^'

devil to be a being of confiderable virtue.

muft be admitted

that his energies centered too

much
maker

In perfonal regards.
?

But

wliy did he rebel againft

informs us, becaufe
lie fav/

his

It

was,

as

he himfelf
extreme
It

no

fufficient reafon for that

inequality of rank and

power which the

creator afllimed.

was becaufe

prefcription

and precedent form no adequate ground

"his fall,

for "implicit faith.

fpifit

After
?

why

did he

ftill

cherifh the

of oppofition

Prom

a perfuafion that he was hardly and

injurioufly

36.

CONNEXION BETWEEN
IV.

BOOK

injuiioufly treated.

He

was not difcouraged by the apparent'

;-

Appendix,
No.. I.

inequality of the conteft

becaufe a fenfe of reafon and juftice

:.

^as ftronger

in his

mind, than a fenfe of brute force

feelings of an; Epi(3:etus or a Cato,

becaufe
little

he had much of the

of thofe of a
flave..

and

He

bore his torments with fortitude, becaufe-

he difdained

to be

fubdued by defpotic power..

He

fought

re--

venge, becaufe he could not think with tamenefs of the unex-poftulating authority that aiTumed to difpofe of him.
ficial

How
!

bene-

and

illuftrious

might the temper from which thefe

qualities;

flowed have proved with a fmall. diver fity of fituation

Let us defcend from thefe imaginary exiftences to

tory.
virtues.

real hlf-

We

flialf find that even Casfar and Alexander

is

had their

There

great reafon to believe, that,

it

however miflaken
reconcileable

was their fyftem of conduct, they imagined

even conducive to the general good.
general good

and

If they had defired the

betterv^

more
it..

earneftly, they

would have underftood

how

to

promote

Upon
gies,

the whole

it

appears, tKat great talents are great ener-

and

that great energies cannot flow but

from a powerfitl'
genius
Is

fenfe of fitnefs

and

jufl:ice.

man

of
;

uncommon

a.

man

of high pafllons and lofty defign

lall

and our pafllons will be

fureft

found in the
-

analyfiS to

have their

foundation in a

fentiment of jullice.

If a

man

be of an afpiring and ambitious

^mper,

it is

becaufe at prefent he finds himfelf out of his place^,

and

UNDERSTANDING AND VIRTUE.

and
Jities

265
^O*-*^^ ^^'

willies to be in

it.

Even

the lover imagines that his qua

CHAP.
^;

IV.
'

or his * paflion eive Li'i a ^

it i^

title

fuperior to that of other men, ^

I

If

accumulate wealth,
life

becaufe

think that the moft rational

it ;

Appendix, ^' ^'

plan of

cannot be fecured without

it

and,

if I dedicate

my
mo-

energies to feiifual pleafures,

irrational

is

that I regard other purfuits as

and vifionary.

All our paflions

it

would

die in the

ment they were

conceived, were

not for this reinforcement.

A man

of quick refentment, of ftrong feelings, and

refifts

who

per-

tinacioufly

eveiy

thing that

he regards

as

an unjuft

affumption,

may
Nor

be confidered as having In him the feeds of

is it

eminence.

eafily to

be conceived that fuch a

man

ihould not proceed from a

fenfe of juftice to
felt real

fome degree of

benevolence

as Milton's

hero

compaffion and fympathy

for his partners in misfortune.

If thefe reafonings are to be admitted, what judgment

we form of the decifion of dodtor Johnfon,
-certain obfcure

fhall

iliiberalitf

who, fpeaking of
fays, that

with which men of talents are

tranflator of the odes

of Pindar,
<leath

he

ufually

treated.

was " one of the few poets to

terrible *i"

whom

needed not to be

Let

it

be remembered that the error is by no means

peculiar to dotor Johnfon,

though there are few inftances

in

which

it is

carried to a

more

violent extreme, than in the general

this

tenour of the

work from which

quotation

is

taken.

It

was

natural to expert that there

would be a combination among the

eminence.
Life of Weft.

multitude to pull

down

intellectual

Ambition

is

com-

* Lives of the Poets

mon

264

CONNEXION,
iv. IV.

&c.

BOOK
CHAP.
No.

n^on mon to

all

men

; ; *

and

thofe, '

who

are unable to rife to diftindionjp

are at lead willing to reduce others to their

Appendix,
I.

own

ftandard.

Na
tO'

jnan can completely underftand the character of

him with whom;

be allowed

he has no fympathy of views,

revile

and.

we may
it

what we do not underftand.

But

is

deeply to be re-

g-retted that

men

of talents Ihould fo often have entered into this

does not recollet with

combination.

Who

pain the vulgar

the mutual jea-

abufe that Swift has thrown

Ipufies

upon Dryden, and

and animofities of Roufleau and Voltaire,

the. falvation

men wh;
?.

QUght to have co-operated for

of the world

APPENDIX,

265

APPENDIX,

No.

II,

p.

242.

OF THE MODE OF EXCLUDING VISITORS.

ITS

IMPROPRIETY ARGUED
IT PLACES,
I.

FROM

THE SITUATION IN

WHICH
TICE,

THE VISITOR

2.

THE SERVANT.

objections: pretended
I.

necessity of THIS PRAC-

TO PRESERVE US FROM INTRUSION

2,

TO FREE

US

FROM DISAGREEABLE ACQUAINTANCE.

CHARACTERS

OF THE HONEST

AND DISHONEST MAN

IN THIS RESPECT

COMPARED.

THIS
lliullrated,

principle refpeding the obfervation of truth in the

boo k
^

iv.

common
monly fuppofed
he
is

mtercourles

of hfe cannot perhaps be better

. .

,-r

CHAP. IV.
^
trivial cafe, as it is

than from the famihar and

to be,
as a

com-

Appendix, No. ii.

Its inipro-

of a mafter direding his fervant to fay

piiety

argued

not

at

home,

means

of freeing

him from

the intruuon

of impertinent guefts.
to the fcience of politics

No
;

queftion of moraUty can be foreign

nor will thofe few pages of the prefent

the Icaft valuable,

work be found perhaps

other places*
are

which here and

in

dedicated to the refutation of errors,

that

by

their extenfive influence

political juftice.

have perverted the foundation of

moral and

* Vide Appendices to Book

II,

Chap.

II.

Mm

Let

266
Let us
firft,

OF

THE MODE OF
known axiom of
moralitj^

according to the well

put ourfelves in the place of the perfon

excludes.
It

whom
is

this
if

anfwer

feldom happens but that he

able,

he be in

pofTeffion of any difcernment, to difcover with tolerable accuracy

places, i.the
vilitor

-whether the anfwer he receives be true or

falfe.

There

are a

thoufand
deteils

petty

circumflances

by which

falfhood

continually

itfelf.

The countenance and

the voice of the fervant,

unlefs long pradtifed indeed in this leflbn of deceit, his cold

and

referved

manner

in the

one

cafe,

and
will

his free,

ingenuous and

unembarrafTed

air

in the other,

almoft always fpeak a

language
that

lefs

ambiguous

than his lips.

But

let

us fuppofe only

we vehemently

fufpedl the truth.

It is

not intended to

keep us in ignorance of the exiftence of fuch a pradlice.

that adopts
it,

He

is

willing to

avow

in general terms that fuch is

his fyftem, or

he makes out a cafe for himfelf

for him.

much

lefs

favour-

able than I

was making out

The

vifitor

then

who

receives this anfwer, feels in fpite of himfelf a contempt for the

prevarication of the perfon he

vifits.

appeal to the feelings of

I

every

man

in the fituation defcribed,

and

have no doubt that

firft

he

will find this to be their true ftate in the

inftance,

how-

ever he

may

have a
in a

fet

of fophiftical reafonings at hand by

firft

which he may

few minutes reafon down the

move-

ments of indignation.

He

feels that the trouble

he has taken
to truth in

and the
return.

civility

he intended

intitled

him

at leaft

Having

EXCLUDING VISITORS.
Having put
ourfelves in the place of the vifitor,
let

2C7
us next

BOOK

IV.

CHAP, IV.

put ourfelves in the place of the poor defpifed fervant.

fuppofe that

Let us

we

are ourfelves deftined as fons or

vv^ife

hufbands to
not at home,
feel

give this anfwer that our father or our

is

when he

or fhe

is

really in the houfe.

Should we not
lie
?

our
it

tongues contaminated with the bafe plebeian

Would
"fuch
is

be
the
;

a fufficient opiate to our confciences to fay that

pradice, and
its
it is

well under flood ?" It never can be underftood

is,

very intention

not to be underflood.

We

fay that "

wc

have certain arguments that prove the practice to be innocent."

Are

fervants only competent to underfland

thefe arguments

Surely

we ought

beft to

be able to underftand our

own

argu-

ments, and yet

fonally acting

we

Ihrink with abhorrence from the idea of pcr-

upon them.

Whatever fophlftry we may have

Is

to excufe

our

error,

nothing

more

certain than that our fervants underftand the leflon

to be a
lie.
It

we

teach

them

It is

accompanied by
gracefully

all

the retinue of

falfliood.

Before

can be

pradlifed,

the fervant

muft be no m<?an

proficient in the myfteries of hypocrify.

it Is

By

the eafy impudence with which

uttered,

he beft anfwers the

purpofe of his mafter, or in other words the purpofe of deceit.

By

the eafy

impudence with which

it is

uttered,

he beft

ftlfles

the upbraidings of his

own

mind, and conceals from others

tl^e

fhame impofed on him by his defpotic taik-mafter.

can be
fufficiently

Before this

done, he muft have difcarJed the ingenuous

Mm2

franknefs

26S

OF
fj-anknefs

THE MODE OF
the thoughts find eafy
<->

^OOK
!^

IV, CJrlAl .IV.

'

by means of which

commerce

Appendix, No. II.

with the toneue, and the clear and undifguifed countenance o ' which ought to be the faithful mirror of the mind. Do you
think,

when he
it

has

learned

this

degenerate

leiTon

in

one

"

inftance, that

will
?

produce no unfavourable efFeds upon his

if

general condudt
leafl to

Surely,

we

will pratife vice,

it

we

ought

at

have the magnanimity to pradife

in perfon,

not
to

cowardlike corrupt the principles of another, and oblige

him

do that which
ourfelves.

we

have not the honefty to dare to do for

Objcftlons

^ut

it is faid,

" that

this lie is neceflary,

and that the

it."

inter-

Pretended
thTs^praft^ce,
I.

courfe of
is it

human

fociety cannot be carried

I

on without

What,

uot as eafy to fay, "

am
^ I

engaged," or " indifpofed," or as

not at
,

to preferve

us fiom Int-rufion

the cafe

may

happen, as

"

am

home

^^^
?

Are

thele an-

fwers more infulting,

than the

univerfally

fufpedted
?"

anfwer,

the notorious hypocrify of " I

am

not at

home

The
ployed
'

purpofe indeed for which this anfwer

is

is

ufually

em-

a deceit of another kind.

Every man has

in the ca-

talogue of his acquaintance fome that he particularly loves, and

others to
ferent.

whom

he

is

indifferent, or

perhaps worfe than indifthey pleafe,

is

This anfwer leaves the

latter to fuppofe, if

that they are in the clafs of the former.

fit

And what

the bene-

to refult

from

this indifcriminate, undiftinguiihing

?

manner of
no doubt
exifls

treating our neighbours

Whatever

benefit

it

be,

it

EXCLUDINGVISITORS.
exifts in confiderable

269

vigour in the prefent

,

ftate

of pollflied fo-

BOOK
'

iv.
'

CHAP. IV.
v

ciety,

where forms perpetually intrude

to cut off all intercourfe

I

between the feelings of mankind; and

can fcarcely

tell

man

Appendix, No. ii.

on the one hand "

virtues," or
will be

that I

efteem his charadler and honour his

that

on the other "

he

is

fallen into

an error which

of prejudicial confequence to him," without trampling

the barriers of politenefs.

upon

all

But

is

all

this right

Is

not the efteem or the difapprobation of others

among
?

the moft

powerful incentives to virtue or punilhments of vice

Can we
otherwife

even underftand virtue

fhould, if

and vice half

fo well as

we

we

be unacquainted with the feelings of our neigh?

bours refpedling them

If there be in the
diflike,

lift

of our acquaintance

>

any perfon
it is

whom we particularly
fault that

it

ufually happens that

for

fome moral

we

perceive or think

we

perceive

in him.

Why

fhould he be kept in ignorance of our opinion

refpeding him, and prevented from the opportunity either of

amendment

or vindication

If he be too wife or too foolifli, too

virtiious or too vicious for us,

why

fhould he not be ingenu-

oufly told of his miftake in his intended kindnefs to us, rather

than be fuffered to find

fervants
?

it

out by fix months enquiry from our

This

leads us to yet

one more argument in favour of

are told, " there
is

this dif-

2.

to free us

ingenuous pradlice.

We

no other by which

agreeable
^'^'^"^'"

we

can rid ourfelves of difagreeable acquaintance."

How

^"^^*

long

ihall this

be one of the efFe<^s of polifhed fociety, to perfuade us

that

270

OFTHEMODEOF
IV, IV.
'

BOOK
CHAP.
*
-^

ti^j^t;

^ye are incapable of ^

?

ApPtNDIX,
No.
ir.

felves

You may

as

doing the moft well tell me, " that

trivial offices for

it is

our-

a matter of indifflockings."
is

penfible neceffity to have a valet to

reality

put on

my

In
to

the exiftence of thefe troublefome vifitors

It is

owing

the hypocrify of politenefs.

that

we wear

the fame indifcri-

minate fmile, the fame appearance of cordiality and complacence to

all

our acquaintance.

Ought we

to

do thus
?

Are

virtue

and

excellence entitled to no diftindions

For the trouble of thefe

If

impertinent
deceit, if

vifits

we may thank

ourfelves.

we

pradifed no

we affumed no atom

of cordiality and efteem

we

did

not feel, we

fhould be Httle peftered with thefe buzzing intruders.

;

But one

fpecies of falfhood involves us in another

vifitors,

and he, that

pleads for thefe lying anfwers to our

in reality pleads

the caufe of a cowardice, that dares not deny to vice the diilinction

and kindnefs that

are exclufively

due to

virtue.

Charafters of

The man who

moved from
'

afted

upon

this

fyftem would be very far re-

and

diftioneft

a Cynic.
,

The

condudl of

men formed upon

the

man

in this

refpeft

com-

faihionablc fyftem

is

a perpetual contradidtion.

t o

At one moment

pared.

they fawn upon us with a

of man, and
lence,
at

fervility that diflionours the dignity

another treat us with a negledl, a farcaftic infodifdain,

and a fupercilious

that are

felt

as the fevereft

cruelty,

by him who

has not the firmnefs to regard

them with

neglel.

The conduit

of the genuine moralift

is

equable and

uniform.

He

loves

all

mankind, he

defires the benefit

of

all,

and this love and this defire are legible in his condudl.
5

Does
^e

EXCLUDING VISITORS.
he remind us of our of
felfifh

271
afoerltv. J^ ^
it

faults

'?

It Is

with no mixture of

BOOK
CHAP.
*

IV. IV.
'

difdain

and infolent

fuperiorlty.

Of confequence

is

Appendix,

fcarcely poffible

he fhould wound.

Few

indeed are thofe effc-

No.

ii.

minate valetudinarians,
dillinguifh the motive.
thing.

who

recoil

from the advice, when they

it

But, were

otherwife, the injury

Is

no-

Thofe

who

feel

themfelves incapable of fuffering the

leaft benefit

moft benevolent plain dealing, would derive

the prefcription, and they avoid the phyfician.
livered,

from

Thus

is

he de-

without harfhnefs, hypocrify and deceit, from thofe whofe

intercourfe he
racter
Is

had

leaft

reafon to defire

and the more

his cha-

underftood, the

more

his acquaintance will be feled, his

company being
pofed, and thofe

chiefly fought

by the ingenuous, the well

dif-

who

are defirous of improvement.

APPENDIX,,

272

APPENDIX,

No.

Ill,

p.

252,

SUBJECT OF SINCERITY RESUMED.

A CASE PROPOSED. MENT.

TRUTH IN GENERAL TO BE PARTIALLY COMMUNICATED? CUSTOMARY EFUPON HIM OF INSINCERITY FECTS OF SINCERITY WHO PRACTISES IT I. THE SUSPENSION OF IMPROVEMENT 2, MISANTHROPY UPON 3. DISINGENUITY
t

ARGUMENTS PREVIOUS QUESTION

IN
IS

FAVOUR OF CONCEAL-

THE SPECTATORS.

SINCERITY DELINEATED ITS

APPLICATION.

GENE-

RAL IMPORTANCE.

DUTY RESPECTING

THE CHOICE OF A RESIDENCE.

*0 enable us more
obligation to
Appendix,
No. III.

accurately to judge of the extent of the

fincere,
let

be

us fuppofe, " that I

i

am

A Cafe propofed.

refident, as a native or otherwife,

the
n

kmgdom

en of Portugal,

and that
ligious,

am

of opinion rhat the enablifhment,

is

civil

and

re-

of that country

in a

high degree injurious to the wel-

fare

and improvement of the inhabitants."

I

Ought

I explicitly

to declare the fentlments

entertain
is

To

this queftion I

an-

fwer, that "

refidence."

my

Immediate duty

to feek for myfelf a different

The

SINCERITY RESUMED,
The arguments
vious.
in favour of concealment in this cafe are obis

273

COOK
CHAP.
^-

" That country

fubjet to a high degree of defpotifm,

IV. IV.
'

and, '

if I delivered

my
'

fentiments in this frank manner, efpe'

Arguments
'" ^^^'"''

^- ^^^'
^

cially if alone; "'

with

this I

were ardent and indefatigable

'-'

in en-

concealment.

deavouring to profelyte the inhabitants, be endured.

fition
ftill

my

fincerity

would not

In that country the inftitution of the holy inqui-

flourillies,

and the

fathers of this venerable court

would

find

means

effeitually to filence

me, before

had well opened

my

commilfion.

The
I

inhabitants,
uttered,

wholly unaccuftomed
feel their
I

to fuch bold

affertions as thofe
fibly fhocked,

would

pious ears inexprefinftead of prois

it

and the martyrdom

efFets

endured,

ducing the good

tended, would
bered,

with which martyrdom

fometimes

at-

foon be forgotten, and, as long as

was remem-

would be remembered only with execrations of

If

my
I

me-

mory.

on the contrary
life

concealed

my

fentiments,

might

fpend a long
cealed

in aOis of fubftantial benevolence.

If I con-

them

in part, I

might perhaps by a prudent and gradual

difclofure efFedl that revolution in the opinions of the inhabitants,

which by

my

precipitation in the other cafe

defeated

in the outfet.

Thefe arguments in favour of concealment are

felfifhnefs,
I

not built upon cowardice and

or

upon a recolledion

of the horrible tortures to which

fhould be fubjeded.

They

flow from confideraiions of philanthropy,

fairly to eftimate in

and an endeavour

what mode

my

exertions

may

be rendered

moll conducive to the general good."

Before

274
f,9,'j^p
*7

SUBJECT OF
\Y;
'

Appendix,
No. III.
x^revious

Before

we

enter

upon

their diredt examination,

It

may be
i

pro-

per to premife fome d general obfervatlons. a r

'

In the

firft

place, let j

yg calmly enquire whether the inftance here ftated be of the na'

^.^J.g

queition: Is
neral to be
partially com-

p ^^ exceptlon Or a rule.

" Ought

univerfally to

tell

^j^j

^ fmall part of the truth at a time, careful not to fhock the ' r

municated?

prejudices of

my

hearers,

and thus lead them imperceptibly to

at firft
;

conclufions

which would have revolted them

or

am

to pradife this

method only, where

It

the rilk

Is

great,

and

my life
fellow
It

may
men,

be the

forfeit ?"
I

would feem

as if truth

were a facred

depofit,

which
as

had no right to deal out in fhreds to

temper or
it

my

juft

my

my

prudence fhould didate.

artifice,

would feem

as if

were an unworthy
materials to trick

by an ingenious

an-angement of

my
It

men

into a conclufion, to

which franknefs, ingenuity and

fincerity

would never have confhock

I

duced them.

would feem

as if the

am

fo careful to

avoid were favourable to the health and robuft conftitution of

mind

and

that,

though

might in

this

way

produce kaft tenv-

porary effed, the ultimate refult

would

afford a balance greatly

in favour of undifguifed fincerity.

Cuftomary
efFefts

A fecond
confifts in

preliminary proper to be Introduced

in- this

place

of

fin-

cerity:

a recolledion of the general effeds of fincerity and

infincerlty, the reafons for

which the one

is

commonly

laudable

and the other

to be

blamed, independently of the fubjeds about

Sincerity
it

which they may be employed.

Is

laudable,
fails

on account

of the firmnefs and energy of charader

never

to produce.

An

SINCERITY RESUMED.
"

275
ousrlit o

An

uprig-ht ir b

man,"
^

it

has fometimes been faid, " >

to

r.OOK

CHAP.

IV. [V.

carry his heart in his hand."

nefs

He
is

ought to have an ingenuouf-

which
his

flirinks

from no examination.
uniform.

The commerce

be-

tween

tongue and his heart

Whatever he fpeaks
truth.

you can depend upon

to be the truth

and the whole

artifice to
is

The

defigns he has formed he employs

tells

no

conceal.
I

He
mean

you

in the

firil

inftance

" This

the propofition
I
it

to demonftrate.

put you upon your guard.

If

will not take will bear

you by

furprife.

what

affirm be the truth,

your

fcrutiny.

If

it

were

error, I could

have recourfe to no means

more

equivocal, than that of concealing in every ftep of the procefs

the objed: in which

my

exertions were intended to terminate."

Infincerity

is

to be

blamed,

becaufe

it

has

an immediate
I

ofinfincerity
;

tendency to

vitiate the integrity

I

of charader.

"

muft conceal
in-

pon upon |^

^he opinions
quifitor."

entertain," fuppofe, "

fliall I

from the holy father

for this purpofe
all
?

^^^k2_PI5h>^

What method

employ

Shall I

i.thefufpen-

hide them as an impenetrable fecretfrom

the fyftem
I

the world

If this be provement:

adopt, the confequence

is

an

inftant

and immediate
efforts

end

to the

improvement of

my

mind.

It is

by the

of a

daring temper that improvements

and

difcoveries

are

made.

The

feeds

of difcovery are fcattered in every thinking mind,

foil

but they are too frequently flarved by the ungenial

upon which
lords,

they

fall.

Every man fufpeds the abfurdity of kings and

and the
iubfifts

injuflice of that glaring

and opprefTive inequality which

in

mofl

civilifed

countries.

But he dares not

let

his

mind

276

SUBJECTOF
IV.
^

BOOK
>^

jnlnd loofe In fo adventurous a fubjed.

I

If I

tell

my

thoughts,

Appendix, No. III.

^;

derive

from the
I

ad:

of communication encouragement to
are received

proceed.

perceive in

what manner they

by

others,

and

this

perception ads

by rebound upon
I

my own

progrefs.

If

they be received cordially,

derive

new encouragement from

the approbation of others.

If they be received with oppofition

I

and
cr^ I

diftruft, I

am

induced to revife them.

arguments, and add

deted their

errors,

ftrengthen
I

my

new

truths to thofe

which

had previoufly accumulated.

What

can excite
never to

me

to

the purfuit of difcovery, if I

nicate

know

that I

am

commu-

my

difcoveries

It is

in the nature of things impoffible, to utter

that the

man, who has determined with himfelf never

the truths he knows, fhould be an intrepid and indefatigable

thinker.

The

link

which binds together the inward and the

;

outward
2. mifan-

man

is

indiflbluble

and he, that

is

not bold in fpeech,

will never

be ardent and unprejudiced in enquiry.

Add

to this,

that confcious difguife has the worft eiFed

upon the temper, and

and ingenuous,

converts virtue,
into a folitary,

which ought

to be frank, fecial

morofe and mifanthropical

principle.

jjj5n

But
^-^j

let

us conceive that the

is

method
from

employ

to

proted myLet us

nuity

^^^^ perfecution

different

that above ftated.

fuppofe that I

communicate

my

fentiments,
it

but with caution

and

referve.

This fyftem involves with

an endlefs train of
I

falfhood,

duplicity
it is

and

tergiverfation.

When
feal

communicate
If

my

fentiments,

under the inviolable

of fecrecy.

my
zeal

SINCE RI TY
zeal carry
.

R ES
and

UMED.
love of trut'i be ardent,
>
'

277

me any
:

^reat leno-ths,
. .

my ^

BOOK
CHAP.
'
<-

iv. IV.
'

I fhall

wiih to communicate

it

as far as the

bounds of prudence

Al-PEMMX,
will pofTibly admit,
I

and

it

will be flrange if in a courfe of ye^rs

^">'

l-^^-

do net
is

com.Tait

one miflake in
is

my

calculation.

My
I

grand

fecret

betrayed, and fufpicion

excited in the breafl of the

father inquifitor.
ftoutly
fiftent

What
fad:.
I

fhall

do

now

muH:,

fuppofe,

deny the

mufl: coaipofe

my

features into a con-

expreflion of the
if I

mod

natural

ignoran-ce
arts

and

farprife,

happy

have made fuch progrefs in the

of hypocrify and

fal.Tiood, as to

put the change upon the wild bcafl

who
is

is

ready
this

to

devour me.

The

moft confummate impoftor

perfevSt virtue.

upon

hypothelis the

man of moft

But

this is
I

not

all.

My
to

character for benevolence being well

'

known,

am

likely

be

furrounded by perfons

of good

humoured
every

indifcretion rather than

by

inveterate

enemies.

Of
muft
or

man who
firft,

queftions

me

about

my

real fentiments I
t

determine

whether he fimply wifh

to betray

be informed,

whether his defign be

feems in
lution,
refults
its

me.

The charader

of virtue
-

own

nature to be that of firm and unalterable reioits

confident in

own

integrity.

But the character that and ends in

I

from

this fyftem begins in hefitation,

difgrace.

am

queftioned whether fuch be

my

real fentiments.

deny
I

it.

My
it

queftioner returns to the charge with an, " Oh, but

a one,
I

heard

from fuch

and he was prefent when you delivered

them."

What am

to

do

now

Am I

to afperfe the character

of

the

278

SUBJECT OF
the honefl reporter of
effort to get rid

my

words
;

Am
my

to

make an Impotent

of the charge

and, inftead of ellablifhing

my

charater for orthodoxy, aftonifh

intrepid effrontery
?

informer with

my cool and

upon

tlie

fpedators.

Infmcerity has the worft effect both upon r

'

him who prabifes, r

J

and upon them

who

behold

it.

It

deprives

virtue of that
to be ranked

eonfcious magnanimity and eafe,

which ought ever

among

its

nobleft

ffel:s.

It requires the

perpetual exercife of

prefence of mind, not for the purpofe of telling the moft ufeful
truths in the beft

manner, but in order to invent a confiftent

catalogue of

lies,

and

to utter
is

them with a countenance

at

war

with every thing that

pafling in

my
all

heart.

It

deftroys that
to be infe-

confidence on the part of

parable from virtue.

my

hearers,

which ought

They cannot

of them be expected to
total negledt

underftand the deep plan of benevolence and the

all felfiih

of

and timid confi derations by which

am fuppofmg my

condudt to be regulated.
tergiverfation.

But they can

all

fee

my

duplicity

and

They

all

know

that I excel the

I

moft confum-

mate impoftor

in the coolnefs
I

with which
it.

can utter fallhood,

and

the craft

with which

can fupport

Sincerity de.liueated.

Sincerity has fometimes been brought into difrepute

by the
ftill

abfurd fyftem according to which

oftener

it

has been purfued, and

by the whimfical pidure which the

have made of
it.

adverfaries of undif-

ti-nguifliing fincerity

It is

not neceffary that

fhould

S
fiiould flop

C E R
.

TY RE
I

UM
I

D.
inform him

279

every perfon that

It is

meet in the

ftreet to

BOOK
CHAP.
'^

IV. IV.
*

of

my

fentiments.

not neceflary that

illiterate
is,

fhould perpetually

talk

to the

vulgar and
is

of the deepeft and fublimeft

that
I

^^*

^^^'

truths.

All that
I

neceflary

lliould pradife

no con-

cealment, that
untainted.

fhould preferve

my
be

difpofition

and charader
I

Whoever
fecrets

queftions me,

it is

neceffajy that

fhould

have no

or referves,

but

always ready to return

I

a frank and

explicit anfwer.

When
it

undertake

by arguI

ment

to eftablilh

any

principle,

is

neceflary that
fl:ate

fliould
firft

employ no

circuitous
I

methods,

but clearly

in

the

inftance the objed

nal duty,
I

have in view.

Having

fatisfied this origi-

may
"

fairly call

upon

my

hearer for the exercife of

his patience.
w^ill

It is

true,"

may

fay, " that the opinion I deliver

I will

appear fhocking to your prejudices, but

now

deli-

berately and minutely afllgn the reafons If they appear fatisfadory, receive
it."
is
;

upon which

it is

founded.

if they

be Inconclufive, rejed

This

is

the ground

work of

fmcerity.

The

fuperftrudure
it

the propagation of every important truth, becaufe

conduces

to

the improvement of
;

man whether
know

individually or collec-

tively

and the

telling

all I

of myfelf and of

my

neigh-

bour, becaufe ftrid juftice and unequivocal publicity are the befl
fecurity for every virtue.

Sincerity then, in ordinary cafes at

l^leaft,

feems to be of fo
to confider

its general
'

much

importance,

that

it

is

my

duty

firft

how

^'

'""'*^'

to

preferva

iSo

SUBJECT OF
IV. IV.

BOOK
CHAP.
No.

preferve

ApPENDiy,
IIJ.

means

in

my fincerlty fmcerity ' > my power

Sincerity

afterwards to feled the befl untainted, and afterwa '

in each particular fituation, of benefiting
is

mankind.
^

one of thofe paramount and general

rules*

which

is ncA'^er

to give

way

to the affair

of the day.

may

imagine perhaps that falfhood and deceit

in

may

be moft beneficial

fome

particHgar inftances, as I
it

might imagine upon the fubjedt

to plant

of a preceding chapter, that

would be virtuous

my

dagger in the heart of a tyrant.

indulging

But we fhould be cautious of

our", imaginations in thefe inftances.

The

great

law of

always employing ingenuous and honourable means feems to be

of more importance than the exterminating any porary

refult
evils.

local

and temwill

well

know

in the^^^prefent cafe

what good

from a frank and undifguifed principle of aftion, and

evil

what

from

deceit, duplicity

and falfhood.

But

am much

lefs certain of the

good

that will arife

under particular circum-

ftances

from a negled of

thefe principles.

Application.

Having thus unfolded

fubjedt,

the true ground of reafonlng

upon

this

we

will return to the queftion refpedting the condudt to

be obferved by the reformer in Portugal.

Duty

re-

And
upon

here the true anfwer will perhaps be found to be that

delivered, that a perfon fo far enlightened

fpefting the

choice of a
refideoce.

which has been above

thefe
fubjedls,

ought by no confideration to be prevailed

;

upon

to fettle in Portugal

and,

if

he were there already, ought

to

SINCERITY RESUMED.
to quit the country with ^
all
.

281
Forin

convenient fpeed.
.

His

efForts In

BOOK
CHAP.
'^

iv IV.
i\ V.

tugal

would probahly be vain

will be

but there

is

fome other country

which they

attended with the happieft confequences.

Appendix, No. ill.

'

It

may

be objeded, " that fome perfon mull begin the work

of reformation in Portugal, and

vidual of

why

fliould

it

not be the indiis,

whom we
begin.

are treating ?"

But the anfwer

it

that, in

the fenfe fuppofed in this objection,

is

not neceffary that any

body fhould

Thefe great and daring truths ought to be

;

publifhed in England, France and other countries

and the

d'lC-

femination that will attend them here, will produce a report and
afford an example,

which

after

fome time may prepare them a

favourable reception there.

The

great chain of caufes

its rife,

from which every event In the uni-

verfe takes

has fufficiently provided for the gradual in-

ftrudion of mankind,

without

its

being neceffary that indivi-

duals fhould violate their principles and facrifice their integrity

to accomplifh
it.

Perhaps there never was a mind that fo far

outran the
in

refl

of the fpecies, but that there was fome country

that poffeffed
it

which the man

might

fafely tell all

he knew.

The

fame caufes that ripen the mind of the individual are ading

generally, ripening fimilar minds, and giving a certain depree

of fimilar imprefTion to whole ages and countries.

perhaps
at

There

exifl

this

very

moment

in Portugal,

or foon will exifl,

minds, which, though mere children in fcience compared with

their

282

SUBJECT OF SINCERITY RESUMED.

^^^^^'

CHAP ^
^

IV*
'

S^S^^^^'^

neighbours in a more favoured

foil,

are yet accuIf by

rately adapted to the

improvement of their countrymen.

any

No.

Ill,

fport of nature an exotic fhould fpring up, let

him be
-his

tranfplant-

ed to a climate that will prove more favourable to

utility.

vigour and

Add to

this, that,

when we

are inclined to fet an inordinate

it

value
that

upon our own importance,

are influenced
It is

may

be reafonable to fufpet
principle of timidity or

we

by fome lurking

vanity.
exifted,

by no means
life

certain that the individual ever yet

fo

whofe

was of
at

much

value to the community, as

to be

worth preferving

fo

great

an expence,

as

that

of

his fincerlty.

CHAP.

^^3

CHAP.

V.

OF FREE WILL AND NECESSITY.

IMPORTANCE OF THE QUESTION. DEFINITION OF NECESWHY SUPPOSED TO EXIST IN THE OPERATIONS SITY.

OF THE MATERIAL UNIVERSE.

RATIONS OF MIND
CESSITY

IS

PARALLEL.
IN

THE CASE OF THE OPE INDICATIONS OF NE

IN

HISTORY

OUR JUDGMENTS OF CHA-

RACTER IN OUR SCHEMES OF POLICY IN OUR IDEAS OF MORAL DISCIPLINE. OBJECTION FROM THE FALLIBILITY OF OUR EXPECTATIONS IIM HUMAN CONDUCT.
ANSWER.

ORIGIN

AND UNIVERSALITY

OF

THE SENTI-

MENT

OF FREE WILL.

THE

SENTIMENT OF NECESSITY

ALSO UNIVERSAL.

THE TRUTH OF THIS SENTIMENT

ARGUED FROM THE NATURE OF VOLITION.

SIS OF

HYPOTHE-

FREE WILL EXAMINED.

SELF-DETERMINATION.
A DISTINCT FACULTY.

INDIFFERENCE.

THE WILL NOT

FREE WILL DISADVANTAGEOUS TO ITS POSSESSOR.

OF NO SERVICE TO MORALITY,

AVING now
.

finlfhed the theoretical part of our enquiry,

gQOK

IV

fo far as appeared to be necefTary to afford a foundation ^^"'^^'^^y

for our reafoning refpeding the different provifions of political

Oo2

inftitution,

284

'

OFFREEWILL
we mieht ^
It

BOOK
CHAP.
*^

IV.

V.
'

inftitution, '

thofe provifions.

proceed to the confideration of ^ will not however be ufelefs to paufe in

dire(lly
-^

this place, in order to confider thofe general principles of the hu-

man
of

mind, which are moft intimately conneded with the topics

political reafoning *,

None of

thefe principles feems to be

all

of greater importance

than that which affirms that

adtions are neceffary.

Importance
tion.^*^"^'

Moft of the rcafonings upon which we have

employed, though perhaps conftantly
as a poftulate, wilf yet
built

hitherto been
this

upon

dodrine
in-

by

their intrinfic evidence,

however

confiftently with his opinion

upon

this

primary
it

topic, be admit-

ted

by

the advocate of free will.

But

ought not to be the

prefent defign of political enquirers to treat the queftions that

may

prefent themfelves fuperficially.

this dotrine

It

will

be found

upon

maturer reflection that

it

of moral neceffity includes in

confequences of the highell moment, and leads to a bold and

comprehenfive view of
entertained

man

in fociety,

which cannot

poffibly

be

by him who has embraced the

oppofite

opinion.

Severe method would have required that this propofition fhould

have been eftablilhed in the

*

firft

inflance,

as

an indifpenfible

The

reader,

who

is

indifpofed to abflrufe fpeculations, will find the other

fufficiently

niembers of the enquiry

connefled, without an exprefs reference to

the remaining part of the prefent book.

foundation

AND NE
difpofed perfons,
it is

C E S S

Y.

285
iv.
*

foundation of moral reafoning of every

fort.

But there are well BOOK

*^

who

notwithftanding the evidence with which

its

attended, have been alarmed at

confequences

and

it

was

perhaps proper, in compliance with their miftake, to fliew that

the moral reafonings of this
fupport, in

work

did not ftand in need of this

any other

fenfe than

moral reafonings do upon every

ether fubjed;.

To

the right underftanding of

this head,
it is

any arguments

that

may

be

Definition of
neceffity.

adduced under
idea of the
all

requifite that
neceffity. that,

we

fhould have a clear

affirms that

meaning of the term

He who
we form

actions are neceffary,

all

means,

if

a juft and

complete view of
telligent

the circumftances in which a living or in-

being

is

placed,

we

fhall find that

he could not

in

any

moment

of his exiftence have adled otherwife than he has ated.

this affertion there
is

According to

in the tranfadlions of

mind

nothing loofe, precarious and uncertain.

Upon

this queftion
ifllie.

the advocate of liberty in the philofcphical fenfe muft join

He

muft,

if

he mean any thing, deny

this certainty

of conjuncall
is

tion between moral antecedents and confequents.

Where

conftant and

invariable,

and the events that arife uniformly flow

in

from the circumftances

liberty.

which they

originate, there can be

no

It is

acknowledged that In the events of the material unlverfe why

every

fup-

pofc'd to exift

2S6

OF PREE WILL
thing
'

XOOKiy.
'

is

fiibjeded to this neceflity.

y

The tendency of

inveftiga-

tion

in the opera-

and enquiry ^

relatively to this topic of

human knowledge

tionsofthe
material uuiverfe.

has been, more efFedually to exclude chance, as our improve-

ments extended.

Let us confider what

is

the fpecies of evidence

that has fatisfied philofophers

upon

this point.

Their only

folid

"round of reafoning has been from experience.

The argument
as

which has induced mankind

verned by
certain laws,

to conceive of the univerfe

go-

and

to entertain the idea of neceffary

connexion between

fucceffive events, has

If,

been an obferved fimi-

larity in the order of fucceflion.

when we had once remark-

ed two events fucceeding each other,

we had
;

never had occafion

to fee that individual fuccefTion repeated

if

we faw innumerable
order, fo

events in perpetual progreffion without

that
all

any apparent

our obfervation would not enable us,

when we
clafs

beheld

one, to pronounce that another of fuch a particular

might

be expeded to follow

we

fhould never have conceived of the

or have had an idea corre-

exiftence of necefiary connexion,

fponding to the term caufe.

Hence

it

follows

that
is

all

that

ftridly fpeaking

we know
Uniform

of the material univerfe

this

fucceflion of events.

fucceflion irrefiftibly forces

upon the mind the

fun confl:antly

idea of abflrad:
the

connexion.

When we

fee the

rife in

morning
pheno-

and

fet at night,

and have had occafion

to obferve this

menon invariably taking place through the whole period of our

exiftence,

AND NECESSITY.
exigence,

2S7
is

we

cannot avoid believinp; that there '^

feme caufe ^ pre- EOOK I v. CHAP.V.

'^

ducing this uniformity of event.

But the principle or virtue by

'

which one event

is

conjoined to another

we

never

fee.

Let us take fome familiar

imagined that any

ilhiftrations

of this truth.

Can

it

be

man by

the infpedtion and analyfis of gun-

powder would have been

predidl
its

enabled, previoufly to experience, to

explofion

Would

he previoufly to experience have

a flat

been enabled

to predit, that

one piece of marble having

and

polifhed furface might with facility be protruded along another

In a horizontal,

but would with confiderable pertinacity

?

refift

reparation in a perpendicular direction

The

fimpleft

pheno-

mena of the mofl hourly

equal diftance from

occurrence were originally placed at an

fagacity.

human

There
arifing
Is

is

a certain degree of obfcurity incident to this fubjeft

from the following circumflance.

All

human knowledge

the refult of perception.

If
it

We

know

nothing of any fubfl:ance

efets, it

but by experience.
fubjedl of

produced no

would be no

human

intelligence.

We

collect a confiderable

num-

ber of thefe efFeds, and,

by

their perceived uniformity

having

reduced them into general

clafl^es,

form
It

a general idea

annexed

to the fubjedl that produces them.

definition of
^alled
its

muft be admitted, that a

that deferves to be

any

fubfl:ance, that
it,

is,

any thing

knowledge refpeding

will enable us to predidl

fome of
-

future poflible effei^s, and that for this plain reafon, that definitlon

2S8
nition
is

O
we have

REE

L L
But, though,

prcdlclion under another name.

when

gained the idea of impenetrability as a general phenomatter,

v.^e

menon of
others

we

can predit fome of

:

its

effects,

there are

which
its

cannot predift
but fuch as

or in other words,

we know

none of
to

effels

we have

adually remarked, added

arife

an expeiflation that fimilar events will

under fimilar

cir-

cumftances, proportioned to the conftancy with which they have

been obferved

to take place in

our

pafl:

experience.

Finding as

we do by
when
ftill

repeated experiments, that material fubftances have the

reft,

property of refulance, and that one fubftance in a Hate of

impelled by another, paffes into a
ftate

of motion,

we

are

in

want of more

particular obfervation to enable us to pre-

didl the fpecific efFefts that will follow

from

this

impulfe in each

of the bodies.
matter than
its

Enquire of a

man who knows

nothing more of

general property of impenetrability,

what

will be

the refult of one ball of matter impinging

upon another, and

you

will foon find

how

little

this general property can inform

him of
that
it

the particular laws of motion.

will

We
?

fuppofe

him to know
But what

commimicate motion
it

to the fecoad ball.

quantity of motion will

communicate

What
?

effeds will the

it

impulfe produce upon the impelling ball

Will

continue to

move
tion
reft
? ?

in the fame diredlion

will
it

will

it

recoil in the oppofite direcit

fly off obliquely, or will

fubfide into a ftate of

All thefe events will appear equally probable to

him

whom

a feries of obfervations

upon the

paft has not inftrudted as to

what he

is

to

exped from

the future.

From

AND NECESSITY.
From
thefe remarks

2S9
what
is

we may ^

fufficiently collet '

the

BOOK
CHAP.
*

iv.

V.
'

ipecies of knowledge

we

poflefs refpeling the laws

of the material

univerfe.

No experiments we

are able to

make, no reafonings

we

are able to deduce, can ever inftrudl us in the principle of caufatlon, or

fhew us for what reafon

it

it

is

that

one event has, in

to occur, been the

every inftance in which

has been

known

precurfor of another event of a certain given defcription.

Yet

we

reafonably believe that thefe events are

neceffity,

bound together by a

perfedl

and exclude from our ideas of matter and

AfTo-

motion

the fuppofition of chance or an uncaufed event.

ciation of ideas obliges us, after

having feen two events perpetu-

ally conjoined, to pafs, as foon as

one of them occurs, to the

re-

colledion of the other

and, in cafes where this tranfition never

is

deceives us, but the ideal fucceffion

always found to be an

cxad copy of

the future event,

it is

impoffible that this fpecies

of forefight Ihould not convert into a general foundation of reafoning.

We

cannot take a fmgle ftep upon

this fubjed,

which
ab-

does not partake of the fpecies of operation

ftradion.
Till

we denominate

we have been
as

led to confider the rifmg of the

as
its

fun to-morrow
day,

an incident of the fame fpecies

it

rifrng toIt is

we

cannot deduce from

fimilar confequences.

the
its

bufmefs of fcience to carry

fartheft extent,

this

tafk

of generalifatlon to

and to reduce the

diverfified events

of the uni-

verfe to a fmall

number of

original principles.

Let us proceed to apply thefe reafonings concerning matter to Thecal of

PP

the opera

the

2go
^

OF FREE

WILL
Is it poffible in this latter

BOOK
';

IV.

tiie illuftratlon
'

of the theory of mind.

<

theory, as in the former fubjeft, to difcover

pj^g
?

any general
?

prlnciable to

S6 parallel.

Q^j^ intelled: be

made a

topic of fcience
to

Are we

reduce the multiplied

ard of reafoning ceded,
?

phenomena of mind

any

certain ftand-

If the affirmative of thefe queftions be con-

the inevitable confequence appears to be, that mind, as

well as matter, exhibits a conftant conjundlion of events, and

affords a reafonable

prefumption to the neceffary connexion of

of no importance that
or imagine

thofe events.

It is

we

cannot fee the

ground of that connexion,

reafoning,
are able

how

propofitions

and

when

prefented to the

mind of

a percipient being,

by
;

neceffary confequence to generate volition and animal

motion
are

for, if there

be any truth in the above reafonings,

we

equally incapable of perceiving the ground of conaexioa

between any two events in the material univerfe, the common,

and received opinion

nexion being

that

we do

perceive fuch ground of con-

in reality

nothing more than a vulgar prejudice..

indicatlonsof
aeceflity

That mind

is

a topic of fcience

may

be argued from

all

thofe

branches of literature and enquiry which have mind for their

i'b

luftory

fubjet.

What

fpecies

of amufement or inftrution would

hif-

tory afford us, if there

were no ground of inference from moral

caufes to effeds, if certain temptations

and inducements did not

in

all

ages and climates produce a certain feries of adtions, if

trace

we

were unable to

connexion and a principle of unity in men's

?

tempers, propenfities and traufa^^ions

The amufement would

be

ANDNECESSITY.
be inferior to that which
1
. ,

291

nological table,

1,

from the perufal of a chro- BOOK iv. CHAP. V, where events have no order but that of time ^r^

we

derive

fmce, however the chronologift

nal connexion

may

negledt to

mark

the interthe

between

fucceffive tranfadions, the

mind of

reader

is

bufied in fupplying that connexion

:

from memory or

imagination

but the very idea of fuch connexion would never

itfelf,

have fuggefted

if

we had

never found the fource of that

Idea in experience.
hiftory
its

The

inftrudlon arifing from the perufal of

;

would be abfolutely none

fmce inftrudtion implies in

But,

very nature the claffing and generalifing of objeds.

the fuppofition

upon

on which we

are arguing,

all

objedls

would

be unconneded and disjund, without the

poffibility

of afford-

ing any grounds of reafoning or principles of fcience.

The
1 ,
.

idea correfpondent to the term charader inevitably in- Inourjudg-

eludes

it

the allumption ot neceliary connexion.

rr

<r-

r^,

The

ments of cha.
rafter:

cha-

rader of any

man

is

the refult of a long feries of impreflions

communicated

to his

mind, and modifying

it

in a certain

manand
arife

ner, fo as to enable us,

from a number of

thefe modifications

impreffions being given, to predid his condud.

his temper and habits, refpeding

Hence

which we reafonably conclude,

and reverfed
;

that they will not be abruptly fuperfeded

if

and

that,

they ever be reverfed,

it

will not be accidentally, but in con-

fequence of fome ftrong reafon perfuading, or fome extraordinary

event modifying his mind.
effential

If there were not this original and

connexion between motives and adions, and, which

Pp

forms

2^2

OF FREE WILL
particular branch ^

BOOK IV. forms one

CHAP.V.
V
*

of this principle, between

menu's.

'

paft

and future adions, there could be no fuch thing

as charader,,

or as a ground of inference enabling us to predid what men.

would be from what they have

been..

inouifcliemes ef policy
:

From

the

fame idea of neceflary connexion

arife

all

the

fchemes of policy, in confequence of which

themfelves
to

men

propole to

by

a certain plan of
tools

condud

to prevail

upon others
All the

become the

and inftruments of their purpofes.

flattery,

arts

of courtfhip and
proceed upon

of playing upon men's hopes and

fears,

the fuppofition that

mind

is

fubjed to

cer--

tain laws,

and

that,

provided

we

be

fkilful

and affiduous enough

in applying the caufe, the effed will inevitably follow,.

in or Ideas

Laftly, the idea of moral difcipline proceeds entirely

principle.

upon

thts:

of moral
cipline.

dif-

If I carefully perfuade, exhort,

it

and exhibit motives,

to another,

is

becaufe

I believe that

motives have a tendency

to influence his

condud.

If

reward or punifh him, either with

or as an example to others,
it

a view to his
is

own improvement

becaufe

have been led

to believe that

rewards and punifh--

ments

are calculated in their

own

nature to afFed the fentiments.

and pradices of mankind.

Objeftion

There

is

but one conceivable objedion

_

againfl:

the inference
t It

from the

falli-

biiityofour
cxpeftatlons
{n

from

thcfc premifes to the necefl[ity of

is

rr

human

adions.

may

human

bc allcdgcd, that " though there

a real connexion between

conduft^

motives

AND NECESSITY.
motives and adions, yet that
to a certainty,
this

293

connexion

may ^

not amount
retains

BOOK
*

IV.
-*

CHAP.V.

and that of confequence the mind

ftill

an

inherent adivity

by which

it

can

at
I

pleafure diflblve this con-

nexion.
fuafion to
cies

Thus

for example,

when

addrefs argument and perto

my

neighbour to induce him

I

adopt a certain fpc-

of condutSl,

do

it

not with a certain expedlation of fuccefs,

if all

and

am
I

not utterly difappointed

my

efforts fail

of their
is

efFet.

make

a referve for a certain faculty of liberty he

fuppofed to
projedls."

poflefs,

which may

at laft

counteradt the befl digefted

But
mind.

in this objedlon there

It is

Is

nothing peculiar to the cafe of Anfwer^

a part only of the premifes,

juft fo in matter.

I fee

and therefore can pronounce only with uncertainty upon the conclufion.

philofophical experiment,

which has fucceeded a

trial.

hundred

times,

may

altogether

fail

upon the next

this
?

But

what does the phllofopher conclude from

is

Not

that there

a liberty of choice in his retort and his materials,

baffle

by which

they

the befl formed expectations.

effedls

Not

that the con-

nexion between

and caufes

is

imperfed, and that part of

the effed happens from no caufe at all

But

that there

was

fome other caufe concerned whofe operation he did not perceive,

but which a frefh invefligation will probably lay open to him.

When
chance

the fcience of the material univerfe

fufficiently

was

in

its

infancy,

men were
j

prompt

to refer

events to accident and

but the farther they have extended their enquiries and

obfervation.

294

OF FREE WILL
[V.

BOOK
CHAP.
*

V.
'

obfervation, the '

more reafon they have found ^

to conclude that

--.^

every thing takes place according to

laws.

neceffary

and univerfal

The
litician

cafe

is

exactly parallel with refped to mind.

The

po-

and the philofopher, however they may

fpeculatively enit

tertain the opinion of free will, never think of introducing

into their fcheme of accounting for events.

If an incident turn
it

out otherwife than they expected, they take

there

for granted, that

was fome unobferved

bias,

fome habit of thinking, fome

affociation of ideas, that

prejudice of education,

fome fmgular
;

difappointed their predidion

and, if they be of an adive and

enterprifmg temper, they return, like the natural philofopher, to

fearch out the fecret fpring of this unlocked for event.

tDrigin and
univerfality

The
of

refledions Into

which we have entered upon the dodrine

a fimple and impreffive argument

of the fentinient of free

v.-iU.

caufes, not only afford us

in fa.vour of the dodrine of neceflity, but fuggeft a very obvious

reafon

why

the dodrine oppofite to this has been in a certain

It

degree the general opinion of mankind.

has appeared that

is

the idea of neceffary connexion between events of any fort

the kffon of experience, and the vulgar never arrive at the univerfal application of this principle even to the

phenomena of

the material vmiverfe.

In the

eafieft
ball

and moft familiar inftances,

fuch as the impinging of one

of matter upon another and

ks confequences, they willingly admit the interference of chance,

or

ANDNECESSITY.
or an event uncaufed.

295

In this inftance however, as both the hn- ^'^^^ ^^'

I'enfes,

puhe and

its

effeds are fubjels of obfervatiou to the

they

'

readily imagine that they perceive the abfolute principle

which

caufes motion

to be

communicated from the

firft

ball to the fe-

cond.

Now

the very fame prejudice and precipitate conclufion,

to believe that they difcover the principle

which induce them

of motion in objedts of fenfe, al in an oppofite

diredion

with refpet to fuch objedls as cannot be fubjeded to the examination of

fenfe.

The manner in which an

idea or propofition

fuggelled to the

mind of a
;

percipient being produces animal

mo-

tion they never fee

and therefore readily conclude

thefe events.

that there is

no neceffary connexion between

But,
cates

if

the vulgar will unlverfally be found to be the advo- The

will,

fentf-

of free

they are not

lefs

ftrongly,

however

inconfiftIt

ceffityaifo
univerfali

ently, impreffed
is

with the belief of the dodrine of

a juft obfervation, that, were

neceflity.
it

a well

known and

not for the

exiftence of general laws to

which the events of the material

could never have been either a

univerfe always conform,

man

reafoning or a moral being.

The moil
It is

confiderable adlions of

our

lives are directed

by

forefight.

becaufe he forefees the

regular fucceflion of the feafons, that the farmer fows his field,

and

after the expiration

of a certain term experts a crop. There

in

would be no kindnefs
and no
injuftice

my

adminiftering food to the hungry,,

in

my

thrufting a

drawn fword

agalnft the

bofom.

296

OF FREE WILL
^'-'^'^^'^

chTp ^v"
*

^ "^7 friend,

if

it

were not the

to

eftablifhed quality of food

'

to nourifh,

and of a fword

wound.

But the regularity of events

of
itfelf afford

in the material univerfe will not

a fufficient foundation of morality and prudence.

The

voluntary condudl of our neighbours enters for a fhare into

almofl: all thofe calculations

upon which our own

plans and de-

terminations are founded.

terial

If voluntary condud:, as well as

ma-

Impulfe, were not fubjedled to general laws, included in

the fyftem of caufe and efFed:, and" a legitimate topic of prediction

verfe

and

forefight, the certainty of events in the material uni-

would be
pafles

produ3:ive of

little

benefit.

But

in reality the

mind

from one of

thefe topics of fpeculation to the other,

clafles,

without accurately dillributing them into

that there
is

or imagining
are

any

difference in the certainty with

it

which they

attended.

Hence
is

appears that the moft uninllrudied peafant

or artifan
fecurely
it is

practically a neceffarian.

The
to

farmer calculates

as

upon the

inclination of
as

mankind

buy

his

corn

when

brought into the market,

it.

upon

the tendency of the feafons

that his

to ripen

The

labourer no

more fufpeds

employer

will alter his

mind and not pay him

his daily

wages, than he

fufpeQs that his tools will refufe to perform thofe functions today, in which they were yefterday employed with fuccefs *.
*
five

The
form

reader will find the fubllance of the above arguments In a

in

more

diffu-

Hume's Enquiry concerning Human Underftanding, being

the

ihivd part of his Effays.

Another

A"N D

E C E

S S

Y.
neceffity, not

297
^^^^^^^'

Another argument in favour of the doctrine of

kfs clear and
irrefiftible

than that from the confideration of caufe

confiftent explication that can be ^

>

1 he truth or

'-

'

and efFed,

'

will arife

from any J

''"^
f'-"''" ment argued
,

eiven of the nature of voluntary motion. J o

The

motions of the
clafles,
it

f''"'" *'"^

"?

ture 01 voh'^'"'

animal fyftem diftribute them-felves into two great

luntary and involuntary.

vobe

Involuntary m.otion, whether

conceived to take place independently of the mind, or to be the

refult

of thought and perception,

is

fo called, becaufe the coi"u

fequences of that motion, either in whole or in part, did not

enter into the

view of the mind when the motion commenced.

lefs

Thus

the cries of a new-born infant are not

;

involuntary

than the circulation of the blood

founds
firfl;

It

being impoflible that the of the animal

refulting

from

certain agitation
is

frame fhould be forefeen, fmce forefight

rience.
^

the fruit of expe-

From
fiftent

thefe obfervations

we may deduce

a rational and con-

account of the nature of volition.

is

Voluntary motion

is

that

which

accompanied with
Volition
is

forefight,

and flows from intenan

intellectual being,

tion

and defign.

that .flate of a

in which, the

mind being

affefted in

certain

manner by

the

apprehenfion of an end to be accomplllhed, a certain motion of

the organs and

members of

the animal frame

is

found

to be pro-

duced.

Here then

the advocates of intellcdual liberty have a clear

Q^q

dilemma

298

O
IV.

FR E E

L L
afcribe this free^

BOOK
CHAP.
^

dilemma propofed
^^

V.
*
'

to their choice.
_

They mull ^
effects

dom,

this imperfed;

connexion of

and

caufes, either to

our

voluntary or our involuntary motions.

their determination.

They have

already

made

They

are aware that to afcribe freedom ta

if

that

which

is

involuntary, even

the affumption. could be main-

tained,
ral,

would

be altogether foreign to the great fubjefts of

moany

theological or political enq^uiry.

Man

would not be

in
it

degree more of an agent or an accountable being, though

could

be proved that
tuitous

all his

involuntary motions fprung up in a for-

and capricious manner^

But on the other hand

aftions
is

to afcribe

freedom to our voluntary

an

exprefs contradition in terms.

it

No

motion

is

vo-

luntary any farther than

defign,

is

accompanied with intention and

to be ac-

and flows from the apprehenfion of an end

complifhed.
fo far
it is

So

far as

it

flows in any degree from another fource,.

involuntary.
his

The new-born

infant forefees nothing,

therefore

all

motions are involuntary.

perfon arrived at

maturity takes an extenfive furvey of the confequences of his actions, therefore

he

is

eminently a voluntary and rational being.

all

If

any part of

my

condudt be deftitute of
is

forefight
it

of the ef-

feds to
vice
?

refult,

who

there that afcribes to

depravity and

Xerxes aded

juft as foberly as fuch a reafoner,

when he

caufed his attendants to inflidl a thoufand laflies

the Hellefpont,

on the waves of

The

AND NECESSITY.
The
dent,

299
ftill

truth of the dodlrlne of neceffity will be ^

more

evl-

T^OOK

iv.

CHAP.V.
.V
'f-r-^

if

we
its

confider the abfurdity of the oppofite hypothefis,

is

One

of

principal ingredients ' ' '^

felf detei-mination.
is

Liberty J

of^'^wll
examined.
^^\ii

in an imperfedt and popniar fenfe

afcribed to the motions of

determi-

the animal fyflem,

when

they refult from the forefight and de-

liberation of the intelle(5b,

is in this fenfe that
litical

and not from external compulfion.

is

It

the

word

commonly

ufed in moral and po-

reafoning.

Philofophical reafoners therefore,

who

have

defired to vindicate the property of freedom, not only to our

external motions, but to the ats of the mind, have been obliged
to repeat this procefs.
free,

Our

external actions are then faid to be

when

they truly refult from the determination of the mind.

If our volitions, or internal adts be alfo free, they muft in like

manner

refult

from the determination of the mind, or

felf

In other

words, " the mind in adopting them" muft be "

determined."

Now
mind

nothing can be more evident than that that in which the

exercifes
its

freedom, muft be an adl of the mind.

Liberty

therefore according to this hypothefis confifts in this, that every

choice

we make

has been chofen

by

us,

and every

zt

of the

mind been

preceded and produced by an at of the mind.

ultimate adt
is

This

Is fo true, thai in reality the

not ftyled free from

in adopting
It

any quality of
felf

its

own, but becaufe the mind

Is,

was
ad:.

determined, that

becaufe

It

was preceded by another

The
that

ultimate adt refulted completely

from the determination

;

was

its

precurfor.
it

It

was

itfelf

necefliuy

and, If

we would
In that

look for freedom,

muft be

in the preceding ad. 2

But

Q^q

preceding

300

O
preceding
'

F
the

FR E E
mind were

L L
it

^^\Vy/
^

a<3: alfo, if

free,

was

felf

determihed\

that

is,

this volition

was chofen by

a preceding volition,

and by
All

the fame, reafoning this alfo

the
a<fls

by

another. antecedent to

itfelf.

except the

{irft

were necefiary, and followed each other

of a chain do,

as inevitably as the links

when

the

firft link- is

drawn forward.
the
at

But then neither was

it

this firft al free, unlefs

is,

mind

in adopting

were

felf

determined, that

unlefs this
.as

were chofen by

a preceding at.
at

Trace back the chain

arrive
is

far as

you

pleafe,

every aO.

which you

necelTary,

That ad, which gives the charadter of freedom

never be dlfcovered
a cojatradidion.
-

to the whole, can

and, if

it

could, in

its

own

nature includes

Indifference.

Another Idea which belongs to the hypothefis of

mination,
is,

felf detsr-

that the

mind

is

not necelfarily inclined this

it,

way

or that by the motives which are prefented to

nefs or obfcurity with

by the

clear-

which they

are apprehended, or

by the

tamper and character which preceding- habits

rated
;

may

have gene-

but that by

its

inherent adivity

it

is

equally capable of

proceeding either way, and pafles to

previous ftate of abfolute indifference.
is

its

determination from a
fort

Now what

of adivlty
?

that

which

is

equally inclined to

all

kinds of adions

Let us

fuppofe a particle
to motion.

of matter endovvcd with an inherent propenfity

This propenfity muft either be to move in one par-

ticular diredion,

and then

it

muft for ever move in that direcj

tion unlefs counteraded

by fome external impreffion

or

it

muft
have

AND NECESSITY.
Irave

301

idencyto an equal tendency to ^ ^

ftate

all a

diredions, and then the refult muft

BOO"

iv.

CHAP. V.

be a

of perpetual

reft.

The
"^TOcates

abfiirdlty

of

this

confequence

Is

fo evident, that the ad-^

its

of intelledual liberty have endeavoured to deftroy

diftindion,

force
*'

by means of a

" Motive,"

it

has been faid,

it

is

indeed the occafion, xht fihe qua non of volition, but

to

has

no inherent power

compel

volition.-

Its

influence depends'
the mind.

upon

the free and unconftrained furrender

flf

Be-

tween oppofite motives and confiderations the mind can chcofe

as
it

pleafes,
Is

and by

its

determination can convert the motive

which
But

weak and

infufficlent In the

comparlfon Into theftrongeft."

this

hypothefis will be found exceedingly inadequate to the

It is

purpofe for which

produced.

Motives muft either have a

neceflary and irrefxftible influence, or they can have

at alh-

no

influence^

For,

firft,

it

muft be remembered, that the ground or reafon

It

'

of any event, of whatever nature

be,

muft be contained

among
is

the circumftances

which precede

that event.

The mind

fuppofed to be in a

ftate

of previous indifference, and there-^

fore cannot be, in Itfelf confidered, the fcurce of the particular-

choice that
tive

is

made.

There

is

a motive

on one

fide

and a m_o^

on the other:

and between thefe

lie

the true ground andis

reafon of preference.
ference, there

But, wherever there

tendency to preIf the degrees beequal,

may

be degrees of tendency.

503

OF FREE WILL
v^'
'

pHAP
*

^^'^^^

preference cannot follow

it Is

equivalent to the putting

If

equal weights Into the oppofite fcales of a balance.

one of

them have

a greater tendency to preference than the other, that

which has the greateft tendency muft ultimately prevail.

When

two

things are balanced againil each other, fo

much amount

may

be conceived to be llruck off

from each

fide as exlfls in the

is

fmaller fum, and the overplus that belongs to the greater

that truly enters into the confideration.

all

Add to
fluence,

this,
Is

fecondly, that, if motive have not a neceflary Inaltogether fuperfluous.

it

The mind

cannot

firft

choofe to he influenced by a motive, and afterwards fubmit to

its

operation

for

In

that cafe the preference

would belong

wholly
reality

to this previous volition.

The
;

determination would in

be complete In the

firft

inftance

and the motive, which

came

in afterwards,

might be the pretext, but could not be the

true fource of the proceeding*.

Tlw win
xuky?

not
^"

Lafl;ly, it

may

be obferved upon the hypothecs of free will,

Is

that the

whole fyftem

built

upon a diftlndion where

there

is

no

difference, to wit, a diftlndion

between the Intelledual and

myilerious phllofophy taught

adtive

powers of the mind.

that,

men

to fuppofe, to be

when

the underftanding had perceived

there

any cbjed

defirable,

was need of fome

is

dIftIn<Sl

* The argument from the

-of reafoning in

impofllbility of free will

treated with great force

Jonathan Edwards's Enquiry into the Freedom of the Will.

power

AND NECESSITY.
power
to put the

303
finds

body
;

in motion.
is it

But reafon

no ground BOOK
*

IV.
'

for this fuppofition

cafe

nor

poffible to conceive, that, in the

of an

intelle<3:ual faculty

placed in an aptly organifed body,

preference can exift, together with a confcioufnefs, gained from

experience, of our

power

to obtain the objedt preferred,

without

a certain motion of the animal frame being the neceflary refult.

We

need only attend to the obvious meaning of the terms in

is

order to perceive that the will

merely, as

it

has been happily

termed, the
cafes

laft a(t

of the underftanding, one of the different

of the aflbciation of ideas.

What

indeed

is

preference,^
is

but a perception of fomething that really inheres or

to inhere in the objet!s themfelves
?

fuppofed

It is

the judgment, true or

erroneous, which the

mind makes

refpedting fuch things as are

If this

brought into comparifon with each other.

fufficiently attended to,

had been

the freedom of the will

would never
fmce no an

have been gravely maintained by philofophical

writers,

man

ever imagined that

we were

free to feci or not to feel

impreflion

made upon our

organs,

and

to believe or not ta

believe a propofition dem.onftrated to our underftanding..

It

muft be unnecelfary to add any thing fartha- on

it

this head,

^'"

^^'1'

dif-

atlvantageous

unlefs

be a

momentary
will

recolleilion of the fort of benefit that

us,

' "^ poAeffor ;

freedom of the
poffible.

would confer upon

as

fuppofing

it

to be
be,

Man

being,

we have now found him

by the apprehenfions of

to
his

fimple fubftance, governed

ftanding, nothing farther
is

under-

requifue but the improvement of hi&

reafoning

5C4

OF FRE^E WILL AND NECESSITY.

reafoning faculty, to

make him

virtuous and happy.

But, did

he

poflefs a faculty

independent of the underftanding, and capa-

ble of refifting

from mere caprice the moft powerful arguments,

the beft education and the moft fedulous inftrudlion -might be of

no

ufe to him.

This freedom
;

we

fhall eafily perceive to

be his

bane and
fpecies

his curfe

and the only hope of

clofer the

lafting benefit to the

would

be,

by drawing

connexion between the

it.

external motions and the underftanding, wholly to .extirpate

The

virtuous

man,

in proportion to his

improvement, will be

under the conftant influence of fixed and invariable principles

and fuch a being

as

we

conceive

God

to be, can never in

any

one mftance have exercifed

ofnofervlce

this liberty,

that

is,

can

never

have aded
will
is

in a foolifh and tyrannical manner.

Freedom of the

abfurdly reprefented as neceffary to render the

mind
al

fuf-

ceptible of

moral principles

but in reality, fo far as

we

with
Is

liberty, fo far as

we

are independent of motives, our conduift

as
it

as

independent of morality

is

of reafon, nor

is_ it

poffible

that

we

fhould deferve either praife or blame for a proceeding

-thus capricious

and

indifciplinable.

CHAP.

305

HA

P.

Vi;

INFERENCES FROM THE DOCTRINE OF

NECESSITY.
IDEA IT SUGGESTS TO US OF THE UNIVERSE.

ON OUR MORAL IDEAS ACTION VIRTUE EXHORTATION ARDOUR ^PERSUASION

INFLUENCE EXERTION COMPLA-

CENCE

AND AVERSION PUNISHMENT REPENTANCE PRAISE AND BLAME INTELLECTUAL TRANQUILLITY.

OF NECESSITY

LANGUAGE

RECOMMENDED.

CONSIDERING
that are to be

then the dodrlne of moral

neceflity as

BOOK
*

IV.
'

CHAP. VI.
proceed to the confequences
^.
it

fufficiently eftablifhed, let us

Idea

fug-

deduced from

it.

This view of things prefents us

all its

g*=^^ *? "^ ^ the univerfe.

with an idea of the univerfe as connected and cemented in

parts,

nothing in the boundlefs progrefs of things being capable

it

of happening otherwife than

life

has adlually happened.

is

In the

of every

human

being there

a chain of caufes,

generated

in that eternity v^hich preceded his birth,

lar proceffion

and going on in regu-

through the whole period of his exiftence, in conit

fequence

of which

was impoflible

for

him

to

ad

in

any

inftance otherwife than he has aded.

The

3o6

INFERENCES FROM THE

The
contrary of this having been the conception of the mafs
all

of mankind in

ages,

and the ideas of contingency and acciobtruded

themfelves,
the
eftablifhed

dent having perpetually

language of morality has been univerfally tinctured with this

error.
It will therefore

be of no
is

trivial

importance to enquire

how much
and

of this language
of v/hat
is
is

founded in the truth of things,

how much

exprefled

by

it is

purely imaginary

,>^

Accuracy of language

the indifpenfible prerequifite of found

knowledge, and without attention to that fubjedt

afcertain

we

can never

the

extent

and importance of the confequences of

necefEty*

i&.hn

Firft

then

it

appears, that, in the emphatical

and

refined fenfe
is

in

which the word has fometimes been

ufed, there

no fuch

thing as adtion.

Man

is

in

no

cafe ftridly fpeaking the begin-

ner of any event or

feries

of events that takes place in the uni-

verfe, but only the vehicle

through which certain caufes operate,

exift,

which

caufes, if

he were fuppofed not to

in
its

would

ceafe to
fenfe,

operate.
is

Adion however,

more fimple and obvious

in
is

fufEciently real,

and exifts equally both

a billiard

mind and
ftruck

in matter*

When
playing,

ball

upon

board

by a perfon
ball,

and afterwards impinges upoa a fecond

in

the ball
it

which was firft

motion

is faid

to al

upon the fecond, though

it

operate in the ftridleft conformity to the impreffion

received,

and
cir-

^he motion

it

communicates be precifely determined by the

cafe.

cumftances of the

Exadly

fimilar to this,

upon the principles

DOCTRINE OF NECESSITY.
ciples already explained, > r ^
/

307
CHAP.
*

are the alions of the

human mind. BOOK

IV. VI.
'

Mind

is

a real caufe, an indifpenfible link in the great chain of

j

the univerfe

but not, as has fometimes been fuppofed, a caufe

defcription, as to fuperfede
all neceffities,

of that

paramount

and

be

itfelf fubjedl

to

no laws and methods of operation.

Upon

the hypothefis of a

God,

it is

not the choice, apprehenfion or

judgment of

that being, fo properly as the truth

which was the

all

foundation of that judgment, that has been the fource of

tingent and particular exiftences.

con-

His

exiftence, if neceffary,

was
its

neceffary only as the fenforium of truth

and the medium of

operation.

Is this

view of things incompatible with the exiftence of

virtues

virtue

If

by

virtue

we

underftand the operation of an Intelligent

being in the exercife of

an optional power,
it

fo that

under the

fame
place,

precife

circumftances
it

might or might not have taken

it.

undoubtedly

will annihilate

But the dodlrine of

things.
diftlnd:

neceffity does not overturn the nature

of be

Happinefs and mifery,

wifdcm and
will

error will

ftill

from each other, and there

ftill

be a connexion
is

between them.

Wherever

there is diftindion there

ground

for preference and defire, or on the contrary for negledl and

averfion.

Happinefs and wifdom will be

obje<3;s

worthy

to be

Rr2

defired,

3o8

INFERENCES FROM THE

IV.

BOOK
CHAP.
* V

defired, mifery
'

and error worthy

^

to be difliked.
^

If therefore

VI.
'

by

virtue

we mean

that principle

which

aiferts

the preference of

the former over the

latter, its reality will

remain undiminifhed by

the dodrine of neceffity.

Virtue, if

we would
firft

fpeak accurately, ought to be confidered

by

us in the

inftance objedively, rather than as modifying

It is

any

particular beings.

a fyftem of general advantage, in

their aptitude or inaptitude to

lefsnefs

which

lies

the value or worthis

of

all

particular exiftences.
,

This aptitude

in intel-

ligent beings ufually

termed capacity or power.

is

Now power

Id

the fenfe of the hypothefis of liberty

altogether chimerical.

But power

in the fenfe in
is

which

it

is

fometimes affirmed of in-

animate fubftances,

equally true of thofe which are animate*

A candleftick

has the power or capacity of retaining a candle in

dire<ftion.

a perpendicular

knife has a capacity of cutting.

In the fame manner a

human

being has a capacity of walking

though

it

may

be no more true of him, than of the inanimate

fubftance, that
that capacity.

Ke has the power of exercifmg or not exercifmg

Again, there are different degrees as well as
dif-

ferent claffes

of capacity.

One

knife

is

better adapted for the;

purpofes of cutting than another..

Now

there are

two

confiderations relative to

ay

particular-

being, that excite our approbation, and this whether the being-

be poffeffed of confcioufnefs or no.

Thefe confiderations are

capacity

DOCTRINE OF NECESSITY.
capacity and the application of that capacity.
fliarp knife rather

309

We

approve of a
is

BOOK
^

IV.
'

than a blunt one, becaufe

its

capacity

greater.

We
in
its

approve of

its

being employed in carving food, rather than

that application of
is

maiming men or other animals, becaufe

capacity
Is

preferable.

But

all

approbation or preference

relative to utility or general

good.

knife

is

as capable as a

man
is

of being employed in the purpofes of virtue, and the one

free than the other as to
is
its

no more

employment.

The mode
is

in

which a knife
impulfe.

made

fubfervient to thefe purpofes

in

by ma-

terial
is

The mode

which a man

is

made

fubfervient

by inducement and
of
neceffity.

perfuafion.
differs

But both are equally the

affair

The man

from the
;

knife, juft as the

Iron candleftick differs from the brafs one

he has one more

in

way

of being ated upon.

This additional
magnetifm.

way

man

is

mo^-

tlve, in the candleftick is

But virtue has another

fenfe, in
Is
is

which

it Is

analogous to duty.

The

virtue of a

human
;

being

the application of his capacity

the beft poffible application of

to the general
that capacity.

good

his

duty

The words

thus explained are to be confidered as

rather fimilar to grammatical diftindion^ than to real and phllofophlcal difference.

Thus

In Latin bonus

is

good

as affirmed

of a man,

botia is

good

as affirmed

of a

woman.

In the fame

manner we can
as of

as eafily conceive

of the capacity of an inanimate

an animate fubftance being applied to the general good,

of the one

and

as accurately defcribe the beft poffible application

3IO

INFERENCES FROM THE

IV. VI,
'

BOOR
CHAP.
^--

as of tlie other.

There
call

is

no

effential

difference bctw^een the

^~

two

cafes.

But we

the latter virtue and duty, and not the

in a popular fenfe be confidered as

former.

Thefe words may

either mafculine or feminine, but never neuter.

exertion

But,

If

the dodrine of neceffity do xtot annihilate virtue,

it

tends to
it.

Introduce

a great change into our

it

ideas

refpedling

According to

this dotrine

will be abfurd for a

man

to

fay,

" I win exert myfelf,"

I will

"

I will

take care to remember,"

expreffions imply as
if

or even "

do

this."

All

thefe
elfe

man was
him.

or could be fomething

than what motives make

In

Man is

in reality a paffive, and not an aftive being.

is

another fenfe however he

fufEciently capable
laborious,
hill,
it

of exertion.
like

The

operations of his

mind may be

thofe of

the wheel of a heavy machine in afcending a

to

may even tend

ats,

wear out the fubftance of the

Ihell in
its

which

without
If

in the fmalleft degree impeaching

pafhve character.

we
lels

were

conftantly aware of this, our minds

would not glow

ardently
kind.

with the love of truth,

juftice, happinefs

and man-

We

fhould have a firmnefs and fimplicity in our condudt,

itfelf in

not wafting

fruitlefs ftruggles

and

regrets, not

hurried

along with infantine impatience, but feeing events with their

confequences, and calmly and unrefervedly given up to the influ-

ence of thofe comprehenfive views which this dod:rine infpires.

perfuafion

As

to GUI condii(!t towards others in inftances

where we were
concerned

DOCTRINE OF NECESSITY.
concerned to improve and meliorate their minds,
drefs

311

we

fhould ad-

BOOK
CHAP.
^

iv. VI.
'

our reprefentations and remonftrances to them with double

confidence.
corre(Sl:

The

believer in free will can

faint

expoftulate with or
that

his pupil

with

and uncertain hopes, confcious

is

the cleareft exhibition of truth

conteft with the unhearing

impotent,

when brought

into
;

and

indifciplinable faculty of will

it

or in reality, if he were confiflent, fecure that

could produce
real

no

effedt at

all.

The

neceflarian

on the contrary employs

real effeds.

antecedents, and has a right to

exped

But, though he would reprefent, he would not exhort,

this is a

for

exhortation

term without a meaning.

call

He

would
it

fuggeft motives

to the

mind, but he would not

to

upon

to

comply,

as if

it

had a power
confift

comply or not

to comply.

His

office

would

of two parts, the exhibition of motives to the purfuit of

a certain end, and the delineation of the eafieft and moft. effectual

way

of attaining that end.

There
far

is

no

better

fcheme for enabling us to perceive

how
li-

any idea

that has been connected with the hypothefis of

berty has a real foundation, than to tranflate the ufual

expreffing
it

mode of

into the language of neceffity.

:

Suppofe the idea

of exhortation fo tranflated to ftand thus

"

To

enable any arit

guments
is

may

fuggeft to

you

to

make a

fuitable impreffion
I

neceflary that they fliould be fairly confidered.

proceed

therefore to evince to

you

the importance of attention, knowing.

312

INFERENCES FROM THE

IV. that, ' VI.
'

BOOK
CHAP.
'

if

can

make

this

importance fufEciently manifeft at^ ^

I

tention will inevitably follow."

fhould however be far better

I

employed in enforcing diredly the truth

prefs,

am

defirous to

im-

than in having recourfe to this circuitous

it

mode of

treating

attention as if
lity

were a feparate

faculty.

Attention will in rea-

always be proportionate to our apprehenfion of the importus.

ance of the fubjed before

ardour

At

firft

fight it

may

appear as

if,

the

moment

was

fatisfied

that exertion on
I

my

part

was no

better than a fidion,

and

that
I

was the

paffive

inftrument of caufes exterior to

myfelf,

fhould become indifferent to the objets which had hitherto interefted

me

the

moH

deeply,

and

lofe all that inflexible perfe-

verance, which feems infeparable from great undertakings.

this cannot be the true Hate of the
cafe.

But
refign

The more
by

myfelf to the influence of truth, the clearer will be

ception of
it.

my

per-

The

lefs I

am

interrupted

quefl:Ions

of

li-

berty and caprice, of attention and indolence, the

will be

more uniform

my

confl;ancy.

Nothing could be more unreafonable

than that the fentiment of necefllty fhould produce in

fpirit

me
is

of neutrality and

indifference.

The more
the

certain

the

connexion between
fhould
I feel in

effetfls

and

caufes,

more

chearfulnefs

yielding to painful and laborious employments.

ompkccnce
and averijon
.

It 13

commou

for

men

imprefl"ed with the opinion of free

^.^

^^ entertain refeutment, indignation

and anger againfl thofe

who

DOCTRINE OF NECESSITY.
who
fall
is

^x^
thefe

into the commifllon of vice.

juft,

How
?

much of

^^^^
^^

'^V.

CHAl'. VI.

feelings

and

how much

erroneous

The

difference

be-

v^

tween virtue and vice

hypothefis.

will equally

remain upon the oppofite

Vice therefore mull be an objedt of rejeQion and

;

virtue of preference

the one muft be approved and the other

difapproved.

But
as

our difapprobation of vice will be of the

fame nature

our difapprobation of an infedlious diftemper.

One of

the reafons

why we
find a

are

accuftomed to regard the

murderer with more acute feelings of difpleafure than the knife

he employs,

is

that

we

more dangerous property, and

greater caufe for apprehenfion, in the one than in the other.

The

knife

is

only accidentally an object of

terror,

but againft
In the

the murderer

we

can never be enough upon our guard.

ftreet

fame manner we regard the middle of a bufy

complacency
as a place for

with

lefs

walking than the

fide,

and the ridge

Independently

of a houfe with more averfion than

therefore of the idea of freedom,

either.

mankind

in general find in

the enormoufly vicious a

dlfguft.

fufficient

motive of antipathy and

it

With

the addition of that idea,

is

no wonder

that

they fhould be prompted

abhorrence.

to expreffions of the moft intemperate

Thefe

feelings obvioufly lead to the prevailing conceptions

on

puniiLment;

the fubjedt of punifhment.

The dodrine
lift

of necefllty would teach

us to clafs

punifhment in the

of the means

we

pofl^fs

of re-

forming

;.*j -.^

314
CHAP.
*

INFERENCES FROM THE

VI.
'

^.9^? ^^*
^

forminp: error.

The more

the

human mind

can be fhewn to be
it

under the influence of motive, the more certain

nifhment will produce a great and unequivocal
doctrine of neceffity will teach us to

is

that

pu-

effet.

But the

look

upon punifhment

with no complacence, and

at all

times to prefer the moft direct

means of encountering
truth.
it

error,

which
is

is

the

development of
this fyftem,
it

Whenever punifhment
employed, not for any
it

employed under

will be

intrinfic

recommendation

pof-

feffes,

but juft fo far as

Ihall

appear to conduce to general

utility.

On
'

the contrary

it Is

ufually Imagined, that. Independently of

is

the utility of punifhment, there

proper defert In the criminal,

a certain
fuitable

fitnefs in the

nature of things that renders pain the

vice.
It
Is

concomitant of

therefore frequently fald,

that

it Is

aot enough that a murderer fhould be tranfported to

a defert Ifland,

where there fhould be no danger

that his malig-

nant propenfities fhould ever again have opportunity to but that

It

aQ

is alfo right

the indignation of
In the Inflidlon of

mankind

againft him.

fhould exprefs

Itfelf

fome adlual Ignominy

and pain.

On

the contrary, under the fyflem of neceffity the

ideas of guilt, crime, defert

and accountablenefs have no place.

Kpentancc:

Correlative to the feelings of refentment. Indignation and an-

ger againft the oiFences of others, are thofe of repentance, contrition,

and forrow for our own.

As long

as

we

admit of aneffential

DOCTRINE OF NECESSITY.
eflential difference

315
erroneous

between virtue and

vice,

no doubt

all

BOOK
CHAP.
*

iv.

VI.
*

conduit whether of ourfelves or others will be regarded with

difapprobation.

But

it

will in

both cafes be confidered, under

the fyftem of neceflity, as a link in the great chain of events

which could not have been otherwife than

fore

it is.

We

fhall there-

no more be difpofed

to repent of our

own

faults

than of

th^ faults of others.

actions,

It will

be proper to view them both as

injurious to the public good,

to be deprecated.

and the repetition of

which
it

is

Amidft our prefent imperfedlions

will perhaps be ufeful to recoiled:

what

is

the error

by which

we

are

moft

eafily feduced.

But

in proportion as our views exto the practice

tend,

we

fhall

find motives

enough

of virtue,
of our

without any

partial retrofpet to ourfelves, or recolleQ:ion

own

propenfities and

habits.

In the ideas annexed to the words refentment and repentance

there
is

praife

and

fome mixture of true judgment and a found conception

of the nature of things.

notions conveyed by

There

is

perhaps

ftill

more juftice

in the

praife

and blame, though thefe

alfo are for

the moft part founded in the hypothefis of liberty.

When

fpeak of a beautiful landfcape or an agreeable fenfation, I

em-

ploy the language of panegyric.

tically,

employ
;

it ftill

more empha-

when

fpeak of a good action

becaufe

am

confcious

that panegyric has a tendency to procure a repetition of fuch

ailions.

So

far as praife implies

nothing more than

this,

it

pcr-

fedly accords with the fevereft phllofophy.

So

far as

it

impiles

5i6

INFERENCES FROM THE

IV. VI.
'

BOOK
CHAP.
*

pijgg ^
I

tjj^f

fi-^Q jj^j^n

could have abftalned from the vhtuous adion

applaud,

it

belongs only to the delufive fyilem of liberty.

intelleaual
tranq^uillitj-.

farther confequence of the doctrine of neceffity

to

is its

ten-

dency

make

us furvey

all

events v^dth a tranquil and placid

temper, and approve and difapprove without impeachment to

our
to

felf pofleffion.

It

is

true, that events

may

be contingent as

any knowledge we

poflefs refpeting

them, however certain

they are in themfelves.

that his relation

Thus

the advocate of liberty

knows
that

was

cither loft or faved in the great ftorm

;

happened two months ago

certain,
it is

he regards
fail

this event as paft

it.

and

and yet he does not

lefs true,

to

be anxious about

But

not

that

all

anxiety and perturbation imply an imif

perfed; fenfe

of contingency, and a feeling as

alteration in the event.
is
it

our

efforts

could

make fome

When
over, his

the perfon re-

collets

with clearnefs that the event

;

mind grows
power of
All that

compofed

but prefently he
to alter
it,

feels as if

were

in the

God
is

or

man

and

his

diftrefs is

renewed.
;

more than

this is the

impatience of curiofity
to prevent

but philofophy

and reafon have an evident tendency

fity

an

ufelefs curio-

from difturbing our peace.

He

therefore

who

regards

all

things paft, prefent and to

come

as

links of

an indiflbluble

chain, will, as often as he recollels this comprehenfive view,

be fuperior to the tumult of paffion

and will

reflect

upon the

moral concerns of mankind with the fame clearnefs of perception, the

fame unalterable firmnefs of judgment, and the fame

8
tranquillity

DOCTRINE OF NECESSITY.
tranquillity
'

517

as

we

are

accuflomed to do upon the truths of ^9^^^ ^^' ^ CHAP. VI.

"^

geometry.

'

It

would be of

infinite

importance to the caufe of fcicnce and

Lancrunge of
ncccl'ity re-

virtue to exprelb

ourfelves

upcn

all

occafions in the language

is

commended..

of

neceffity.
it

The

contrary language

perpetually intruding,

and

is

difficult to

fpeak two fentences

it.

upon any

topic

con-

neded with human adlon without

The

expreflions of both

hypothefes are mixed in inextricable confufion, j uft as the belief

of both hypothefes, however incompatible, will be found to

exift in
all

uninflrudled minds.

The

reformation of which

fpeak would probably be found exceedingly pradlcable in

felf
:

it-

though,, fuch

is

the fubtlety of error, that

we

fliould at firfl
it.

find feveral revifals

and much laborious ftudy neceffary before

could

be perfedtly

weeded

out.

This muft be the

author's.

apology for not having attempted in the prefent work what he

recommends

to others.

Objeds of more immediate

and engrofTed
his faculties.

importance:-

demanded

his attention,

eHAR

3i8

CHAP.

VII.

OF THE MECHANISM OF THE

HUMAN

MIND.

fj

NATURE OF MECHANISM ITS CLASSES, MATERIAL AND MATERIAL SYSTEM, OR OF VIBRAINTELLECTUAL. TIONS. THE INTELLECTUAL SYSTEM MOST PROBABLE FROM THE CONSIDERATION THAT THOUGHT WOULD OTHERWISE BE A SUPERFLUITY FROM THE ESTABLISHED PRINCIPLES OF REASONING FROM EFFECTS TO OBJECTIONS REFUTED. THOUGHTS WHICH CAUSES. PRODUCE ANIMAL MOTION MAY BE I. INVOLUNTARY. ALL ANIMAL MOTIONS WERE FIRST INVOLUNTARY. CONSCIOUSNESS. THE MIND 1. UNATTENDED WITH CANNOT HAVE MORE THAN ONE THOUGHT AT ANY ONE TIME. OBJECTION TO THIS ASSERTION FROM THE FROM VARIOUS MENTAL CASE OF COMPLEX IDEAS OPERATIONS AS COMPARISON APPREHENSION RA-

PIDITY OF THE SUCCESSION OF IDEAS. APPLICATION. DURATION MEASURED BY CONSCIOUSNESS. 3. A DISTINCT THOUGHT TO Ex\CH MOTION MAY BE UNNECES-

FROM THE COMPLEXITY OF SENTHE MIND ALWAYS THINKS. CONTHE THEORYAPPLIED TO THE PHENOMENON CLUSION. OF WALKING TO THE CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD. OF MOTION IN GENERAL. OF DREAMS.
SARY.
SIBLE IMPRESSIONS.

APPARENT

BOOK
^

IV.
'

CHAP.VII.
^

rf^HE
I -^
j-|-jeory

dodrine of neceffity

beina;

Nature of
jiiechanifm
:

the theory of the '

human mind

...
admitted,
is
it

follows that

properly, like r r y>

the

of every other

feries

of events with which

we

are ac-

quainted,

OF THE MECHANISM OF THE

Quainted, a fyftem of mechanifm
1

HUMAN

MIND.

319'
IV.
'

underftandinrr

bv mechanifm ^f^OK
"

nothing more than a regular connexion of phenomena without

any uncertainty of event,

ciiic caufe,

fo that every incident requires a fpeas

and could be no otherw^ife in any refpet than

it

the

caule determined

to be.

But there

are

two

forts

of mechanifm capable of being applied

one which has for
its its

its

dafTes

material and

to the folution of this cafe,

medium only
thought.

intelleaual,

matter and motion, the other which has for

medium

Which

of thefe

is

to be regarded as

moft probable?

According

to the firft

we may

conceive the

human body

to

Material fyf-

be fo conftituted as to be fufceptible of vibrations, in the fame bmions!

manner

as the ftrings of a mufical inftrument are fufceptible

of

vibrations.

Thefe vibrations, having begun upon the furface

;

of the body, are conveyed to the brain

is

and, in a

manner

that

equally the refuJt of conftrudion, produce a fecond

fet

of

vibrations beginning in the brain, and conveyed to the different

organs or members of the body.

that

Thus

it

may
is

be fuppofed,
to

piece

of iron

confiderably heated

applied

the
ir-

body of an infant, and that the report of

ritation

this uneafinefs,

or

and feparation of parts being conveyed to the brain,

again in a
fhrill

vents

itfelf

and piercing

cry.

It is

in this

man-

ner that

we

are apt to imagine certain convulfive

and fpafmodic
defcribed,

aiFedions to take place in the body.

is fimilar to that of the
8.

The

cafe, as here

bag of a pair of bagpipes, which, being

prelfed

320

OF THE
prefTed In a certain

MECHANISM
utters a groan,
this

manner,

without any thing

more being

necefiai-y to

account for

phenomenon, than the

known

laws of matter and motion.

Let us add to thefe vi-

brations a fyftem of aflbciations to be carried

on by

traces to

be made upon the medullary fubftance of the brain, by means

of which paft and prefent impreffions are connedted according

to certain laws, as the traces

happen

to approach or

run into

each other

and we have then a complete fcheme for accounting

in a certain

way

for

all

the

phenomena of human

adtion.

It is

to be obferved, that, according to this fyftem,

is

mind or perception
It

altogether unneceffary to explain the appearances.

might

for other reafons be defirable or wife, in the author of the univerfe for example,
to introduce a thinking fubftance or a

power

of perception as a fpedator of the procefs.

But

this percipient

power

Is

altogether neutral, having

no concern

either as a

me-

dium
The
iiial

or otherwife in producing

the events *.

intellec-

j't^q

iydem
Tjroba-

fecond fyftem, which reprefents thought as the '

will

medium

moil
ible

The above

be found

to

be

a tolerably accurate defcription

It

of the hypoit

thecs of the cekbrated Hartley.

was unneceflary
prefent

to

quote his words, as

would be foreign

to the plan of the

'i'he

work

to enter into a refutation of

any individual writer,

fagnclty of Hartley, in having pointed out the

practicability

neceflary connexion of the

phenomena of mind, and (hewn the

of reducing
phuuled.

its

different operations to a fimple principle,

cannot be too highly aptrue,

The

reafonings of the prefent chapter,

if

may be
it

confideredi.

as giving farther ftablHty to his principa' doclrine by freeing

from the fcheme

f material automatifm with which

it

was

unneceffarily clogged.

of

OF THE
of operation,
is

HUMAN

MIND.
a

321

not

lefs

a fyftem of mechanifm, according to ^

it

BOOK
'

iv.
'

CHAP.vir.
v

the dodrine of neceflity, than the other, but

is

mechanifm

of a totally different kind.

There
.
1

are various reafons calculated to perfuade us that this

1

lafl:

from the confideration that

nypotheus

is

tne moil probable.

1
f-

XT

No
1

mconnderable argument
'

thought would
otherwife be *
fupcifluity
:

may

be derived from the lingular and important nature of that

property of
is furely

human

beings,

which we term thought

which

it

fomewhat

violent to ftrike out of our fyftem as a

mere

fuperfluity.

fecond

reafon

ftill

more

decifive than the' former, arifes from the

eaablifhed

from the conftancy with which thought

accompanies the functions of
this

in innumerable inftances

principles of

reafoning

mechanifm.

Now

this

con-

fromeffeast
caufes.

ftancy of conjuntion has been

fhewn

to be the only

ground we

have in any imaginable fubjet for inferring neceffary connexion,

or that fpecies of relation which exifls between caufe and
effect.

We

cannot therefore rejed the principle which fuppofes thought

to have an efficient fhare in the

mechanifm of man, but upon

our reafonings from effeds to

grounds that would

caufes.

vitiate

all

It

may

be objeded, " that, though this contiguity of event Objeftiom

rr

argues necellary connexion, yet the connexion

the reverfe of

may

refuted.

be exadly
inftances

what

is

here flated, motion being in

all

the caufe, and thought never any thing

more than an

effed."

But

this is

contrary to every thing

we know

of the fyflem of
the

!22

OF THE MECHANISM
J^Y;
'

^?,^p
*

the univerfe, in

which each event appears

to be alternately both
itfelf,

"

the one and the other, nothing terminating in

but every

thing leading on to an endlefs chain of confequenceSr

It virbuld

be equally vain to objed, " that

we

are unable

to'

conceive

how

thought can have any tendency to produce

it

mo-

tion in the animal fyftem ;" fmce

has juft appeared that this

ignorance

is

by no means peculiar

to the fulyet before us.

We

are univerfally unable to perceive the ground of neceflary con-

nexion.

Thonghts which produce animal motion may

be.

It

being then fufficiently clear that there are cogent reafons

is

perfuade us that thought

the

medium through which

the

mo-

tions of the animal fyftem are generally carried on, let us pro-

ceed to confider what

is

the nature of thofe thoughts

fet

by which
It will

the limbs and organs of our body are

in motion.

then probably be found, that the

difficulties

which have clogged

the intellectual hypothefis, are principally founded in erroneous

notions derived from the fyftem of liberty
eflential difference
;

as if there

were any

between thofe thoughts which ar6 the me-

dium

of generating motion, and thoughts in general.

1. involuntary.

Firft,

thought

may

be the fource of animal motion, without

It
is

partaking in any degree of volition, or defign.

that there
is

certain

a great variety of motions in the animal fyftem,

which

are in every

view of the fubjed involuntary.

of an infant,

Such, for
impreffed

example, are the

cries

when

it

is

firft

with

OF THE
which flowed from
tion
is

HUMAN
Such
.

MIND.
be
all

323
motions
Voli-

with the fenfation of pain.

miifl:

thofe
.

l^OOK
^

IV.
'

CHAP.VII.
v

fenfation previoufly to experience.

implies that fomething

;

which

is

the fubjed of volition,

till

regarded as defirable

but v/e cannot defire any thing,

to the

we we

have an idea correfponding

plies intention, or defign; but

term futurity.

Volition im^
till

we

cannot defign any thing,

is

have the expedlation that the exiftence of that thing

conneted with the means employed to produce

in

fome way

it.

An infant,
is

when he
fult

has obferved that a voice exciting compallion

the re-

of certain previous emotions,

may have

the idea of that

voice predominant in his

that produce
it.

mind during

the train of

emotions
firft

But

this

could not have been the cafe the

firft

time

it

was

uttered.

In the

motions of the animal fyftem,

nor-

thing of any fort could poffibly be forefeen, and therefore nothing

of any

fort

could be intended. Yet in the very inftances here protheir conftant

duced the motions have fenfation or thought for

concomitant
;

and therefore

all

the arguments,

which have been

is

already alledged, remain in

the

full force to

prove that thought

medium of their

produftion.

Nor

will this appear

itfelf.

very extraordinary,
In volition,
if the

if

we

confider the

nature of volition
fity

dodrine of necef-

be true, the mind

is

altogether paffive.

Two
An

ideas prefent
;

themfelves in fome

way

connected with each other

and a per-

ception of preferablenefs neceflarily follows.

certain defirable qualities,
is

object having

perceived to be within

my

reach

Tt

and

324
and

OF THE
my
hand
is

MECHANISM
an intention to

neceflarily flretched out ulLn

obtain

it.

If a perception of preferablenefs

and a perception of

defirablenefs irrefiftibly

lead to animal motion,

?

why may
an

not the

mere perception of pain

tifm
is

All that the adverfary of automa,

is,

concerned to maintain
;

that thought
it is

is

effential link

in the chain
that

and
it

that, the

moment

taken away, the links

were before

have no longer any tendency to produce ibo-

tion in the links that

were

after

it.

It is pofTible,

that, as a

nu-

merous
fo there

clafs

of motions have their conftant origin in thought,

be no thoughts altogether unattended with motion.

may

All animal motions were

firft

Here

it

may

be proper to obferve,
it

that,

from the

principles

involun-

already delivered,

follows that

all

the original motions of the

tary.

animal fyftem are involuntary.

obtain experience, they are

In proportion however as

we

fucceffively

made

the fubjedts of

reflexion and forefight

and of confequence become many of

is,

them the themes of intention and defign, that

luntary.
tions,

become vo-

We

fhall prefently at
firft

have occafion to fufpedt that mo-

which were

involuntary, and afterwards

by ex-

perience and affociation are

made

voluntary,

may

in the procefs

of intelledlual operation be
proceed.

made involuntary

again.

But

to

3. unattendfcioufnefs.

Secondly, thought

may

be the fource of animal motion, and

yet be Unattended with confcioufnefs.

This

is

undoubtedly a

diftindion of confiderable refinement, depending

upon the precife

OF THE
cife

HUMAN
if

MIND.
to exit

325

meaning of words

and,

any perfon fhould choofe

p2?p vu
"^

prefs

himfelf differently on the fubjedl,

would be

ufelefs

ob-

'

ftinately to difpute that difference

with him.

By

the confciouf-

nefs

which accompanies any thought there feems

itfelf.

to be

fomething
is

implied diflinit from the thought

Confcioufnefs

a fort

of fupplementary refleiSion, by which the mind not only has the

thought, but adverts to
it.

its

own

fituation

and obferves that

it

has

Confcioufnefs therefore, however nice the diftinction, feems

to be a fecond thought.

In order to afcertaia whether every thought be attended with The mind

.

confcioufne.s,

it

may

be proper to confider whether the

at

can ever have more than one thought

this

any one time.

mmd Now
.

cannot

lir.ve

morcthauone
tlio'.ight at

any one time.

feems

altogether
is

contrary to the very nature of

that to

mind.
is

My

prefcnt thought
;

which

my

prefent attention
at

yielded

but

cannot attend to feveral things

once.

This
;

af-

fertion appears to be of the nature of

an intuitive axiom
its

and

experience

is

perpetually reminding us of

truth.
it

In comto

paring two objects

we

frequently endeavour as

were

draw

them together
fuccelTively

in the

mind, but

we feem

to be obliged to pafs

from the one

to the other.

But

this principle,
is

though apparently fupported both by reanot unattended with

cafe
difficulties.

Objeaion to
this alTeitioa
^'"'^^
'^'i

fon and experience,

is

The

firft

'^^^^

ot

complex
'

that

which

arifes

from the
if

of complex
it

ideas.

This will

^^^^*

bell bq

apprehended

we examine

as relates to vifible objedls.

"Let

326

OF THE
"
^'^^

MECHANISM
at prefent

^Sap vn
*~
^^

^ fuppofc that
I

am

employed

in

the adl of

reading.

appear to take in whole words and indeed clufters

of \vords by a fingle uCt of the mind.

a

But

let

it

be granted for
letter is

moment

that I fee each letter fucceffively.

Yet each

made up of

parts

the letter

for

example

of a right line
additioi:i
its

and
or

a curve, and each of thefe lines of the fucceffive

fluxion of points.
tenfion
is

If

confider the line as a v/hole, yet

its

ex-

one thing, and

terminations another.
it

could not

fee the letter if the black line that defcribes

and the white fur-

face that

bounds

it

were not each of them in the view of

therefore, as
it

my

organ.

There muft

fliould feem,

upon the hy-

pothefis above ftated, be an infinite fucceffion of ideas in the

mind, before

it

could apprehend the fimpleft objeds with which

we

are converfant.

But we have no feeling of any fuch thing,

precife contrary.

but rather of the

ings
are

Thoufands of human bethat lines

go out of the world without ever apprehending

points.

compofed of the addition or fluxion of

An

hypo-

thefis therefore, that is in

dired oppofition to fo

many

apparent

fads, mufl have a very

tain
it,

uncommon

portion of evidence to fuf-

if

indeed

it

can be

fufl:ained at all."

The

true anfwer to this objedion feems to be the following.

The mind can apprehend only

a fmgle idea

at

once, but that

idea.

idea needs not be in every fenfe of the

word a fimple
at

The

mind can apprehend two or more objeds

it

a fingle efFort, but

fufiicient

cannot apprehend them as two.

There feems no

reafon

OF THE
reafon to deny that

HUMAN
,
.

MIND.
.

.27

upon

all thofe objedts which are painted at once BOOK iv. CHAP.VIL ^ c ^ the retina or the eye, produce a jouit and fimultaneous v
^

impreflion

upon

the mind.
as

But they are not immediately conas

ceived by the

mind

many, but

one

fo

foon as the idea

canre-

fuggefts itfelf that they are

made up of

parts, thefe parts

not be confidered by us otherwife than fucceffively.

folution of objedts into their funple elements,
is

The

an operation

of fcience and improvement our

firft

but

it

is
all

altogether foreign to
cafes the operation
is

and original conceptions.

In

rather analytical than fynthctical, rather that of refolution than

compofition.

We

do not begin with the

till

fucceffive perception
;

of elementary parts

we have

obtained an idea of a whole

it

but, beginning with a whole, are capable of reducing

into

its

elements.

The

fecond difficulty

is
,

of a
,

much

fubtler nature.
^

It confifls

f
''""^
=

various

mental opera-

in the feeming " impoffibility of performing any mental operation, fuch as

comparifon for example, which has relation to two

if

ascompariTon

or more ideas,

we have

not both ideas before us

at once, if

one of them be completely vanilhed and gone, before the other

begins to exift."

The

caufe of this difficulty feems to

is

lie

in the

miftake of fuppofmg that there

ideas.
It will

a real Interval between the two

perhaps be found upon an accurate examination,

at once,

that,

though we cannot have two ideas

firft

yet

it

is

not

juft to fay, that the

exift.

has perifhed before the fecond begins to

The

inftant that

conneds them,

is

of no

real

magnitude,

and

32S

OF
IV.
'

THE MECHANISM
The mind
is

BOOK
'
/

CHAP. VII.

and produces no ^

real divifion.

always

full.

It

is

this inftant therefore that is

the true point of compariion.

It

may

be objedted, " that

is

this

cannot be a juft reprefentation,

be-

fince

comparifon

rather a matter of retrofpeft deciding

tween two

ideas that

have been corny ktely apprehended, than a

fecond has
.rill

perception which occurs in the n.iddle, before thv

been yet obferved."

To

this objection

experience

perhaps

be found to furnifh the true anfwer.

cannot compare two objeds
in the mind.
till

We

find in fal that

we

we

have paffed and repaffed

them

apprehenfion:

Suppofmg

this

account of the operation of the mind in

fhall

comparifon to be admitted, yet what

we

fay to a

complex
I

fentence containing twenty ideas, the fenfe of

which

fully

apprehend

at a

fmgle hearing, nay, even in fome cafes by that

it

time one half of

has been uttered ?"

.^

The mere
a very

tafk of underilanding

what

Is

affirmed to us

Is

of

different

nature from that of comparifon, or any other

is

fpecies of judgment that

tion.

to be

formed concerning

this affirma-

"When

number of

ideas are prefented in a train,

though
unity.

in one fenfe there be variety, yet

I'irft,

in another there

is

there

is

the unity of uninterrupted fucceffion, the perennial

is

flow as of a flream, where the drop indeed that fucceeds

merically diftindt from that v^hich

nu-

went

before, but there

is

no

ceffation.

OF
ccfTation.

THE HUMAN
is

MIND.
The mind
from
ftrift

329
"^OOK iv. CHAP.vrr.
*

Secondly, there -^'

the unity of method. ^

apprehends, as the difcourfe proceeds, a

fimilarity or

aflbciation,

'

fome other

fource,

between each idea

it.

as

it

follows

in the procefs, and that

which went before

The

faculty of underftanding the different parts of a difcourfe

it

in their connexion with each other, fnnple as

reality

appears,

is

in

of gradual and flow acquifition.

"We are by various

caufes excluded

from a minute obfervation of the progrefs of the

infant mind, and therefore do not readily conceive

by how im-

perceptible advances

it

arrives at a quicknefs of apprehenfion

relative to the fimpleft fentences.

its

But we more

eafily

remark
is

fubfequent improvement, and perceive

it

how

long

it

be-

fore

can apprehend a difcourfe of any length or a fentence of

any abllradion.

Nothing

is

more

certain than the poffibility

of

my

perceiving

the fort of relation that exifts between the different parts of a

methodical difcourfe,

for example,
it

Mr. Burke's Speech upon

Oeconomical Reform, though

fevereft attention to
fucceffively.
I

be impoffible for

me

after the

confider the feveral

parts otherwife

than

-have a latent feeling of this relation as the difI

courfe proceeds, but

it

cannot give a firm judgment refpeding

retrofpedt.
It

otherwife than

by

may however

be fufpedted
at-

that,

even in the cafe of fnuple apprehenfion, an accurate

tention to the operations of

mind would how,

that

we

fojcely
in

u-

330
In

OF

THE MECHANISM
a fmgle fentence, witliout
fteps of

any inftance hear

returning again

and again upon the

clofely in our

the fpeakcr, and drawing

more

minds the preceding members of

conclufion
;

his period, before

he

arrives at
it

its

though even
thought

this exertion

of mind, us

fubtle as

is,

be not of

itfelf

fufficient to authorife

to give a
cafes

judgment upon the whole.

is

There may perhaps be

where the apprehenfion

more

inftantaneous.

fimilar

exception appears to take place even in fome cafes of judgment

or comparifon.

A new
is

affociation, or a

connedling of two ideas

into

by means of

a middle term,

which were never brought

this relation before,

a talk of fuch a nature, that the ftrongeft

operation.

mind

feels

fome

fenfe of effort in the

is

Eut, where

the judgment accurately fpeaking

is

already made, the operation

in a

manner

inftantaneous.

If

you

fay, that a

melon

is

larger fruit than a cherry, I immediately affent.

The judgment,

though perhaps never applied

faid to
tell

to this individual fubjed:,

may

be

have

been made by

me

long before.

If

again
I

you

me

that Ctsfar

was

a worfe
;

man

than Alexander,

inftantly

apprehend your meaning

but, unlefs I have

I

upon fome former

occafion confidered the queftion,

till

can neither affent nor diffent

after

fome

refledlion.

Rapldky of
the fucceflion

But, if the principle here ftated be true,

_

how
am

infinitely rapid

ideas.

muft be the fucceffion of ideas

ideas are in
cility

While

fpeaking no two

my

mind

at

the fame time, and yet with what fato another

?

do

I pafs

from one

If

my

difcourfe be argu-

mentative,

OF
mentative,

THE HUMAN
often do
I

MIND.
which
I
It

331
confifls

how
I

pafs the topics of ' '

In

J7; CtiAP.VIT.
*^

^^'^'^^

review before

utter

them, and even while

am

fpcaking conin

^^

'

tinue the review at intervals without producing

difcourfe
?

any paufe

my
du-

How many

other fenfations are perceived by

me

ring this period, without fo

much

as interrupting, that
?

is,

with-

out materially diverting the train of ray ideas

fively

My

eye fuccef-

remarks a thoufand objedls that prefent themfelves.

to the different parts

My
upon

mind wanders
fenfatica

of
I

my
fit,

body, and receives a

from the chair upon which

lean
;

from the

table

which

from the pinching of

in

a flioe,

from a fmging in
bread.
to

my ear, a pain When thefe moft

my

head, cr an irritation of the

perceptibly occur,

my mind
From

paffes

from one

another, without feeling the minuteft obllacle, or being in any

degree diflraited by their multiplicity.

this curfory

view

of the fubjet

it

appears that

we have

a multitude of different fuc-

ceffive perceptions in

every

moment of ourexiftence*.
Application.

Confcioufnefs, as

it

has been above defined, appears to be one

of the departments of memory.

fo far as
it

Now

the nature of

memory,
is

relates to the fubjedt

of which

we

are treating,

ex-

ceedingly obvious.

An

infinite

number of thoughts

pafl'ed

An

attempt has been made to calculate thefe, but there

is

no reafon

to be-

lieve that the calculation deferves to

be confidercd as a ftandard of truth.

Senfa.
a (horter

tions leave their images behind them,

tin^e
5

fome

for a longer
is

and fome for

in

fo that, in

two

different inftaticcs, the calculation

to a fecond.

one cafe eight, and

in another three

hundred and twenty

See Watfon on Time, Ch.

11.

Uu

through

Z^'

OF
"

THE MECHANISM
my J
exiftence.

BOOK IV.
CHAP.Vll.
""

through fa

my /

mind

in the laft five minutes of

I

How
is

many

of them

am

now

able to recoiled
?

How many
Some
;

of them
per-

Ihall I recollect

to-morrow

One

impreffion after another

petually effacing from this intelledtual regifter.

of them

may with

great attention and effort be revived

;

others obtrude

themfelves uncalled for

and a third

fort are

perhaps out of the

reach of any power of thought to reproduce, as having never

left their traces

behind them for a moment.

If the

memory be

capable of fo
there not be

many

variations

and degrees of
it

intenfity,

may
?

fome

cafes

with which

never conneds

itfelf

If

the fuccefBon of thoughts be fo inexpreffibly rapid,

pafs over

may

they not
elude the

fome

topics with fo delicate a touch,

?

as to

fupplement of confcioufnels

Duration meafured by
confcioufnefs.

It

feems to be confcioufnefs, rather than the fucceflion of

meafurcs
tim.e to the

jdeas, that
is
it

mind.

The

fucceflion of ideas
clear that

in

all

cafes exceedingly rapid,

and
it

it is

by no means

can be accelerated.
to retain

We

find

impradicable in the experi-

ment

any idea

in our

minds unvaried for any percep-

tible duration.

Continual flux appears to take place in every

It
is

part of the univerfe.

perhaps a lav/ of our nature, that

thoughts
pidity.

fhall at

all

times fucceed to each other with equal ra-

Yet time feems to our apprehenfion to flow

now with

precipitated

and now with a tardy

;

courfe.

The

indolent

man

reclines for hours in the fhade

and, though his

mind be peris

petually at

work, the
3

filent

lapfe

of duration
^

unobferved.

Butj

OF THE
But,

HUMAN

MIND.
^

33^

uneafy expe<flation obliges confcloufnefs -^S^^ \fn ^ to recur with unufual force, the time then appears infupportably
acute, pain or

when

long.

Indeed

it is

a contradidlion in terms to fuppofe that the

fucceffion
links
vanifli

of thoughts,
together,

where there
where they

is

nothing that perceptibly

elude
or
inftant'y

them

totally

from the memory, can be

is

a meafure of time to the mind.

That there

fuch a

ftate

of mind in fome cafes affuming a perfo

manent form, has been

kind, that
it

much

the general opinion of

is

manIt
is

has obtained a name, and

called reverie.

probable from what has been faid that thoughts of reverie, underftanding by that appellation thoughts untranfmitted to tho

memory,

perpetually

take their

turn wnth our

more exprefs
life.

and digefted thoughts, even in the moil adive fcenea of our

Laftly, thought

may

be the fource of animal motion, and yet 3.3

.

dlftlnd

there

may

be no need of a diltmcc thought producing each in-

thou;;ht to ich'motion

liny be un-

dividual motion.

This

is

a veiy important point in the fubjed a

neceilary

before

us.

In

uttering

cry for

example,

the

number of

mufcles and articulations of the body concerned in-this operation

is

very great

fliall

we

fay that the infant has a diftindl thought

articulations
?

for each

motion of thefe

The anfwer we
which we
is

to this queftion will be confiderably facilitated, if apparent

recollect the

manner

.,.,,. m which the imprelhons

rr.
,
,

are blended,
*

from the complexity of

fen'"ble im-

receive

from external objeds.

The
I feel

fenfe of feeling

preffions,

difFufed over every part of

my

body,

the different fubftances

334

OF THE
fiances that fupport ^'
>
'

MECHANISM
I

BOOK IV.
CHAP. VII.
'

me, the pen r

eulde, various afFedions and b

petty irregularities in different parts of

air that

my

frame, nay, the very

environs me.
I

But

all

thefe Impreffions are abfolutely

at once.

fnnultaneous, and

can have only one perception

Out of

thefe various impreffions, the moft powerful, or that

which has

the greateft advantage to folicit

drives

my

attention,
lefs

overcomes and

out the
idea

reft

or,

which not

frequently happens,
laft

fome

of affociation fuggefted by the

preceding idea
objeft.
It

wholly withdraws
is

my

attention

from every external

is

probable however that this perception

imperceptibly modiit,

fied by the miniature impreffions that accompany

juft as

we

adlually find that the very fame ideas prefented to a fick

man,

take a peculiar tinge,

that renders

them exceedingly

different

from what they

already fhown,

are in the
that,

mind of

a
is

man

in health.
lefs

It

has been

though there

nothing

frequent than

the apprehending of a fimple idea, yet every idea, however

complex,

offers itfelf to the

mind under the conception of

unity.
is

The

blending of numerous impreffions into one perception

train of

a
is

law of our nature, and the cuftomary

entirely of this denomination.

our perceptions

Mean

while

it

deferves to be re-

marked by the way,

feries of perceptions

that, at the
is

veiy time that the moft methodical

is

going on in the mind, there

another

fet

of perceptions, or rather
termediate part
other, yet the
;

many

fets

playing an under or inperpetually

is

and, though thefe

it is

modify each

manner in which

done

in an

eminent degree

minute and unobferved.

Thefe

OF THE
Th^fe remarks
queftion, whether the

HUMAN

MIND.
?

^;^s

furnifli us

with an anfwer to the

thinks
It

mhid always

^ ^ appears that in

lonp- dlfputed

r.OOK IV. CHAP.VII.

The
ini:id

numerable impreffions are perpetually made upon our body,

always
thinks.

and the only

v'ay, in

which the

flighteft

of thefe
is

is

prevented

from conveying a
of
It
its

diftindl report to the

mind,

in confequence

being overpowered by fome more confiderable impreflion.

as

cannot therefore be alledged, " that,

one impreflion

is

found

to be

overpow cred by another while we wake, the ftrcngeft only

of the fimultaaeous impreflions furnifhing an idea to the mind

fo the

whole

fet

of fimultaneous impreflions during fleep

may

be overpowered by fome indifpofition of the fenforium, and

entirely
different.
fail

of

its

effect."

For,

firft,

the cafes are altogether

it

From

the explication above given

lofl:,

appeared, that

not one of the impreflions was really

in a very limited degree, to

but tended, though

modify the predominant impreflion.

Secondly, nothing can be more unintelligible tlian this indifpofition.

Were

it

of the nature which

its

the

objedion requires,

fleep ought to ceafe of

own

accord after the expiration of a

certain

term, but to be incapable

I

of interruption

from any
purpcfe

experiment
call

might make upon

the fleeper.
it

To what
But

or fhake

him

Shall

we

fay, that

requires an impreflion
?

of a certain magnitude to excite the fenforium

ftrike in the

a clock

fliall

room and not wake him, when

efi^eft.

a voice of a

much

lower key produces that

What

is

the precife degree of

magnitude neceflary

We

actually find the ineffedlual calls that

are addrefied to us, as well as various other founds, occafionally

mixing

2,^6

OF THE
IV.
'
.

MECHANISM
whence

EOOK
^

CHAP.VII.
V

mixins; with our dreams, without our being aware from > t> &
this

new

perception arofe.

To

apply thefe obfervations.

to the

If a
as to

number of

impreflions may-

come blended
perception,

mind,

fo

make up one thought or

mind

why may

not one thought, in cafes where the

?

ads

as a caufe,

produce a variety of motions

is

It

has already

been fhown that there

cafes.

no

eifential difference

between the two

Is there

The mind

is

completely paffive in both.

that,

any

fufficient

reafon to fhow,

though

it

be poffible for one fub-

ftance confidered as the recipient of effeds to be the fubjedl of a

'

variety of fimultaneous impreflions, yet

it is

impoffible for one

fubftance confidered as a caufe to produce a variety of fimulta-

neous motions

If

it

be granted that there

is

not, if the

mere

modification of a thought defigning a motion in chief,

may

produce a fecondary motion, then

it

muft perhaps farther be

confefled poffible for that modification which

my

firft

thought

produced

in

my

fecond, to carry on the motion,

even though

the fecond thought be

upon

a fubjed altogether different.

Conclufion.

The
mind,
fubtlety

confequences, which feem deducible from this theory of

are fufficiently

memorable.
it

By fhowing

the

extreme
diffi-

and fimplicity of thought,

removes many of the

its

culties that

might otherwife

reft

upon

finer

and more evanef-

'cent operations.

If thought, in order to be the caufe of animal

motion, need not have either the nature of volition, or the

concomitant

OF
concomitant

THE HUMAN MIND.

and
if

337

of confcioufnefs,

fintrle

thought
'^

may BOOK
^
it
^

IV.
^

CHAP.Vir.
v

become a complex caufe and produce

will then

a variety of motions,

become exceedingly
any circumftances

difEcvilt to trace its operations,

or

to difcover

in a particular inftance of animal

Vv\as

motion, which can fufficiently indicate that thought

principle of
its

not the

production, and by that means fuperfede the force

this

of the general arguments adduced in the beginning of

chapter.

Hence

therefore

it

appears

that

all

thofe

motions

which

are obferved to exift in fubftances having perception,

are not to be difcovcred in fubftances of

and

which

any other

fpecies,

may

reafonably be fufpeded to have thought, the diftinguiiliing

peculiarity of fuch fubftances, for their caufe.

There

are various

clafles

of motion which will

enumerated.
the

fall

under The

theoi-y

this definition, befide thofe already

An

example

plier.omenon

of one of thefe
ing.

claffes fuggefts itfelf in

M'ill

phenomenon of walkfymptoms
cal-

"^

An

attentive obferver perfliade

is

perceive various

culated to

him, that every ftep he takes during the

longeft journey
all

the produtTtion of thought.

Walking

is

in

cafes originally a voluntary motion.

In a child

when he
pracPcife

learns to walk,

in

a rope dancer

when he

begins to

that particular exercifc, the diftindl determination of

mind

pre-

ceding each ftep

fay, that a

is

fufiiciently perceptible.

It

may
rcfult

be abfurd to of fo

long

feries

of motions can be the

many
trace

exprefs volitions,
in the

^.vhel\

thefe fuppofed volitions leave

is

no

memory.

But

it

not unreafonable to believe, that a

i]-)ecies

338
fpecles of
it

OF THE

MECHANISM
owe
its

motion which began in exprefs defign, may, though

con-

ceafes to be the fubjel of confcious attention,

tinuance to a continued feries of thoughts flowing in that direction,

and

that, if Ufa

were taken away, material impulfe would

not carry on the exercife for a moment.

that,

We

actually find,

when

our thoughts in a train are

more than commonly

is

earneft,

our pace flackens, and fometimes our going forward

lefs

wholly fufpended, particularly in any

walking,
fuch

common

Ipecles
flairs.

of
In

as that of defcending a flight of

is
ftill

afcending the cafe

more

diflicult,

and accordingly we are

accufliomed wholly to fufpend the regular progrefs of reflection

during that operation.

to the ci'rculation of the

Another

clafs

of motions of a

fl:ill

fubtler nature, are the re-

blood.

gular motions of the animal economy, fuch as the circulation of

the blood, and the pulfatlon of the heart.

Are thought and

perception the

medium of
as in the

thefe

motions

We
;

have the fame

argument here

former

infl:ances,

conjundlion of event.
and,

When
ceafes,

thought begins, thefe motions alfo begin

they are
at

when

it

an end.

They
mind
;

are therefore either the caufe

or efFet of percipiency, or

but

we

fhall

be inclined to
recollet that

embrace

the latter fide

of this dilemma,

when we

we

are

probably
is

acquainted

with

many

Infliances

In

which

thoup-ht

the immediate caufe of motions,

;

which

fcarcely yield

in fubdety to thefe

but that,

as to the origin

of thought,
ai^e

we
no

are

wholly uninformed.

Add

to this, that there

probably

OF
!io

TH

HUMAN
flill

MIND.
we do
not find
it

V,o
In

motions of the animal economy, which

BOOK
*^

IV.
'

CHAP.VII.
the

power of voUtion, and

more of our invohmtary

fenili-

tions, to haften or retard.

It is far

from

certain that the

is

phenomenon of motion can any Of motJon m

g-cncriil.

Vsrhere exift

where there
clafles
;

not thought.

Motion may be
which
refult

diftri-

buted into four

the fimpler motions

from

what

are called the efTential properties of matter

;

and the laws of

impulfe
for

the

more complex ones which cannot be accounted

thefe laws, fuch as gravitation, elafli;

by the affumption of
electricity

city,

and magnetifm

and the motions of the vegethefe

table

and animal fyftems.

Each of

feems farther than

that

which preceded

it

from being able

to be accounted for

by

any thing we underftand of the nature of matter.

Some

light

may

be derived from what has been here ad- Of dreams.

" In lleep

vanced upon the phenomenon of dreams.

times imagine" for example "that

we

fome-

we

read long paflages from

books, or hear a long oration from a fpeaker.

fcenes and incidents pafs before us that in various

In

all

cafes

ways

excite

our pafTions and

Intereft

our

feelings.

Is

It

poffible that thefe

Ihould be the imconfclous produdlion of our

own minds ?"

It

has already appeared, that volition

the
neceffary concomitant,

is

the accidental, and

by

no means
which

even of thofe thoughts

are mofl aQive and eHicient in the producing of motion.

XX

It

340

OF THE MECHANISM OF THE

It is

HUMAN
it

MlND.

therefore

no more

to be

wondered

at that the

mind fhould

be bufied in the compofition of books which

appears to read,

than that a train of thoughts of any other kind Ihould pafs

through
fadl

it

without a confcioufnefs of

its

being the author.

In

we

perpetually annex

wrong and erroneous

ideas to this

phrafe, that

we

are the authors.

it is

Though mind
firft

be a real and
the

efficient caufe,

in

no

cafe a

caufe.

It is

medium
each

through which operations are produced.

other
in

Ideas fucceed

our fenforium according to certain necefTary laws.

powerful impreffion, either from without or from
all its

The mofb

within, conftantly gets the better of

competitors,
in the

and

forcibly drives out the preceding thought,

irrefiftible

till it is

fame

manner driven out by

its

fucceflbr.

CHAP.

341

CHAP.

viir.

OF THE PRINCIPLE OF VIRTUE.

HYPOTHESES OF BENEVOLENCE AND SELF LOVE SUPERIORITY OF THE FORMER. ACTION IS EITHER VOLUNTARY NATURE OF THE FIRST OF THESE OR INVOLUNTARY. ARGUMENT THAT RESULTS FROM IT. VOCLASSES. LUNTARY ACTION HAS A REAL EXISTENCE. CONSEQUENCE OF THAT EXISTENCE. EXPERIMENTAL VIEW OF THE SUBJECT. SUPPOSITIONS SUGGESTED BY THE ADVOCATES OF SELF LOVE THAT WE CALCULATE UPON ALL OCCASIONS THE ADVANTAGE TO ACCRUE TO US. FALSENESS OF THIS SUPPOSITION. SUPPOSITION OF A WE DO NOT CALCULATE WHAT CONTRARY SORT. WOULD BE THE UNEASINESS TO RESULT FROM OUR REFRAINING TO ACT EITHER IN RELIEVING DISTRESS OR IN ADDING TO THE STOCK OF GENERAL GOOD. UNEAs'lNESS AN ACCIDENTAL MEMBER OF THE PROCESS. THE SUPPOSITIONS INCONSISTENTLY BLENDED. SCHEME OF SELF LOVE RECOMMENDED FROM THE PROPENSITY OF MIND TO ABBREVIATE ITS PROCESS FROM SIMPLICITY THAT OBTAINS IN THE NATURES OF THE HYPOTHESIS OF SELF LOVE INCOMPATIBLE THINGS. CONCLUSION. VIRTUE. IMPORTANCE OF THE WITH

QUESTION.

APPLICATION.
mechanifm fuggefled
r^-

THE
the
1

fubjed: of intelledual

itfelf as

BOOK
CHAP.
^^

IV.
\l(r.
->

molt

r . luitable
1

introduaion to an enquiry into the

condudl.

moral principles of

human

Having

lirft

afcertaincd

that

342
CHAP^vnr
*^

OF THE PRINCIPLE
^^^^^

thought

is

the real

and

efficient fource
is

of animal motion,

It

"

'

remains to be confideved what

the nature of thofe particular

thouehts in \Yhich the moral conduct of

man

originates.

Hypotliefes

Upon

this Queftion there are

two opinions.

By fome

It

Is

felFlove'^

fuppofed that the

tile,

human mind

is

of a temper confiderably duc-

fo that,

as

we
and

in certain inftances evidently propofe

our

own
no

advantage for the object of our purfuit, fo

fuicerely
direcStly in

we

are capable

lefs

other inftances of defiring the

others
it is

benefit of our neighbour.

By

affirmed, that

we

are

incapable of acting but from the profpet or ftimulant of perfonal advantage, and that,

when our condufb

appears moft reit

trograde from this cbjeft, the principle from which

Superiority of the for-

flows

is

fecretly the fame.

It

fliall

be the bufinefs of this chapter to

is

mer,

prove that the former hypothefis

conformable to truth.

Aaion

is

j(.

ig

iQ

|je

either voiun-

prefumed from the arguments of the preceSing chap^ ^

"^
.

tary or mvoluutary.

j-gj-

that there exift in the theory of the

'

human mind two

The
laft

clafTes

of

adion, voluntary and involuntary.

of thefe v/e have

minutely invefligated.

It

has fufficiently

appeared that there

are certain motions of the animal fyftem,

which have

fenfation

or thought for their

medium of produGion, and at

mode of

the fame time

arife, to have recourfe to a ufual

expreffion,

Iponrefult

taneoufly, without forefight of or a dired reflediing

on the

which

is

to follow.

But,

if

we

admit the exiftence of

lefs

this

phenomenon, there does not feem

reafon

to

admit the

exiftence of the other clafs of adlion above enumerated,

which
is

O
IS

V RTU
I

E.
refult,

543
its

accompanied In
to

its

operation with a forefight of

^C)OK
*

IV.
'

and

which

that forefight ferves as the reafon

and caufe of ex-

iftence.

Vohintary alion cannot proceed from

criminately, but only

all

perceptions indifciafs,

^'''"''^

^.'^^

from !percepticns of a peculiar

viz.

cla*l>^s,

fuch perceptions as are accompanied with the idea of fomething

as true refpedting

them, fomething which

firft

may

be affirmed or

denied.

One

of the

inferences therefore

from the dodlrine

of voluntary adlion,
culty diftindl
polTibility

is

the exiftence of the underftanding as a fa-

from

fenfation, or, to fpeak

more

accurately,

the

of employing the general capacity of perception, not of diftindt ideas, but as the

merely

as the vehicle

medium of

connedting two or more ideas together.

This particular habit,

itfelf to

when

it

has once been created, gradually extends

till

every

province of the mind,

to

at

length

it is

impoffible for

any thing

make
its

a clear and diftindl impreffion

upon

the fenforium, with-

out

being followed with fome judgment of the mind conit.

cerning

It is

thus that

man becomes

a moral being.

He

is

no

farther

fo than

he

is

capable of connedling and comparing ideas,

of

making propofitions concerning them, and of

forefeeing certain

confequences as the refult of certain motions of the animal fyftem.

But,

if the forellght

of certain confequences to

refult

may

be
the

344

OF
IV.
^

THE PRINCIPLE
is,

BOOK
*^

tiie fufficlent

reafon of adion, that

if there

be fuch a thin?

"

as volition, then every forefight of that kind has a

tendency to

alion.

If the perception of fomething

as

true, joined
this truth,

with
it-

the confcioufnefs of
felf fufficient to

my

capacity to aft

upon

be of

produce motion in the animal fyftem, then every

perception fo accompanied has a tendency to inotion.

this to the fubjedt before us.

To

apply

Argument
that
1

I pcrceive a certain agreeable food,

.

perceive in myfelf an

tlults

from

it.

appetite

which

i.-ii-i-i.is this food

adapted to gratify, and thele percep-

tions are

accompanied with a confcioufnefs of

my

power

to ap-

propriate this food. If

no other confideration
jufi;

exift in

my

mind

beyond thofe which have

animal fyftem

been

ftated, a certain

motion of the

irrefiflibly follows.

Suppofe

now

that the perfon about

is

whofe

appetites thefe pro-

pofitions are converfant,

not myfelf but another.

Still

This variaall

tion cannot materially alter the cafe.

there remain
I

the

circumftances neceffary to
food,
I

generate

motion.

perceive the

am am

acquainted \vith the wants of the perfon in queftion,

confcious of
is

and

my

power of adminiftering

to them.

Nothing more

neceffary in order to produce a certain

moveno

ment of

my body.

Therefore,
exift;

if,

as

in

the former cafe,

other confideration

in

my

mind, a certain motion of the

Therefore,
if

animal fyftem

irrefiftibly follows.

ten thoufand

other confiderations exift, yet there was in

this,

feparately conftdered,

OF VIRTUE.
fidered, a

345
alone, '

tendency to motion.
'

That which, when

muft ^^OOK
CHAP.
*^

iv. VII r.
'

inevitably produce motion, muft,

its

however accompanied,

retain

internal charader.

Let us however fuppofe, which

feeins

the only ^

confiftent
is

Y"i""taryaction has a real

mode of
fuch
adis

fupporting the dodlrine of

felf love,

"

that there

no

exillcncc,

thing pradlically confidered as volition, that

man

never

from

a forefight of confequences,
to adt at

but always continues to

lirft,

ad;, as

we have proved him

from the mere imto

pulfe of pain,

and precifely in the manner

which

that

im-

pulfe prompts him,

without the rational faculty having any ten-

dency
an

to prolong, to

check or

to regulate his adlions."

What
we we

incredible pidure does this exhibit to us of the

human mind?

We

form

to ourfelves, for this cannot

be difputed, opinions,

meafure the tendency of means to the promotion of ends,

compare the value of

different

objeds,

and

we

imagine our

condud
make.

to be

influenced by the judgments

we

are induced to

We

perceive the preferablenefs of one thing to another,

we
is

defire,

we

chufe
;

all

this

cannot be denied.

But

all

this

a A'ain apparatus

and the whole fyftem of our condudt pro-

ceeds, uninfluenced

by our apprehenfion of

the relative value

of objects,
adverfe.

and our forefight of confequences favourable or

There
to

is

no other

alternative.

Once admit
and there

the underftanding
is

Confcquepce
ence.

an

efficient fhare in the bufinefs,

no reafon

that

can

346

OFTHEPRINCIPLE
IV.
'

BOOK
*""
"

can poffibly be afligned,

why

every topic, which

not have
its

is

the objedl
effi-

of

human

underftanding, fliould
that

portion of

ciency..

Once admit

wc ad upon

the apprehenfion

of

fomething that

may

be affirmed or denied refpeding an idea, and

we

ffiall

be compelled to acknowledge that every propofition

it

including in

the notion of preferablenefs or the contrary, of

wnll,

better or worfe,

fo far as

it

falls

within the compafs of

our power

real or

fuppofed to

effet,

afford a motive inducing,

to

though with

different

degrees of energy,

animal motion.
felf love.

But

this is dlredlly contrary to the

theory of

They

who

maintain that

felf

love

is

the only fpring of adion, fay in

is

effed, not only that

no adion

dilinterefted, but- that

no

dif-

Interefted confideratlon contributes in

any degree

as

an induce-

ment

to

adion.
I

If I

relieve

the virtuous diftrefs of the heft

of men,

am

influenced according to

them by no

particle

of

love for the individual or compaffion for his diftrefs, but

clufively

ex-

by the

defire

of procuring gratification to myfelf..

Let us confider
either that

this cafe a little

more

clofely.

If I perceive
facrificed

my

profperity or exiftence muft be

to

thofe

of twenty

men

as

good

as myfelf,

or theirs to mine,
the former

furely this affords

feme fmall inducement

'

to adopt

part of the alternative.

excite

It

may

not be fuccefsful,

but does

it
?

no wifh however

fleeting,
is

no

regret

however ineffedual
affair

The
is

decifion of the queftion

in reality

an

of arithmetic
to underftand it?

there

no hiunan being

that

was ever competent

O
It
?

F
is

RTU

E. has no

347

The

value of a

man

his ufefulnefs

man

ever be- (^j^^W^J

lieved that another's capacity for ufefulnefs

I

was equal

to his

own?

'

am

as 40, confequently the others are as

it

800

if

the
;

40 were
is it

not myfelf, I fhould pereive that

fible I

was

lefs

than 800

pof?

Ihould not perceive

it,

when

the cafe becomes

my own

But the advocates

for the fyftem of felf love generally admit,

"

that

it is

poffible for a

man

to facrifice his
;"

own

exiftence

in

order

to

preferve

that

of twenty others

but they affirm,

" that
that

in fo doing
better for

he

ad:s

from perfonal

intereft.

He

perceives

it is

him

to die

with the confcioufnefs of an heit."

roic action, than live

with the remorfe of having declined

That

is,

here

is

an adlion attended with various recommenda-

tions, the advantage to arife to

twenty men,

their tranquillity

and happinefs through a long period of remaining

benefits they will not
poraries,
fail

exiftence, the

to confer

on thoufands of their contemlaftly his

and through them on millions of pofterity, and

own

efcape

from remorfe and momentary exultation

virtue.

in the per-

formance of an at of
the
laft,

From

all

thefe motives he feleds

the former he wholly dlfregards, and adopts a condudl

of the

higheft generofity from

no view but

to his

own

advantage.
felf as

Abftradedly and impartially confidered, and putting

out of the queftion,
this
is

fuch
is

its leaft

recommendation, and he
all

abfolutely and unlimitedly callous to

the

reft.

Confidering then the fyftem of difintereftednefs as fufficiently

ExpcrlmentaJ view of the

Aibjeit.

y 2

eftablifhed

348

OF
VIII

THE PRINCIPL
us compare ^
it

E
of exthis

BOOK IV.
CHAP.
^
buppoiitions fuggefted by

f.

eftabliflied In theory, let "

-with the leflbns

'

perience.
^i^gory
is

There are two

oppofed
;

different hypothefes J
1.

by which J

the one affirming " that in every thing

we

of

felf love:

^^^ ^^ employ,

previoufly to the choice of the mind, a calculation

far the thing to
;"

by which we determine how

duce to our

be done will con-

own

advantage

the

other afcribing our adtions

" to the fame blind and unintelligent principle, by which, when a

child cries, he frequently utters a found unexpefted

by

himfelf,

hut which inevitably refults from a certain connexion of an 02>

ganized body with an irritated mind,"

fhtit

we

cal-

How
pothefcs

far docs experience agree

?

with the

firfl:

of thefe hy-

all

occafions

Surely nothing can be more contrary to any thing

we

to accrue to

are able to obferve of ourfelves, than to imagine,, that

in every

ad, of pity fuppofe,

to ourfelves, before

we we

efhiraate the quantity

of benefit to ariie
It

yield to the emotion.

is

might be

faid

indeed, that the

mind

very fubtle in

its

operations,

and

that, a

certain train of reafoning

having been rendered familiar to

us,

we

pafs

it

over in our reflections with a rapidity that leaves no

trace in the
little

memory.

But

this,

though

true, will
it

contribute

to relieve the fyftem

we

are ccnfidering, fince

unfortu-

nately happens that our

firft

emotions of pity are

leafl

capable of

being accounted for in this way.

Faifenefs of
this fuppofi-

To

uudcrfland this
feel

let

us begin with the cafe of an Infant,

tJoE.

Before he can

fympathy, he mult have been led by a

feries

OF VIRTUE.
'

3^

feiies of obfervations to perceive that his nurfe for example BOOK iv. ^ ' is CHAP. VIIX. ' a being poflefled of confcioufnefs, and fufceptible Hke himfelf

of the imprellions of pleafure and pain.

Having fuppUed him

fall

with

this

previous knowledge,

let

us fuppofe his nurfe to

leg.

from a

flight

of

flairs

and break her

;

He

will

probably

feel

fome concern
of her
in
cries,

for the accident

fnnilar to thofe

he will uaderPcand the meaning

he has been accuftomed to utter

her.

diftrefs^
is

and he will difcover fome wifh to relieve

firfl

Pity

perhaps

introduced by a mechanical impreffion upon

the organs,

in confequence
the. child

of wliich the

cries

uttered

by
cries

another prompt

without direl defign to utter

of his own.

Thefe are

at firft

unaccompanied with compaflion,

the infant to yield atten-

but they naturally induce the

mind of

tion to the appearance, which thus impreffed him..

In^ the relief

he wilhes to communicate
?

is

he prompted by
is

refleding on the pleafures of generofity

fition the firft

This

by the fuppo-

benevolent emotion he has experienced, and preit is

vioufly to experience
fures of benevolence.

impofTible he fhould forefee the plea^

Shall

we
?

fuppofe that he

is

influenced
if

by

other
die,

felfifh

confiderations

He

confiders,

that,

his

nurfe

he will be in danger of perifhing;

of his airings.
that, in

and
Is

that, if
it

fhe be lame, he will be deprived

fible that

poi>-

any man fhould

believe,
is

the inftantaneous

impulfe of fympathy, the child

fiderations
?

guided by thefe remote conto

Indeed

it

was unneceflary
it

have inftanced in

a-n

adion apparently benevolent, fmce

is

equally clear that our

mofl

35

OF THE PRINCIPLE
IV.
'

BOOK
CHAP.
''

nioft familiar

adions are inconfiftent with

this

VIII.

explanation. ^

"

We

do not

fo

much

as eat

and drink, from the recollection that

our fupport.

;thefe functions are neceifary to

Suppofiuon
of a contrary
fort.

The

fecond of the two hypothefes enumerated,

-

is

diametrically
i

the reverfe of the

firft.

As

the former repreleated

11

all

human

adtions as proceeding
;telled;,

from a very remote deduction of the inIn

the latter confiders the whole as merely phyfical.

fenfe,

its literal

as has already

been feen, nothing can be more

Its

incompatible with experience.

advocates therefore are obliged

to modify their original aflumption, and to fay, not that

.^merely

we

adt

from
;

fenfation, but that fenfation affords the balls for

that,

refleflion
felves

and

though we be capable of conducing ourforefight, yet the only topic to

is

by fyftem and

which we
all

can apply that forefight

that

the removal of pain.

In reality

which

is

regularly adapted to the accomplifhment of a certain

purpofe, muft be admitted to flow from the didates of reflection.

The

tear ftarts, the cry

is

uttered at the

prompting of

fenfation'

only, but

we

cannot

lift

a finger to relieve except as

we

are

com-

manded by

the underfl:anding.

We do

not

Here then we are prefented with the commencement of

ferics.

new
at

calculate

what

would be the
uneafmefs to refuitfromour
refraining to

If uneafiiiefs be

ftill

the fource of the

phenomena,

leaft

it is

now under a different

form.

Before, a certain emotion

.^a
either in
re-

was produced, refpedting which no intention was extant in the

mind.
certain

Now
a

an adtiou or a

feries

of actions

is

adopted with a
is faid

Keving
-trefe;

dif-

view and leading

to a certain end.

This end

to

be

OF VIRTUE.
be the removal of uneafinefs.

351
be or no
is

Whether
is

it

a queftlon ^

BOOK iv.
CHAP.
^^

VIII.
'

which recolledion
decide.
If

in

ma.ny cafes

competent to enable us to

^^

we

frequently deceive ourfelves as to the motive

to

by

which we
Or

are

prompted

ad,

this is chiefly

owing

to vanity,

defire
to

of imputing to ourfelves, or being underftood by the

al

world

from a principle more elevated than

But
this idea is
leafl:

that

which

truly belongs to us.

prevalent v/ith chil-

dren and favages, and of confequence they ought to be mofl:

completely aware that the proje<fl they have conceived
is

that of

removing

uneafinefs.

It

feems to be an

uncommon
really purfue

refinement
is

in abfurdity to fay, that the

end

we
;

one to

which we

are in

no inftance confcious

that our alion

is

wholly

derived from an unperceived influence, and the view extant ia

tke underftanding altogether impotent and unconcerned.

In the cafe

we have
;

juft

examined uneafinefs
'

is

the

firft

flep
is

or in adding
to the ftock

in the procefs

m
.

others

which might be

ftated uneafinefs

ofgcneial good.

not the

firfi

ftep.

" In the purfuit" fuppofe " of a chemical

procefs I accidentally difcover a circumftance,

great benefit to mankind.
I

which may be of
was
oriit

inftantly quit the objeft I

ginally purfuing, profecute this difcovery,

to the world."

and communicate

In the former proceeding a fenfation of pain

was the

initiative,

and put

my

intelledbual
is

powers into

acflion.

In the prefent cafe the perception of truth

the original mover.

Whatever uneafinefs may be fuppofed

anxious for the publication of

to exift,

rendering

me
the

'

this benefit, is the

confequence of

35^

OF THE PRINCIPLE
IV.
'

BOOK
*

CHAP. VIII.
"

i\^Q

perception. ^ ^

The

uneafinefs

would never have

exifled if the

perception had not gone before

it.

Uneafinefs

But
this

it

has been

faid,

" that, though the perception of truth in

an accidental member of
the procefs.

cafe gocs

firft,

the pain

was not

^ lefs
,

,.-

-,

indifpeniible

the

procefs, fince, without that, adlion

would never have followed,

Ation

is

the child of defire, and a cold and uninterefting deci-

fion of the underftanding

would

for ever

have

laid

dormant in
is

the mind."

Granting that pain in a certain modified degree

it

conftant ftep in the procefs,

it is

may
word

neverthelefs be denied that

indifpenfible.
is

in the flrideft fenfe of the

To

perceive

that I

ought to publilh a certain difcovery,

is

to perceive that

publifhing
preference
is

preferable to not publifhing

to prefer,

it.

But

to perceive a

is

and

to prefer

is

to choofe.

The
which

procefs
it

in this cafe
all, is

complete, and pain,

in the fenfe in

comes

in at

merely an accident.

Why
it

do

feel

pain in the
is
?

negledl of an at of benevolence,

but becaufe

benevolence

judged by me

to be

a,

condud:

vv^hich

becomes

me

to adopt

Does the underftanding wait

fult

to enquire

what advantage

will re-

from the propofitions, that two and two make four, or

contribute to the happinefs of

that

fuch and fuch caufes vdll

my
?

neighbour, before

it is

capable of perceiving

them

to be true

The fame
ble

principle

which

is

applied here,

is

not
all

lefs

applica-

to fame, wealth

and power, in a word to

thofe purfuits
civilifed

which engage the

refle<3:ing

and fpeculative part of the

world.

O
world.

VIRTU

E.
ijiuTued
'

.^^
^

None of

thefe objeds
intelledl

would ever have been

.

EOOK iv. CHAl'. Vlll.

*^

if the decifions

of the

had not gone

firft,

and informed

'

us that they were worthy to be purfued.

Neither of the two hypothefes

we have been examining would

as plaufible in themfelves,

THe
tioiis

fuppcii-

incon-

perhaps have been reckoned fo

if

much

fiitently

blended.

they had not been blended together by the inadvertence of their

fupporters.

The

advocates of felf love have been aware,

that

the mere fenfitive

impulfe of pain would account for a very

fmall part of the hiftory of

fibiy Aided

man

and they have therefore infento be

from the confideration of uneafmefs

removed,
the

to that of intereft to be promoted.

They have confounded

j

two

cafes of fenfation

and

refledlion

and, taking

it

for granted

in the latter that private gratification

was the objedt univerfally

all

purfued, have concluded that they were accounting for

human

adions from one

principle.

In reality no two principles can be

more

diftind, than the impulfe of uneafmefs,

which has very

improperly been denominated the love of ourfelves, and that deliberate felf love,

by which of

fet

defign

we

purfue our

own

ad-

vantage.

One

circumftance only they have in

common,

that of

reprefenting us as incapable of underftanding any propofition,

till

we have

in

fome way or other conneded

it

with perfonal in-

tereft.

This
;

is

certainly a juft reprefentation of their confeif I

quences

fince,

were capable of underftanding the naked

neighbour ftood in need, of
a candle for

propofition, that

my

inftance

354

O
IV.
'

TH

P L E

BOOK
'

CHAlW'IIf.
^

inftance to be
this

removed from one end of

room

to

tlie

other, '

would be

a reafon of adlon, a motive, either ftrong or vreak,

either

predominant or the contrary.

But,

if this

conlidcratiou

entered for any thing into the ground of

my

proceeding, the

whole would not be

refolvable into felf love.

Scheme of
felf love re-

An
dency

hypothefis,

which has been thought

to

have fome tenfelf love,

is

commended
from the propenfity of

to relieve the difficulties of the fyftem

of

that

" of the mliid's reafoning out for

itfelf certain

general principles,
it

mind

to abits

breviate procefs.

which

are

a fort

of refting-places in the procefs, to which

afterwards recurs, and

upon which

it acSts,

without being

at

the

trouble in each inftance of application, of repeating the reafons

upon which
metry,
as

the general principle

was founded.

Thus

in geo-

we

proceed to the higher branches,

we

perpetually

refer to the earlier proportions as eftabliflied

and

certain, with-

out having at the time in our minds perhaps the fmalleft recolleclion

of the

way
But

in

which thofe

early

propofitions
true,

were

demonftrated."
little

this reprefentation,

though
us.

has A'ery

tendency to decide in the fubjeft before

It is ftill true,

that, if I

be capable of underftanding a propofition

of

as

it

relates

to the

interefi:

my
it

neighbour, any reafoning about the prois

pofition

by

vv^hich

indiredly

connefted Mnth

my own
It is

intereft, is
ftill

unneceffary to put

me

into a ftate of adion.

true, that
till it

my

a6iion has a dired and an indiredl tendency

is

^nd,

can be fhown that there

fomething in the nature of

mind

OF VIRTUE.
mind
that unfits
it

3^5

for entertalnin": the diredl pni-pofe, an unlittle

BOOK
^

iv.

prejudiced enquirer wil! be very

iiave recourfe to thdt

difpofed univerfally to

-^

which

is indirctfl.

The

hypothefis of

felf

love fecms to have been originally in- from

'

the fimthe

pl,L'f/ tiint

vculxd froni a Icve of " that fimplicitv, which appears to be the

ultimate term in
the univtrfe."
bation,
all

cl tain, in

natures of

grand difcoveries
fimplicity,

relative to the fyftem

of

things,

But

though well defervlng our approbe a fuflicient llipport for any

in this cafe
is

can

fcarcely

of

itfelf

opinion.

The

fimplicity

however

more apparent

than

real.

Not

to repeat

what has been

faid relative to the

coalition of

two hypothefes very Incongruous

in their

own

nature,

there

is little

genuine fimplicity in a fcheme, that reprefents us

as perpetually

ading from

a motive
intricate

which we

leaft fufpeted,

and feeks by
dation of

a circuitous

and

method
all

for a

recommenand

little

intrinfic value,

rejeding in
vievv^

cafes the great

obvious reafon which the

firft

of the fubjeft fuggefted.

of the oppofite fyftem,

True

fimplicity

is

altogether

on the

fide

which

reprefents

man

as capable of being governed by the

nature of the thing, and of ad:ing from the motive which he

fuppofes to Influence
tion to account for

him
all

which requires nothing but percep-

the
is

phenomena of mind, and, when

veafon exciting to a(ftion

additional principle to

apprehended, does not feek for an

open a communication between the judg-

ment and the

choice.

z 2

There

^^6
There
is

OF
conclufive as

THE PRINCIPLE
it

one obfervation more, which, though

be not fb

feme of thofe which have been mentioned, ought

If felf love be the only principle of aftion,
as virtue.

not to be omitted.
there can be

no fuch thing

Virtue

is

a principle in

the mind,

by which we

are enabled to

form a true eftimate of

the pretenfions of different reafons inviting us to preference.

He,

that

makes a

falfe eftimate,

and prefers a

trivial
is

and

partial
It is

good to an important and comprehenfive one,

I

vicious.

in the difpofition and view of the mind, and not in the good

which may
confifts.

accidentally and unintentionally refult,

at

that virtue
to

Judas's

in

betraying

Chrift,
real

according

the

Chriftian fyftem,

may

be regarded as a

and

effential caufe

conducing to the falvation of mankind.

not virtuous, but vicious. of
filver,

Yet Judas's ad: was

He

thought only of the forty pieces

the price of his treachery, and negleded every confiJuft fo in the cafe ftated

deration of public utility and juftice.

early in the prefent chapter, the public benefadtor, abfolutely

and

ftridly fpeaking, prefers forty to eight

millions.

hundred or eight hundred

of the
cafe, his

So

far as relates to the real merits

is

own

advantage or pleafure

a very infignificant confideration,

and the
ble.

benefit to be produced, fuppofe to a world, is ineftimafalfely

Yet he
latter,

and unjuftly prefers the

firft,

and regards

the

abftradedly confidered, as nothing.

if I

If there be fuch a

thing as juftice,

have a

real

and abfolute value, upon which

is

truth can decide,

greater or
lefs,

and which can be compared with what

then, according to this fyftem, the beft adtion that

ever

OF VIRTUE.
ever was performed, may, for any thinp; ^ y & ' /'

357
the

we know, have been

BOOK
*

IV.
'

CHAP.viri.

action in the whole world of the moft exquifite and deliberate

injuftice.

Nay,

it

could not have been otherwife, fince

it

proin-

duced the
ftance in

greateft good,

and therefore was the individual

which the

greateft

good was moft

diredlly poftponed

to peribnal gratification.

Nor

will

this

objedlon be

much

relieved

by the fyftem

already alluded to of refting-places, enabling a

man

in a certain
his con-

degree to forget the narrow and

fellifh principles in

which

duct originated.

It

can fcarcely be queftioned, that the motives

to adopt his fyftem of condufi:,
it,

which induced a man

and with-

out which he never would have adopted

are of

more importare

ance, than the thoughtleflhefs and inattention

forgotten, in deciding

by which they

upon

the morality of his charader.

From

this train

of reafoning the

refult is, that

men

are capa-

Conclufion.

ble of underftanding the beauty of virtue,

and the claims of

other

men upon

their benevolence

and, underftanding them,

that thefe views, as well as every other perception of the intelled,

are of the

nature of motives,

fometimes overpowered

by

other confiderations, and fometimes overpowering them, but

always in their

own

nature capable of exciting to adion,

fort.

when

not counteracted by pleas of a different

Men

are capable

no doubt of

preferring an

inferior
;

intereft

of their

own
it

to
is

a fuperior intereft of other people

but to this preference

perhaps

J^'

OF
IV.
'

THE PRINCIPLE
t'lat

BOOK
''

perhaps

nece.(iary,

tliey

fliould

lma;^ine

the

benefit

to

'^

themfclves to be great and the injaiy to others comparatively

fmall, or

ehe that they fhould have embraced the pernicious

is

opinion that the general good

heft

lerved

by each man's

applying himfclf exclulively to his perfonal advantage.

Importance of the QUtitioii.

Th<;re

IS

no doclrine

in

mind

refts

with more iatisiaaion, than

If
it

.,.
it

which the generous and

elevated

m
.

tnat ot

ri'i which

we

are to

treatin"-.

be

falfe,

is

no doubt incumbent upon us

make
it

the bell of the fmall rem.nant of

good

that remains.

But

is

a heartlefs profpect for the moralift,

all,

who, when he has

to

done

has no hope to perfuade

mankind

one atom of

real

affedion towards any one Individual of their

fpecies.

We
way

may
lefs

be made indeed the inftruments of good, but in a

honourable, than that in which a frame of

wood

or a fheet of
or the

paper

may

be
at

made

the inftrum^nt of good.

The wood

paper are

lead neutral.

But we

are

drawn

into the fervice

with aifedions of a diametrically oppofite diredion.

the moft benevolent action,
it

When we do
own
fame

is

with a view only to our

advantage, and with the moft fovereign and unrefer\'ed negledl of

that of others.

We
men

are inftruments of good, juft in the

manner
even In

as

bad

are faid to be the inftruments of providence,

when

their inclinations are

moft refraftory to

its

decrees.

this fenfe

we may

admire the fyftem of the univerfe, where

public utility refults from each man's contempt of that utility, and

where the moft

beneficial

adions of thofe,

whom we

have been

accuftomed

V RTU
I
ai^e

E.

359
iv. Cm.AI'.V'i'
^

accuftomed to term the beft men,

juftice

only inflances in which

BOOF

and the

real merits

of the cafe are moft flagrantly violated.

But we can think with

little

complacence of the individuals of

It
is

whom
men

this univerfe

is

compofed.

no wonder

that philotheir fellow

fophers,

whofe fyftem has taught them

and unjuft,
It
is

to look

upon

as thus perverfe

have been frequently cold,

phlegmatic and unanimated.

the moft benevolent of
all

no wonder

thai:

R.oufleau

thefe philofopliers,

and

who

moft

efcaped the general contagion, has been driven to place the peifeftion of
all

virtue in doing
w^ill

no injury*.
ever

Neither philofophy
till

nor morality nor politics

fhall

fhow

like the'mfelves,
is,

man

be acknowledged for what he really

a being capable of

juftice, virtue

and benevolence, and

who

needs not ahvays to be

frivolous con-

led to a philanthropical condudt

fiderations.

by foreign and

The
is

fyftem of difinterefted benevolence proves to us, that

it

poflible to be virtuous,

and not merely

to talk of virtue

that

all

which has been

is

laid

by phllolophers and
;

moralifts refpc^ting
that,

impartial juftice

not an unmeaning rant

and

when we call

upon mankind
fiderations,

to diveft themfelves
call

of

fcliifli

and perfonal con-

we

upon them

for fomething

which they

are
j^

able to pratlfe.

An

idea like this reconciles us to our fpecies

teaches us to regard with enlightened admiration the

*

men who
du mal

" La plus fiiblime

-ccrtu eft negative; elk nous Jiiftniit de ne jamnisfalre

II.

a pcrjhuni."

Emile, Liv.

have

360

OFTHEPRINCIPLE
have appeared to
lofe the feeling
;

of their perfonal exiftence in

the purfuit of general advantage

that, as

and gives us reafon to

expel:,

men

colleaively advance in fcience and ufeful inftitu-

tion,

they will proceed more and more to confolidate their pri-

vate

judgment and

their individual will

with abftrad

juftice

and

the

unmixed

approbation of general happinefs.

Application,

What

are the Inferences that ought to be

political inftitution
?

made from

this

dodirine with refped to

Certainly not that

the intereft of the individual ought to be the part he

is

made incompatible with

expected to take in the intereft of the whole.

This

is

neither defirable, nor even poflible.

But

that focial in-

ftitution needs not defpair of feeing

men
is

influenced

by other
recolledl

and
that

better

motives.

The

legiflator

bound

to

the true perfection of

mind

confifts

in difmtereftednefs.

He

fhould regard

it

as the ultimate objeft

of his exertions, to
value,

induce

men

to

eftimate

themfelves

at

their true

and

neither to grant to themfelves nor claim from others a higher

confideration

than they juftly deferve.

Above
felfifta

all

he fliould

be careful not to add to the vigour of the

ftiould gradually
fit

paflions.

He
bene-

wean men from contemplating

their

own

in

all

that they do, and induce them to view with comis

placency the advantage that

to refult to others.

The
which

laft

perfedion of

this,

feeling confifts in that ftate of

mind

bids us rejoice as fully in the

good

that

is

done by others,
as

O
as
if
it

VIRTU
ourfelves.
intereft

E.
truly wife ^

361

were done by ^
neither

The

man
love

will

COOK
^

IV.
*

CHAP. VIIL
^

be actuated

by

nor ambition, the

has no emulation.

of
is

honour nor the love of fame.

not

He

Pie

made uneafy by

a comparifon of his

own

attainments with

thofe of others, but

by

a comparifon with the ftandard of right.

He

has a duty indeed obliging

;

him

to feek the

good of the
good be
All

whole

but that good

is

his

only obje6:.

If that

effeded by another hand, he

are his fellow labourers, but

feels

no difappointment.
the rival of
:

men
Like

he

is

no man.

Pedaretus in ancient ftory, he exclaims

to deferve
;

"

alfo

have endeavoured

but there are three hundred citizens in Sparta better"

I rejoice."

than myfelf, and

CHAP.

3f^2

CHAP.

IX.

OF THE TENDENCY OF VIRTUE.

-IT

TO THE ESTEEM AND IS THE ROAD TO HAPPINESS OBJECTION FROM MISCONAFFECTION OF OTHERS. STRUCTION AND CALUMNY. ANSWER. VIRTUE COMPARED WITH OTHER MODES OF PROCURING ESTEEM. VICE AND NOT VIRTUE IS THE SUBJECT OF OBLOQUY INSTANCED IN THE BASE ALLOY WITH WHICH OUR VIRTUES ARE MIXED IN ARROGANCE AND OSTENTATION IN THE VICES IN WHICH PERSONS OF MORAL EXCELLENCE ALLOW THEMSELVES. THE VIRTUOUS MAN ONLY HAS FRIENDS. VIRTUE THE ROAD TO PROSPERITY AND APPLIED TO COMMERCIAL SUCCESS IN THE WORLD TRANSACTIONS TO CASES THAT DEPEND UPON PAAPPARENT EXCEPTIONS WHERE THE DETRONAGE. PENDENT IS EMPLOYED AS THE INSTRUMENT OF VICE. VIRTUE COMPARED WITH OTHER MODES OF BECOMING PROSPEROUS. SOURCE OF THE DISREPUTE OF VIRCONCESSION. CASE WHERE TUE IN THIS RESPECT. CONVENIENT VICE BIDS FAIR FOR CONCEALMENT. INDOLENCE APPREHENCHANCE OF DETECTION. AND DEPRAVITY THE OFFSPRING OF VICE. ,SIVENSS

-^

q^OOK
v!fc
;,,

IV.
'

T TAVING
| *- -*- upon
its

endeavoured to
true principle,

eftablifh

the theory of virtue

that felf intereft
is

CHAP. IX.

and
truth,

to

fhew

(neither its bafis in juftice

and

nor by any means neceffary

to

OF THE TENDENCY OF VIRTUE.

to incite us to the pradice,
it

^^t,

may
is

not be improper to confider

EOOK
'

ly.
'

in

what degree public

intereft

coincident with private, and

bv

that

means

at

once to remove one of the enticements and apo-

logies of vice,

and afford an additional encouragement and direc-

tion to the true politician^

In the

firft

place then, there appears to be fufficient reafon

is

it is the

road

to believe, that the pravSice of virtue

the true road to individual

happinefs.
this place

Many
"Virtue

of the reafons which might be adduced in

have been anticipated in the chapter of the Cultivation

is

of Truth.

a fource of happinefs that does not pall in

the enjoyment, and of which no

man

can deprive us

*.
its

The
true

effence of virtue confifts in the feeing every thing in

light,

and eftimating every thing

is

at its intrinfic value.

No man
become

therefore, fo far as he

virtuous, can be in danger to

a prey to forrow and difcontent.

He

will habituate himfelf,

its

refpedling every fpecies of conduct and temper, to look at

abfolute utility, and to tolerate
arife either to himfelf or others.

none from which

benefit cannot

Nor

will this be fo diificult a

is

tafk as

it is

commonly imagined.

The man, who

accuftomed
a

upon

every occafion to confult his reafon, will fpeedily find

habit of this nature

growing upon him,

till

the jufl and difpafwill

fionate value of every incident that befals

him

come

at

length

fpontaneoufly to fuggell

itfelf.

Thole

evils

which prejudice ha&

* Ch. IV. p. 233.

taught

364
^*^9\^ ^Z-

O
taught fo great a
V-

THE TEMBENCY
of mankind to regard with horror, will apPoverty,

p?a-t

-'

'

pear to his underftanding difarmed of their terrors.

obloquy and difgrace

.

will be

judged by him
bfe

to be very trivial

misfortunes.

Few

conditions can

fo deilitute as to deprive

us of the means of obtaining for ourfelves a fubfiftence.

reafonable
beft

The

mind

perceives at once the poffibility of this and the

it
;

method of executing

and

it

needs no great ftretch of un-

derftanding to decide, that real happinefs does not confift in luxurious accommodations.

With refped

to obloquy and difgrace,

the wife

man may
from

lament the tendency they poflefs to narrow

;

the fphere of his ufefulnefs

feparately

but he will readily perceive, that,

this confideration,

they are no

evils.

My real
own, and

value depends

upon the

qualities that are

properly

my

.cannot be diminiflied

by the

flander

and contempt of the whole

its

world.

Even bodily pain

lofes

much of

fting,

when

it Is

encountered by a chearful, a compofed, and a determined

fpirit.

To

all

thefe negative advantages of virtue,

we may add

the po-

fitive fatisfalion

of a

mind

confcious of redltude, rejoicing in

the good of the whole, and perpetually exerted for the promo*

rtion

of that good.

There

are indeed

fome extreme

cafes of the eledion

it

of a

vir-

tuous conduft,

refpeding which

is

difficult

to

pronounce.

Was

it

Regulus's intereft to return to Carthage to a tormenting

life
?

death, rather than fave his

by perfuading the Roman

it

fenate

io an exchange of prifonets

Probably

w^as.

Probably, with

the

O
tlie e^rquifite feellncr ^ to

V RTU
1

E.

2^^
.

liiC

of duty with which Re^ruhis was riulmatcd, COOK / o > CHAP. v that was to be pei'petually haunted with the recolleftion of
*^

TV. IX.
'

jiis

having omitted the nobleft opportunity of public

fervice,

was
to

not worth his purchafe.

His reafoning,

fo

far as related

perfonal intereft, might be like that of Cato in the play.;

"
Is

day, an hour, of virtuous liberty

in

worth a whole eternity

bondage *."

Secondly, virtue not only leads to the happinefs of him

pradlifes
it,

who

to tlie eilenik

but to the efteem and aiTedion of others.

Nothing

of others.'

can be more indifputable, than that the direct road to the efteem

of mankind,
jnoft artful
different

is

by doing things worthy of

their efteem.

The

fcheme for paffing things upon others for fomewhat

really are,
is

from what they

;

in

momentary danger of
to fuppofe, that

-detection

and

it

would be an egregious miftake

to

tnien efteem

any thing but what comes

them under
is

the ap-

The

firft;

of the three heads difcuffed in this chapter

inferted chiefly for

is

the fake of method, few perfons having really doubted that virtue

the moft

genuine fource of individual tranquillity and happinefs.

It is therefore difmilTed

with

all

practicable brevity.
It
is

The two remaining heads had

a fironger

claim to

difculTion.

unfortunately happens to be the generally received opinion, that

neither the furcfl road to other men's approbation and efteem,
If the

rigid virtue

nor the moft probable means of fecuring our external profperity.

author

had known of any work

this fubjeft in

at prefent exifting, that

had appeared

to

him

to place

any degree

in its true light,

he would have omitted the reafon-

ings of

tliis

chapter.

pearancc

r^66

OF
IV.

THE TENDENCY
No man
ever exiftecl of a tafte Co depravecT

BOGK
CHAP.
* "

IX.
'

pearance of virtue. ^
as to feel real
flattery,

approbation of another, for the artfulnefs of his

or the cunning with

which he over-reached

his neighs-

hours.

Obieaion

f^ There
|

is

indeed one difadvantage that occurs under this head,

circumftance, "
that

itruftioll '^and

confifting in this

no man truly

admires___j
to-

ealumny.

^^at he docs not underftand.

Now,

in order thoroughly

comprehend the value of any mental

intelledlual or
i',

effort,

whether of a purely

moral nature,

it is

perhaps neceflary that the ge-

nius or virtue of the fpedator fhould be equal to that of

him

^^ t^^^'

by

whom

it is

made.

It is

an

inevitable

law of our nature, that

we

fhould in a great meafure judge of others

by

ourfelves,

and
our

form our ftandard of

human

nature

by an

inveftigation of

own

minds.

That, refpeding which

we

feel

a clear and diftint

convidion that
fufpet
to

we

are

ourfelves

incapable,

we

are prone to

be

mere fhow and deception

in others.

We

are

the

more

inclined to this, becaufe

we

feel their virtues to

little

be a

reproach to our indolence, and therefore are

difpofed to

make

a liberal eftimate of them,"

AnfvTcr.

But, though there be fome truth in thefe obfervations, they

have frequently been made

much

too indifcriminate,

by

the mi-

fanthropy and impatience of thofe,

who

have conceived their

fall

eftimation with their neighbours or the world to

jQiort

greatly

of their merit,

It

mull be admitted that mankind are

relu<Sant

OF VIRTUE.
Teludant
to

^sj
to their

acknowledge a wifdom or a virtue fuperior

is

own

but this reludance

by no means

invincible.

It is

abfurd

to fuppofe that no

man

believes himfelf the inferior of his neigh-

bour, or that,

when he

reads the plays of Shakefpeare, the phiI

lofophy of Roufleau, or the actions of Cato, he fays, "

fkilful, as

am

as

wife, or as virtuous as this

to fuppofe that

man."

It

would be

flill

more abfurd

men may

not in a eonfiderable degree

perceive the beauty of pa(Kxges they could never have written,

and

adtions they

would never

ha-ve

performed.

It is true that

men

of high moral excellence are feldom

efti.

xnated

at

1 r n then- true value, elpecially

1

by

their contemporaries,

ViVtue compa'cd with ot'ler modes of procuring

But the queilion does not

relate to this point,

but to that other, eaeem.

whether they be not efteemed more thaii perfons of any other

defcription,

and of confequence whether virtue be not the

?

befl

road to efteem

Now,

let

a fpecious appearance be maintained

it

with ever

fo

much

uniformity of fuccefs,
It

is

perpetually in

danger of detedlion.
tion, of confiftency

will

always want fomething of anima-

and firmnefs that true virtue would produce.

The

imitation will never

come up

to the

life.

That temporifmg

and compliance, which

are careful not to contradid too

much

the prejudices of mankind, and in which the principal advantage

-of

a merely exterior virtue confifts, will always bear fomething

-fufpicious

about them.

Men

do not love him

who is

perpetually
fpirit

courting their applaufe.

iwhat
is

They do

not give with a liberal

fought with too unwearied an affiduity. But their praife

IS

358

O
-^
.

THE TENDENC
who
is
'

Y'

BOOK
CHAP.
^^

IV. iX.
'

ig

involimtanly extorted, by him '

.

not fo anxious to oB-

tain fuccefs, as to deferve

it.

Vice and not

vivtue
is t'ae

If

men

of Virtue be frequently niifinterpreted or mifunderIS

fubjeftofobloquy
.:

ftocd, this

in a great degree to be afcrihed to the. imperfection

of their virtue and the errors of their condu6t.

inftanced In tlie bafe alloy with
\vliich

True

virtue
lb de-

iliould
.

hoLl no Commerce with

art.

We
is

ought not to be
it

firous to exhibit

our virtue to advantage, as to give

itfelf.

free fcope

our

Tirtuss are

and
nefs
5

fufFer

it

to exhibit

Art

nearly allied to felfifhperfedtljr

inixed

and true virtue has already been fhown to be

difmterefted.

The mind
not

fhould be fixed only on the

the
gracefulnefs
all

objeft

purfued, and
purfuit.

upon

or gallantry of the

We

fhould be upon

occafions perfe(5lly ingenuous,-

expreffing

with fimplicity the fentiments

of our heart, and

fpeaking of ourfelves,

when

that

may

be neceffary, neither with

oftentation and arrogance

on the one hand, nor with the frequently

applauded
a

lies

of a cowardlike humility on the other.

refift.
all

There

is

charm

in fincerity that nothing can

If

once a

man
and

could be perfeftly frank, open and firm in

his w^ords
to

adions,

it

would be

impolTible

for

that

man

be mif-

interpreted.

in arroffance

Another
be
envy.

fruitful

fource of mifreprefentation has appeared to

and oftcntation:

But,

.^
it

we

be

regarued

with

envy,
fault.

it

may

be
will

fufpefted to be in a great meafure our

own

He

always be envied moft,

I

who

is

mod

arrogant, and

whofe mind
rnoft

OF VIRTUE.
moft frequentiv recurs
of Others.
to his

365

own

attainments and the inferiaritv

^

BOOK
CHAP.
*^

iv.

Our

IX.
'

virtues

would feldom be contemplated with an

if

iineafy fenfe of reproach,

they were perfedly unaffuming.

lefs

Any
it

degree of oftenLation in their

corrupted neighbour, as
to excite

humbles the vanity of mankind, mull be expeded

\.i\

them a

defire of retaliation.

But he whofe virtues flow from

philanthropy alone, whole heart expands with benevolence and

good

will,
all

and

who

has no defire to

make

his fuperiority felt,

will at

times have

many

friends and

few enemies.

Virtue has aUb frequently been fubjed to mifreprefentation

f' tlie vices

from

a farther circumftance
fufferers,
if

which
is,

is

moil properly chargeable

which p^^rfons of moral excel

i
1

upon the
It is

and that

the inequality of their adions.

l'""" allow

themfclves.

no wonder,

we

firft

roufe the angry paffions of

mankind
a

by our arrogance, and then render our motives fufpeded by

certain mixture

of

art in the exhibition

of our cliaraders, that

the follies and vices

we commit,

if

they be of a glaring kind,

fhould too often

furnilli

a triumphant

argument
deceit.
It

to

fupport

againft us the accuHition of hypocrify

and

unfortunateeri'or

ly happens, that,

when men of an

ardent
It

fpirit fall into

their errors are inevitably confpicuous.

v.'ho

happens, that men,

have dedicated the flower of

their ftrength to laudable pur-

pofes, too often think they

have a right to indulge in relaxtheir charaders.

ations

unworthy of the energy of

They

v,-ould
it is

furely avoid this fatal miftake, if they duly receded, that

not their individual charader only that

3

is at flake,

but that they

are

370

O
p"
^

THE

TENDENCY
Prudential

rH A
"^

\y'
'

^^'^

injuring the caufe of juftlce and general good.

virtues, unalloyed with

and timid

imprudent and thoughtlefs

vices, are beft underftood

by the

vulgar.
:

Their reign indeed

is

Ihort
is

they triumph only for a day

little

but that they are tranfitory

of

avail,

while thofe
it

who

are moll

worthy of

lafting

cfteem, wantonly barter

for gratifications,

contemptible in

themfelves, and fatally important in their efFeds.

The virtuous
man
only has
friends.

gm;

to

retum

to

the comparifon between the efteem and

afFedlon that accrue from virtue, and from any other plan of

condud.

The produce
degree

in the

latter

cafe

mull always be in
fhort

a confiderable

barren,

and

of very

duration.
lefs,

"Whether the good name acquired by virtue be more or

virtue will appear in the end to be the only
fition.

mode

for

its

acqui-

He who

merits the efteem of his neighbours and fellow

citizens, will at leaft

be underftood by a few.

Inftances might

be adduced in which perfons inftigated by the pureft motives

hkve been eminently unpopular.

ftance in

But there
a

is

perhaps no Intried

which fuch men have not had

There
is

few friends of
this.

and zealous attachment.

no friendihip but

No

man was
ties

ever attached to
to

an individual but for the good qualij

he afcribed

him

and the degree of attachment will

qualities.

always bear fome proportion to the eminence of the

Who

would

ever have redeemed the

life

of a knave

at

the ex-

pence of his

own

And how many

inftances

do there occur of
?

fuch heroic friendihip w^here the charader was truly illuftrious

In

OF VIRTUE.
In the third place, virtue will Xprobably be found the fecureft ^
.

jyi

BOOK iv.
CHAP.IX.
"^

road to outward profperity and fuccefs in the world, according

to

'

the old

maxim, "that honefty

is

the beft policy."

It is

Virtue tlie road to profperity and

^"^'^^'^'^

indeed natural to fuppofe that a good name fhould eminently '

contribute to our fuccefs.

"' the
:

world

This

is

evident even in the humbleft

equal, will always
i

walks of
1

life.

That tradefman, other things

r

be

molt prolperous,

! who

applied to
coinnicrcial

is

molt

tair

and

-i,. equitable in
who

his tiaufaaious:

dealings.

Which

is

mofl likely to fucceed, he

fulfil,

never gives

expectations that he cannot

or
is

who

is

perpetually dif-

appointing his cuftomers

able profit, or

he

who

contented with a reafonto outwit thofe

who
?

is

ever

upon the watch

with

whom

he deals
or

he

who

puts one conftant price

upon

his

com-

modities,

who

takes whatever he can get,

favouring a fuf-

picious cuftomer unreafouably,

avarice

and extorting with mercilefs

word, he

from an eafy one

in a
is

who

wilhes to keep

the perfons with

whom

he

concerned in prefent good

fatisfadion
?

humour

or

who would
There

give

them permanent

is

no doubt,

that,

though the former may obtain by

thefequel be

his artifices a

momentary

fuccefs, the latter will in

-generally preferred.
as they

Men

are not fo blind to their

own

intercft
feel

have fometimes been reprefentcd, and they will foon

the advantage of dealing with the perfon

upon

whom
tricks

they can

depend.
againft

We

do not love

to be perpetually

upon our guard

and fub-

an enemy, and for ever prying into the

terfuges of a dpraved heart.

But

372

OFTHETENDENCy
But what
(hall

CHAP. ^X* IX.

'

,^,9?!^

we

fay to thofe Cafes in ^

?

which advancement

;^^--'

to cafts that

depends upon ^ r
tj^js

patronas2;e r o

There

are

two circumftances under

depend upon
patronage.

head which feem to form an exception to the rule above

Apparent ex- delivered. ception where

the dependcat is em-

The

firft

is

that of a patron,

whofe vicious and

imperfedl charafter

renders

the co-oj>ration of vicious

men
of an

ployed
fvice.

as

the

neceffaiy to his purfuits,

to reward,
office,

whom

therefore he will be contented

inftrunnent

even while he
it

defpifes.

The

fecond
exift,

is

tha.t

and

is

to

be feared fuch

offices

which may

require a compliant and corrupt character in the perfon

to
fill

who

ij

it,

and for the obtaining of which vice of a

certain.

lort

is

a neceflary recommendation..

Virtue compared with other modes of becoming

profperous.

It

muft no doubt be admitted

as to this fubje^t In gen^ralj

that, fo far as relates to fuccefs in the

world, vicious

men

will

often prove fortunate.

But
firft

it

may

reafonably be queftioned,
for-,

whether vice be in the

tune.

inftance the moft likely road to

The

candidates for this equivocal fpecies of preferment

may

be numerous.

An

individual cannot diftinguifli himfelf^,ffi

ability,

the crowd but

by a portion of

which

it

may

well be

fuppofed would not have been, unfuccefsful in the career of

virtue.

After

all,,

not every candidate, not. even every

fkilful

candidate, will be vicStorious.

breaft of the patron

There

is

always a ftruggle in the

j

between contempt and a corrupt motive

and, where- there

.the

is

ftruggle, the decifion \ylll

client leaft
defires..

fometimes he on
fortune

fide

which the

Even when
is
ftill

feems to have overtaken him, his fituation

precarious,
bafis;

His

fuccefs

is

founded upon
3-

a.

local

and mutable

his

patron

F
patron
life
;

V
after

RT

E.

575
p^*^p
*
^^

may

defert
client,

him,

may

be deprived of his pov/er or his

^^*
'

and the

who,

having

facrificed
is

every principle

to his
career,

hopes of advantage, miifes his aim, or

is

cut fhort in his

in

all

cafes a fubjedl
;

of derifion.

bad eminence

is

always unftable

and, if

we

could

fum up

the numbers of thofe

who

have

facrificed their virtue

to their ambition,

we

fhould

probably find that a great majority of them had egregioufly

mifcarried in their calculation.

In the

mean

time, if

we

turn to the other fide of the eftimate,

we
to

fhall in the firfl place inevitably fufpedl that

efteem muft lead

confiris

fome of the

fruits

of efteem.

But, exclufively of this

deration, if there be offices for

which

vice of a certain fort

neceflary qualification, there are alfo undoubtedly a multitude of

offices

which cannot be well difcharged but by

man

of inte-

grity.

The

patron, though he

would perhaps willingly provide

for his pander or his parafite at the expence of his country, will

not be inclined to

truft a

man

of accommodating principles with

the fuperintendence of his fortune or the education of his child.

With

the exception of the

it

two

cafes that

have been

ftated, inter

grity, as

is

the

firll

qualification for difcharging a fundlion

with propriety, will always occupy a foremofl place in the

ro
is

commendation of the

client.

The employer, whofe

objedl

the real iatereft of himfelf, his friends or his country, will have
a powerful motive inducing
Ability

him

to prefer the honeft candidate.

j

may

be almoft equally requifite

but ability and virtue,

if

374
^5^9S IX. CHAP. l^
'

OF THE
if

TENDENCY
is

we

fhould choofe to fuppofe that there ^^

at leaft

no neceffary ^

alliance

"

'

between them, will

each other.

by no perfon be thought
in

exclufive of

If a knave
real

may

fome
it

cafes obtain
is

an employfuf-

ment of truft and

importance,

vehemently to be
if

peded

that this

would not have happened,

an honeft

man
is

of

equal ability had been at hand.

petually gaining ground upon us.

Add

to this that virtue

it is

per-

The more
it

tried,
It

and the
to the

more

it

is

known,

the

more

will

be refpeited.
is

is

man
by

of

real virtue,

whofe charader
fome of

not brought into fufpicion

the equivocal nature of

his proceedings,

whofe virtue
have

confifts in benevolence,

equanimity and

juftice, that all will

affair in

recourfe,

when

they have the fuccefs of the

which they

are concerned deeply at heart.

Source of the

Nothing has tended more

to bring honefty as
fort

an inilrument
is

virturb
rfpcft

this

of fuccefs into general difrepute, than the

of complaint that

frequently heard from fuch as are unfuccefsful.

Thefe

men

will

naturally have recourfe to the moft fpecious topic of felf confolation,

and there

is

none

that

more obvioufly

fuggefts itfelf than

the fuppofition that they failed through their too

much

virtue.

Thus

the

man

of rugged

temper who

is

perpetually infulting the

foibles

of others, the timid

man who

is

incapable of embracing at

once a perilous alternative, the fcrupulous

man who knows

not

what

to admit or rejed

and

is

always undetermined upon his

courfe of adlion, and a thoufand others, are forward to impute

their mifcarriage to their integrity, though ftridly fpeaking
it

was

in every

one of thefe

cafes to

be afcribed to their vices.

There

OF VIRTUE.
There
is

S7S
?u?i^^tY-*
CoiltcfTlOHt

another confideratlon which deferves to be t;iken

into account in this eftimate.

There

is

a degree of virtue wliich

fill

would probably render me

difinclined to

many eminent

fta-

tions, to be a great lawyer, a great fenator, or a great minifter.

The fundions

of thefe fituations in the prefent

ftate

of

man-

kind are of fo equivocal a nature, that a man, whofe moral

views are in the higheft degree fublime, will perhaps find in
himfelf
little

forwardnefs to exercife them.

He

will

perhaps

conceive that in a private ftation, unincumbered with engage-

ments, unwarped by the

finifler

motives that high

office will

not

fail

to prefent,

he
it is

may

render more lafling fervices to

man-

kind.

But furely

no very formidable objedtion

to fay, that

honefly will prevent a

to a,cquire.

man from

acquiring what he has no wifh

A cafe
it

of fomewhat a different nature has been fuggefled, and

beft road to fuccefs,
?

Cafe where convenient

vice bids
for '""'

has been afked, " Whether honefly be the

violation of
it

fa^

conceal-

where the

bids fair for perpetual concealment

Fortune has led

me

to the military profeffion, I lack advance-

ment, but promotions in the army are cuftomarily made by purchafe.

Thus

circumflanced,
I

I find

by accident a fum of money,

I

in

fecreting

which

am

in

little

danger of detedion, and

apply this

ilim to purchafe

me a

commiffion. Should I have more effedually

fcrupulous condudl ?"

promoted

my worldly fuccefs by a more

to this queftion

The anfwer

ought probably to be affirmative,

In

chance of d
ttclion.

^'.

376
^2?'^^X; CHAP. IX.
*

D
fi^^ft

TnE TENDEN
we
are to confider the

I^ t^e

place ^

chance of deteftlon.
is

The

diret

tendency of the laws of the material univerfe

. .
.

fuch,
Jf

as to force the

more

confiderable and interefting abions of hu-

man

beings into publicity.

artful confpirator

No man

can render himfelf

invifible.

The moft

cannot fufficiently provide againft a

if

thoufand petty circumftances, that will lead,

at leaft to

not to convidion,
there that

prefumption againft him.

Who
human

is

would

wifh to have faftened upon him the fufpicion of a bafe and difm-

genuous procedure
able, as to

This feature in

affairs is fo

remark-

have furnifhed topics to the

literary induftry

of former

centuries,
unjuft.

and

to

have been interpreted God's revenge againft the

this cafe I

Suppofe that in

found the money dropped in

loft it
?

field.

Will the owner have no fufpicion where he

Will no

human

being have obferved that

?

was near the

fpot at

the queftionable period

The

chances are certainly againft me,

fuffi-

and a mere balance of chance would probably have been

cient to prove that honefty
is

the beft polic)^

The

bare circumvi-

ftance of
fible

my

fuddenly poflefling a fum of

it,

money without
which the

means of acquiring
neighbours
is

a circumftance to

attention

of

my

always fufficiently

alive,

would

caft

an un-

pleafant ftain

upon

my character.
baffled
is

How

often has the well con-

trived train of the politician, triumphing in the infcrutability of

his

Mafdom, been
'"

by the moft

trivial

accidents

Since

therefore,

the race

not to the fwift, nor the battle to the

is

ftrong," the trueft

tion.

wifdom

to ^di

fo

as to fear

no detec-

There

V RTU
i

E.
to eftabhfli
his

2>17

There are other circumftances which tend

fame propofition.

the

COOK
CHAP.

iv. IX.
.

The man, who depends upon

courage,
Indolence

his abiHty, or his amiable character for

recommendation, will
will be

perpetually cultivate thefe.

His conftancy

unwearied

and, confcious of the integrity of his means, his

trepid

fpirit will

be in-

and

eredt.

The

progrefs of this

man,

if his

ardour be

fufEciently great to infpire

him with

abiHty,

and

to render

him

quick fighted to the detedlion of his miftakes, will be incefiant.

But the man

who

has employed foul means, will depend partly

fo fervent in the cultivation

upon them, and cannot be

true.

of the
it,

If

he always efcape detedlion, he will always fear of his

fpirit.

and

apprehen-

this will fully the clearnefs

Vice cannot compare This

is

with virtue in
the fubjed

its

tendency to individual happinefs.

;

not

we

are confidering in this place

but this will apply

to our fubjed.

Remorfe, uneafmefs and confufion of mind are

calculated to prevent

me from

perceiving the true point of pro-

jedion

in

my

affairs,

and detrad much from the probability of

my

rifmg to eminence in any profeflion.

Laflly, the

man who
it

has once yielded to a difhonefl tempta- and depravltj-

tion, will yield to

again.

He

has

loft

the confiftency of cha-

oflice?^""^

rader and difdain of vice, which were

that fays,
gets

his firmeft fecurities.

He
for-

"

will be difhoneft

now, and

difhoneft

no more,"

fome of the moft obvious and charaderiftic

If

features of the

human mind.

he efcape fufpicion in the

firft

inftance,

he will
only

378

OF
^

THE TENDENCY OF VIRTUE.

:

TH AP ^ri
*^

^^^^ difgrace himfelf more foully in the fecond

if

the remorfe

"

and degradation of
rifh,

fpirit arifing

from one bafe adlion could pea<5tions

they would be fixed and invigorated by other bafe

firft.

growing out of the

ERRATA.
VOL.
Page 131,
line 15,
I.

"quantity of wrong," read " S'ld to invent a fpecles of corporal punlfhment or reftraint, P. 181, note, 1. lilt., -for " of former times'* rcrt// " of the ancient model." read the fule note "from the unity of truth" as belonging to the top of the page. P. 182, P. 182, 1. 3 from the bottom, for "purfue" read " prefs." I. 2 from the bottom, , for " over whom he prefided" read " among whora he
after
'

refided."

'

P. 185, 186, 187, 1S8, 189, running t:tle,-/or

FORMS OF GOVERNMENT."
P. 260,. P. 324, P. 330, P. 362,
fide note,
1.

"OF OBEDIENCE"

read

"OF

4,

read "juflice." read " automatifm."

fide note,
I.

15,

for "Rapidity" rfaJ" rapidity." for "exceptions" read "exception."

VOL.
P. 403, P. 427, P. 471, P. 503, P. 511, P. 551, P. 564, P. 645,
fide note,

IL

673, 680, 706, 730, P. 774, P. 791, P. 807, fide note, after " vice" read " generating.'' P. 808, fide note, for " The" read " the" r^a;/ "and the misfortunes of-war." P. 811, fide note, read " or from vanity." P. 837, fide note, P. 852, 1. 10, for "'be known" read " will be known. " P. 878, 1. 3 from the bottom,/or "operation" read " operations" P. 883, fide note,/^r "conduft" read "Condud"

P. P. P. P.

for " Difiike" read " diflike." fide note, for "defire" read "dcfires." " no reflexion" read " to reflexion." 1. 4, /or note, 1. ult., for "volume" read "work." I. 5 from the bottom, for " tranfaftion" read " tranfaftions" 1. 3 from the bottom,/or " underftand it ;" read " underftand it," note,/or "Book IV, Chap. Vll" read " Book IV, Cliap. VI." fide note, for "of libel:" read "of libel." read " Rcafons by which they are vindicated." fide note, 1. ult., for " necefiity." read " neceffity," 1. 14, for "look" read "voice." 1. 3 from the bottom, for " domeftic" read " municipal." fide note, fir "man :" read "man." fide note, for "mean" read "means."

DIRECTION TO THE BINDER.

The volumes
are to be divided at page 3 79 in fignature 3 C.

The

tables

of contents to precede the refpedlve volumes.

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*^

A'

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