The Cutegories

Aristotle
Trcnslcted b E. M. Edhill
1. Section I
1.1. Purt 1 - Homonyms, Synonyms, und erivut-
ives
TIIngs ure suId Lo be numed 'equIvocuIIy' wIen, LIougI
LIey Iuve u common nume, LIe deIInILIon correspondIng
wILI LIe nume dIIIers Ior eucI. TIus, u reuI mun und u IIg-
ure In u pIcLure cun boLI Iuy cIuIm Lo LIe nume 'unImuI';
yeL LIese ure equIvocuIIy so numed, Ior, LIougI LIey Iuve u
common nume, LIe deIInILIon correspondIng wILI LIe
nume dIIIers Ior eucI. or sIouId uny one deIIne In wIuL
sense eucI Is un unImuI, IIs deIInILIon In LIe one cuse wIII
be upproprIuLe Lo LIuL cuse onIy.
On LIe oLIer Iund, LIIngs ure suId Lo be numed 'unI-
vocuIIy' wIIcI Iuve boLI LIe nume und LIe deIInILIon un-
swerIng Lo LIe nume In common. A mun und un ox ure boLI
'unImuI', und LIese ure unIvocuIIy so numed, InusmucI us
noL onIy LIe nume, buL uIso LIe deIInILIon, Is LIe sume In
boLI cuses: Ior II u mun sIouId sLuLe In wIuL sense eucI Is
un unImuI, LIe sLuLemenL In LIe one cuse wouId be IdenLIcuI
wILI LIuL In LIe oLIer.
TIIngs ure suId Lo be numed 'derIvuLIveIy', wIIcI derIve
LIeIr nume Irom some oLIer nume, buL dIIIer Irom IL In Ler-
mInuLIon. TIus LIe grummurIun derIves IIs nume Irom LIe
word 'grummur', und LIe courugeous mun Irom LIe word
'couruge'.
1.. Purt - Simple und Composite Ixpressions
orms oI speecI ure eILIer sImpIe or composILe. ExumpIes
oI LIe IuLLer ure sucI expressIons us 'LIe mun runs', 'LIe
mun wIns'; oI LIe Iormer 'mun', 'ox', 'runs', 'wIns'.
OI LIIngs LIemseIves some ure predIcubIe oI u subjecL,
und ure never presenL In u subjecL. TIus 'mun' Is predIcubIe
oI LIe IndIvIduuI mun, und Is never presenL In u subjecL.
By beIng 'presenL In u subjecL' do noL meun presenL us
purLs ure presenL In u wIoIe, buL beIng IncupubIe oI exIsL-
ence upurL Irom LIe suId subjecL.
Some LIIngs, uguIn, ure presenL In u subjecL, buL ure nev-
er predIcubIe oI u subjecL. or InsLunce, u cerLuIn poInL oI
grummuLIcuI knowIedge Is presenL In LIe mInd, buL Is noL
predIcubIe oI uny subjecL; or uguIn, u cerLuIn wIILeness
muy be presenL In LIe body (Ior coIour requIres u muLerIuI
busIs), yeL IL Is never predIcubIe oI unyLIIng.
OLIer LIIngs, uguIn, ure boLI predIcubIe oI u subjecL und
presenL In u subjecL. TIus wIIIe knowIedge Is presenL In
LIe Iumun mInd, IL Is predIcubIe oI grummur.
TIere Is, IusLIy, u cIuss oI LIIngs wIIcI ure neILIer
presenL In u subjecL nor predIcubIe oI u subjecL, sucI us LIe
IndIvIduuI mun or LIe IndIvIduuI Iorse. BuL, Lo speuk more
generuIIy, LIuL wIIcI Is IndIvIduuI und Ius LIe cIurucLer oI
u unIL Is never predIcubIe oI u subjecL. YeL In some cuses
LIere Is noLIIng Lo prevenL sucI beIng presenL In u subjecL.
TIus u cerLuIn poInL oI grummuLIcuI knowIedge Is presenL
In u subjecL.
1.. Purt - Concerning Predicutes
WIen one LIIng Is predIcuLed oI unoLIer, uII LIuL wIIcI Is
predIcubIe oI LIe predIcuLe wIII be predIcubIe uIso oI LIe
subjecL. TIus, 'mun' Is predIcuLed oI LIe IndIvIduuI mun;
buL 'unImuI' Is predIcuLed oI 'mun'; IL wIII, LIereIore, be
predIcubIe oI LIe IndIvIduuI mun uIso: Ior LIe IndIvIduuI
mun Is boLI 'mun' und 'unImuI'.
I generu ure dIIIerenL und co-ordInuLe, LIeIr dIIIerenLIue
ure LIemseIves dIIIerenL In kInd. Tuke us un InsLunce LIe
genus 'unImuI' und LIe genus 'knowIedge'. 'WILI IeeL', 'Lwo-
IooLed', 'wInged', 'uquuLIc', ure dIIIerenLIue oI 'unImuI'; LIe
specIes oI knowIedge ure noL dIsLInguIsIed by LIe sume
dIIIerenLIue. One specIes oI knowIedge does noL dIIIer Irom
unoLIer In beIng 'Lwo-IooLed'.
BuL wIere one genus Is subordInuLe Lo unoLIer, LIere Is
noLIIng Lo prevenL LIeIr IuvIng LIe sume dIIIerenLIue: Ior
LIe greuLer cIuss Is predIcuLed oI LIe Iesser, so LIuL uII LIe
dIIIerenLIue oI LIe predIcuLe wIII be dIIIerenLIue uIso oI LIe
subjecL.
1.q. Purt q - The Iight Cutegories oI the Objects oI
Thooght
ExpressIons wIIcI ure In no wuy composILe sIgnIIy sub-
sLunce, quunLILy, quuIILy, reIuLIon, pIuce, LIme, posILIon,
sLuLe, ucLIon, or uIIecLIon. To skeLcI my meunIng rougIIy,
exumpIes oI subsLunce ure 'mun' or 'LIe Iorse', oI quunLILy,
sucI Lerms us 'Lwo cubILs Iong' or 'LIree cubILs Iong', oI
quuIILy, sucI uLLrIbuLes us 'wIILe', 'grummuLIcuI'. 'DoubIe',
'IuII', 'greuLer', IuII under LIe cuLegory oI reIuLIon; 'In u LIe
murkeL pIuce', 'In LIe yceum', under LIuL oI pIuce; 'yesLer-
duy', 'IusL yeur', under LIuL oI LIme. 'yIng', 'sILLIng', ure
Lerms IndIcuLIng posILIon, 'sIod', 'urmed', sLuLe; 'Lo Iunce',
'Lo cuuLerIze', ucLIon; 'Lo be Iunced', 'Lo be cuuLerIzed', uIIec-
LIon.
No one oI LIese Lerms, In und by ILseII, InvoIves un uI-
IIrmuLIon; IL Is by LIe combInuLIon oI sucI Lerms LIuL pos-
ILIve or neguLIve sLuLemenLs urIse. or every usserLIon
musL, us Is udmILLed, be eILIer Lrue or IuIse, wIereus ex-
pressIons wIIcI ure noL In uny wuy composILe sucI us
'mun', 'wIILe', 'runs', 'wIns', cunnoL be eILIer Lrue or IuIse.
1.g. Purt g - Sobstunce
SubsLunce, In LIe LruesL und prImury und mosL deIInILe
sense oI LIe word, Is LIuL wIIcI Is neILIer predIcubIe oI u
subjecL nor presenL In u subjecL; Ior InsLunce, LIe IndIvIdu-
uI mun or Iorse. BuL In u secondury sense LIose LIIngs ure
cuIIed subsLunces wILIIn wIIcI, us specIes, LIe prImury
subsLunces ure IncIuded; uIso LIose wIIcI, us generu, In-
cIude LIe specIes. or InsLunce, LIe IndIvIduuI mun Is In-
cIuded In LIe specIes 'mun', und LIe genus Lo wIIcI LIe
specIes beIongs Is 'unImuI'; LIese, LIereIore-LIuL Is Lo suy,
LIe specIes 'mun' und LIe genus 'unImuI,-ure Lermed sec-
ondury subsLunces.
L Is pIuIn Irom wIuL Ius been suId LIuL boLI LIe nume
und LIe deIInILIon oI LIe predIcuLe musL be predIcubIe oI
LIe subjecL. or InsLunce, 'mun' Is predIcLed oI LIe IndI-
vIduuI mun. Now In LIIs cuse LIe nume oI LIe specIes mun'
Is uppIIed Lo LIe IndIvIduuI, Ior we use LIe Lerm 'mun' In
descrIbIng LIe IndIvIduuI; und LIe deIInILIon oI 'mun' wIII
uIso be predIcuLed oI LIe IndIvIduuI mun, Ior LIe IndIvIduuI
mun Is boLI mun und unImuI. TIus, boLI LIe nume und LIe
deIInILIon oI LIe specIes ure predIcubIe oI LIe IndIvIduuI.
WILI regurd, on LIe oLIer Iund, Lo LIose LIIngs wIIcI
ure presenL In u subjecL, IL Is generuIIy LIe cuse LIuL neILIer
LIeIr nume nor LIeIr deIInILIon Is predIcubIe oI LIuL In
wIIcI LIey ure presenL. TIougI, Iowever, LIe deIInILIon Is
never predIcubIe, LIere Is noLIIng In cerLuIn cuses Lo pre-
venL LIe nume beIng used. or InsLunce, 'wIILe' beIng
presenL In u body Is predIcuLed oI LIuL In wIIcI IL Is
presenL, Ior u body Is cuIIed wIILe: LIe deIInILIon, Iowever,
oI LIe coIour wIILe' Is never predIcubIe oI LIe body.
EveryLIIng excepL prImury subsLunces Is eILIer predIc-
ubIe oI u prImury subsLunce or presenL In u prImury sub-
sLunce. TIIs becomes evIdenL by reIerence Lo purLIcuIur In-
sLunces wIIcI occur. 'AnImuI' Is predIcuLed oI LIe specIes
'mun', LIereIore oI LIe IndIvIduuI mun, Ior II LIere were no
IndIvIduuI mun oI wIom IL couId be predIcuLed, IL couId
noL be predIcuLed oI LIe specIes 'mun' uL uII. AguIn, coIour
Is presenL In body, LIereIore In IndIvIduuI bodIes, Ior II
LIere were no IndIvIduuI body In wIIcI IL wus presenL, IL
couId noL be presenL In body uL uII. TIus everyLIIng excepL
prImury subsLunces Is eILIer predIcuLed oI prImury sub-
sLunces, or Is presenL In LIem, und II LIese IusL dId noL ex-
IsL, IL wouId be ImpossIbIe Ior unyLIIng eIse Lo exIsL.
OI secondury subsLunces, LIe specIes Is more LruIy sub-
sLunce LIun LIe genus, beIng more neurIy reIuLed Lo
prImury subsLunce. or II uny one sIouId render un uc-
counL oI wIuL u prImury subsLunce Is, Ie wouId render u
more InsLrucLIve uccounL, und one more proper Lo LIe sub-
jecL, by sLuLIng LIe specIes LIun by sLuLIng LIe genus. TIus,
Ie wouId gIve u more InsLrucLIve uccounL oI un IndIvIduuI
mun by sLuLIng LIuL Ie wus mun LIun by sLuLIng LIuL Ie
wus unImuI, Ior LIe Iormer descrIpLIon Is pecuIIur Lo LIe In-
dIvIduuI In u greuLer degree, wIIIe LIe IuLLer Is Loo generuI.
AguIn, LIe mun wIo gIves un uccounL oI LIe nuLure oI un
IndIvIduuI Lree wIII gIve u more InsLrucLIve uccounL by
menLIonIng LIe specIes 'Lree' LIun by menLIonIng LIe genus
'pIunL'.
Moreover, prImury subsLunces ure mosL properIy cuIIed
subsLunces In vIrLue oI LIe IucL LIuL LIey ure LIe enLILIes
wIIcI underIIe every. eIse, und LIuL everyLIIng eIse Is
eILIer predIcuLed oI LIem or presenL In LIem. Now LIe
sume reIuLIon wIIcI subsIsLs beLween prImury subsLunce
und everyLIIng eIse subsIsLs uIso beLween LIe specIes und
LIe genus: Ior LIe specIes Is Lo LIe genus us subjecL Is Lo
predIcuLe, sInce LIe genus Is predIcuLed oI LIe specIes,
wIereus LIe specIes cunnoL be predIcuLed oI LIe genus.
TIus we Iuve u second ground Ior usserLIng LIuL LIe spe-
cIes Is more LruIy subsLunce LIun LIe genus.
OI specIes LIemseIves, excepL In LIe cuse oI sucI us ure
generu, no one Is more LruIy subsLunce LIun unoLIer. We
sIouId noL gIve u more upproprIuLe uccounL oI LIe IndI-
vIduuI mun by sLuLIng LIe specIes Lo wIIcI Ie beIonged,
LIun we sIouId oI un IndIvIduuI Iorse by udopLIng LIe
sume meLIod oI deIInILIon. n LIe sume wuy, oI prImury
subsLunces, no one Is more LruIy subsLunce LIun unoLIer;
un IndIvIduuI mun Is noL more LruIy subsLunce LIun un In-
dIvIduuI ox.
L Is, LIen, wILI good reuson LIuL oI uII LIuL remuIns,
wIen we excIude prImury subsLunces, we concede Lo spe-
cIes und generu uIone LIe nume 'secondury subsLunce', Ior
LIese uIone oI uII LIe predIcuLes convey u knowIedge oI
prImury subsLunce. or IL Is by sLuLIng LIe specIes or LIe
genus LIuL we upproprIuLeIy deIIne uny IndIvIduuI mun;
und we sIuII muke our deIInILIon more exucL by sLuLIng LIe
Iormer LIun by sLuLIng LIe IuLLer. AII oLIer LIIngs LIuL we
sLuLe, sucI us LIuL Ie Is wIILe, LIuL Ie runs, und so on, ure
IrreIevunL Lo LIe deIInILIon. TIus IL Is jusL LIuL LIese uIone,
upurL Irom prImury subsLunces, sIouId be cuIIed sub-
sLunces.
urLIer, prImury subsLunces ure mosL properIy so cuIIed,
becuuse LIey underIIe und ure LIe subjecLs oI everyLIIng
eIse. Now LIe sume reIuLIon LIuL subsIsLs beLween prImury
subsLunce und everyLIIng eIse subsIsLs uIso beLween LIe
specIes und LIe genus Lo wIIcI LIe prImury subsLunce be-
Iongs, on LIe one Iund, und every uLLrIbuLe wIIcI Is noL In-
cIuded wILIIn LIese, on LIe oLIer. or LIese ure LIe sub-
jecLs oI uII sucI. I we cuII un IndIvIduuI mun 'skIIIed In
grummur', LIe predIcuLe Is uppIIcubIe uIso Lo LIe specIes
und Lo LIe genus Lo wIIcI Ie beIongs. TIIs Iuw IoIds good
In uII cuses.
L Is u common cIurucLerIsLIc oI uII sub. sLunce LIuL IL Is
never presenL In u subjecL. or prImury subsLunce Is
neILIer presenL In u subjecL nor predIcuLed oI u subjecL;
wIIIe, wILI regurd Lo secondury subsLunces, IL Is cIeur Irom
LIe IoIIowIng urgumenLs (upurL Irom oLIers) LIuL LIey ure
noL presenL In u subjecL. or 'mun' Is predIcuLed oI LIe IndI-
vIduuI mun, buL Is noL presenL In uny subjecL: Ior munIood
Is noL presenL In LIe IndIvIduuI mun. n LIe sume wuy, 'un-
ImuI' Is uIso predIcuLed oI LIe IndIvIduuI mun, buL Is noL
presenL In IIm. AguIn, wIen u LIIng Is presenL In u subjecL,
LIougI LIe nume muy quILe weII be uppIIed Lo LIuL In
wIIcI IL Is presenL, LIe deIInILIon cunnoL be uppIIed. YeL oI
secondury subsLunces, noL onIy LIe nume, buL uIso LIe
deIInILIon, uppIIes Lo LIe subjecL: we sIouId use boLI LIe
deIInILIon oI LIe specIes und LIuL oI LIe genus wILI reIer-
ence Lo LIe IndIvIduuI mun. TIus subsLunce cunnoL be
presenL In u subjecL.
YeL LIIs Is noL pecuIIur Lo subsLunce, Ior IL Is uIso LIe cuse
LIuL dIIIerenLIue cunnoL be presenL In subjecLs. TIe cIuruc-
LerIsLIcs 'LerresLrIuI' und 'Lwo-IooLed' ure predIcuLed oI LIe
specIes 'mun', buL noL presenL In IL. or LIey ure noL In
mun. Moreover, LIe deIInILIon oI LIe dIIIerenLIu muy be
predIcuLed oI LIuL oI wIIcI LIe dIIIerenLIu ILseII Is predIc-
uLed. or InsLunce, II LIe cIurucLerIsLIc 'LerresLrIuI' Is pre-
dIcuLed oI LIe specIes 'mun', LIe deIInILIon uIso oI LIuL
cIurucLerIsLIc muy be used Lo Iorm LIe predIcuLe oI LIe
specIes 'mun': Ior 'mun' Is LerresLrIuI.
TIe IucL LIuL LIe purLs oI subsLunces uppeur Lo be
presenL In LIe wIoIe, us In u subjecL, sIouId noL muke us
uppreIensIve IesL we sIouId Iuve Lo udmIL LIuL sucI purLs
ure noL subsLunces: Ior In expIuInIng LIe pIruse 'beIng
presenL In u subjecL', we sLuLed' LIuL we meunL 'oLIerwIse
LIun us purLs In u wIoIe'.
L Is LIe murk oI subsLunces und oI dIIIerenLIue LIuL, In
uII proposILIons oI wIIcI LIey Iorm LIe predIcuLe, LIey ure
predIcuLed unIvocuIIy. or uII sucI proposILIons Iuve Ior
LIeIr subjecL eILIer LIe IndIvIduuI or LIe specIes. L Is Lrue
LIuL, InusmucI us prImury subsLunce Is noL predIcubIe oI
unyLIIng, IL cun never Iorm LIe predIcuLe oI uny proposI-
LIon. BuL oI secondury subsLunces, LIe specIes Is predIcuLed
oI LIe IndIvIduuI, LIe genus boLI oI LIe specIes und oI LIe
IndIvIduuI. SImIIurIy LIe dIIIerenLIue ure predIcuLed oI LIe
specIes und oI LIe IndIvIduuIs. Moreover, LIe deIInILIon oI
LIe specIes und LIuL oI LIe genus ure uppIIcubIe Lo LIe
prImury subsLunce, und LIuL oI LIe genus Lo LIe specIes.
or uII LIuL Is predIcuLed oI LIe predIcuLe wIII be predIcuLed
uIso oI LIe subjecL. SImIIurIy, LIe deIInILIon oI LIe dIIIeren-
LIue wIII be uppIIcubIe Lo LIe specIes und Lo LIe IndIvIduuIs.
BuL IL wus sLuLed ubove LIuL LIe word 'unIvocuI' wus up-
pIIed Lo LIose LIIngs wIIcI Iud boLI nume und deIInILIon
In common. L Is, LIereIore, esLubIIsIed LIuL In every pro-
posILIon, oI wIIcI eILIer subsLunce or u dIIIerenLIu Iorms
LIe predIcuLe, LIese ure predIcuLed unIvocuIIy.
AII subsLunce uppeurs Lo sIgnIIy LIuL wIIcI Is IndIvIduuI.
n LIe cuse oI prImury subsLunce LIIs Is IndIspuLubIy Lrue,
Ior LIe LIIng Is u unIL. n LIe cuse oI secondury subsLunces,
wIen we speuk, Ior InsLunce, oI 'mun' or 'unImuI', our Iorm
oI speecI gIves LIe ImpressIon LIuL we ure Iere uIso IndIc-
uLIng LIuL wIIcI Is IndIvIduuI, buL LIe ImpressIon Is noL
sLrIcLIy Lrue; Ior u secondury subsLunce Is noL un IndIvIdu-
uI, buL u cIuss wILI u cerLuIn quuIIIIcuLIon; Ior IL Is noL one
und sIngIe us u prImury subsLunce Is; LIe words 'mun', 'un-
ImuI', ure predIcubIe oI more LIun one subjecL.
YeL specIes und genus do noL mereIy IndIcuLe quuIILy,
IIke LIe Lerm 'wIILe'; 'wIILe' IndIcuLes quuIILy und noLIIng
IurLIer, buL specIes und genus deLermIne LIe quuIILy wILI
reIerence Lo u subsLunce: LIey sIgnIIy subsLunce quuIILuL-
IveIy dIIIerenLIuLed. TIe deLermInuLe quuIIIIcuLIon covers u
Iurger IIeId In LIe cuse oI LIe genus LIuL In LIuL oI LIe spe-
cIes: Ie wIo uses LIe word 'unImuI' Is IereIn usIng u word
oI wIder exLensIon LIun Ie wIo uses LIe word 'mun'.
AnoLIer murk oI subsLunce Is LIuL IL Ius no conLrury.
WIuL couId be LIe conLrury oI uny prImury subsLunce, sucI
us LIe IndIvIduuI mun or unImuI? L Ius none. Nor cun LIe
specIes or LIe genus Iuve u conLrury. YeL LIIs cIurucLerIsLIc
Is noL pecuIIur Lo subsLunce, buL Is Lrue oI muny oLIer
LIIngs, sucI us quunLILy. TIere Is noLIIng LIuL Iorms LIe
conLrury oI 'Lwo cubILs Iong' or oI 'LIree cubILs Iong', or oI
'Len', or oI uny sucI Lerm. A mun muy conLend LIuL 'mucI'
Is LIe conLrury oI 'IILLIe', or 'greuL' oI 'smuII', buL oI deIInILe
quunLILuLIve Lerms no conLrury exIsLs.
SubsLunce, uguIn, does noL uppeur Lo udmIL oI vurIuLIon
oI degree. do noL meun by LIIs LIuL one subsLunce cunnoL
be more or Iess LruIy subsLunce LIun unoLIer, Ior IL Ius
uIreudy been sLuLed' LIuL LIIs Is LIe cuse; buL LIuL no sIngIe
subsLunce udmILs oI vuryIng degrees wILIIn ILseII. or In-
sLunce, one purLIcuIur subsLunce, 'mun', cunnoL be more or
Iess mun eILIer LIun IImseII uL some oLIer LIme or LIun
some oLIer mun. One mun cunnoL be more mun LIun un-
oLIer, us LIuL wIIcI Is wIILe muy be more or Iess wIILe
LIun some oLIer wIILe objecL, or us LIuL wIIcI Is beuuLIIuI
muy be more or Iess beuuLIIuI LIun some oLIer beuuLIIuI
objecL. TIe sume quuIILy, moreover, Is suId Lo subsIsL In u
LIIng In vuryIng degrees uL dIIIerenL LImes. A body, beIng
wIILe, Is suId Lo be wIILer uL one LIme LIun IL wus beIore,
or, beIng wurm, Is suId Lo be wurmer or Iess wurm LIun uL
some oLIer LIme. BuL subsLunce Is noL suId Lo be more or
Iess LIuL wIIcI IL Is: u mun Is noL more LruIy u mun uL one
LIme LIun Ie wus beIore, nor Is unyLIIng, II IL Is subsLunce,
more or Iess wIuL IL Is. SubsLunce, LIen, does noL udmIL oI
vurIuLIon oI degree.
TIe mosL dIsLIncLIve murk oI subsLunce uppeurs Lo be
LIuL, wIIIe remuInIng numerIcuIIy one und LIe sume, IL Is
cupubIe oI udmILLIng conLrury quuIILIes. rom umong
LIIngs oLIer LIun subsLunce, we sIouId IInd ourseIves un-
ubIe Lo brIng Iorwurd uny wIIcI possessed LIIs murk.
TIus, one und LIe sume coIour cunnoL be wIILe und bIuck.
Nor cun LIe sume one ucLIon be good und bud: LIIs Iuw
IoIds good wILI everyLIIng LIuL Is noL subsLunce. BuL one
und LIe seIIsume subsLunce, wIIIe reLuInIng ILs IdenLILy, Is
yeL cupubIe oI udmILLIng conLrury quuIILIes. TIe sume IndI-
vIduuI person Is uL one LIme wIILe, uL unoLIer bIuck, uL one
LIme wurm, uL unoLIer coId, uL one LIme good, uL unoLIer
bud. TIIs cupucILy Is Iound nowIere eIse, LIougI IL mIgIL
be muInLuIned LIuL u sLuLemenL or opInIon wus un excep-
LIon Lo LIe ruIe. TIe sume sLuLemenL, IL Is ugreed, cun be
boLI Lrue und IuIse. or II LIe sLuLemenL 'Ie Is sILLIng' Is
Lrue, yeL, wIen LIe person In quesLIon Ius rIsen, LIe sume
sLuLemenL wIII be IuIse. TIe sume uppIIes Lo opInIons. or
II uny one LIInks LruIy LIuL u person Is sILLIng, yeL, wIen
LIuL person Ius rIsen, LIIs sume opInIon, II sLIII IeId, wIII
be IuIse. YeL uILIougI LIIs excepLIon muy be uIIowed, LIere
Is, neverLIeIess, u dIIIerence In LIe munner In wIIcI LIe
LIIng Lukes pIuce. L Is by LIemseIves cIungIng LIuL sub-
sLunces udmIL conLrury quuIILIes. L Is LIus LIuL LIuL wIIcI
wus IoL becomes coId, Ior IL Ius enLered InLo u dIIIerenL
sLuLe. SImIIurIy LIuL wIIcI wus wIILe becomes bIuck, und
LIuL wIIcI wus bud good, by u process oI cIunge; und In
LIe sume wuy In uII oLIer cuses IL Is by cIungIng LIuL sub-
sLunces ure cupubIe oI udmILLIng conLrury quuIILIes. BuL
sLuLemenLs und opInIons LIemseIves remuIn unuILered In
uII respecLs: IL Is by LIe uILeruLIon In LIe IucLs oI LIe cuse
LIuL LIe conLrury quuIILy comes Lo be LIeIrs. TIe sLuLemenL
'Ie Is sILLIng' remuIns unuILered, buL IL Is uL one LIme Lrue,
uL unoLIer IuIse, uccordIng Lo cIrcumsLunces. WIuL Ius
been suId oI sLuLemenLs uppIIes uIso Lo opInIons. TIus, In
respecL oI LIe munner In wIIcI LIe LIIng Lukes pIuce, IL Is
LIe pecuIIur murk oI subsLunce LIuL IL sIouId be cupubIe oI
udmILLIng conLrury quuIILIes; Ior IL Is by ILseII cIungIng LIuL
IL does so.
I, LIen, u mun sIouId muke LIIs excepLIon und conLend
LIuL sLuLemenLs und opInIons ure cupubIe oI udmILLIng con-
Lrury quuIILIes, IIs conLenLIon Is unsound. or sLuLemenLs
und opInIons ure suId Lo Iuve LIIs cupucILy, noL becuuse
LIey LIemseIves undergo modIIIcuLIon, buL becuuse LIIs
modIIIcuLIon occurs In LIe cuse oI someLIIng eIse. TIe
LruLI or IuIsILy oI u sLuLemenL depends on IucLs, und noL on
uny power on LIe purL oI LIe sLuLemenL ILseII oI udmILLIng
conLrury quuIILIes. n sIorL, LIere Is noLIIng wIIcI cun uI-
Ler LIe nuLure oI sLuLemenLs und opInIons. As, LIen, no
cIunge Lukes pIuce In LIemseIves, LIese cunnoL be suId Lo
be cupubIe oI udmILLIng conLrury quuIILIes.
BuL IL Is by reuson oI LIe modIIIcuLIon wIIcI Lukes pIuce
wILIIn LIe subsLunce ILseII LIuL u subsLunce Is suId Lo be
cupubIe oI udmILLIng conLrury quuIILIes; Ior u subsLunce ud-
mILs wILIIn ILseII eILIer dIseuse or IeuILI, wIILeness or
bIuckness. L Is In LIIs sense LIuL IL Is suId Lo be cupubIe oI
udmILLIng conLrury quuIILIes.
To sum up, IL Is u dIsLIncLIve murk oI subsLunce, LIuL,
wIIIe remuInIng numerIcuIIy one und LIe sume, IL Is cup-
ubIe oI udmILLIng conLrury quuIILIes, LIe modIIIcuLIon Luk-
Ing pIuce LIrougI u cIunge In LIe subsLunce ILseII.
eL LIese remurks suIIIce on LIe subjecL oI subsLunce.
1.6. Purt 6 - Qountity
QuunLILy Is eILIer dIscreLe or conLInuous. Moreover, some
quunLILIes ure sucI LIuL eucI purL oI LIe wIoIe Ius u reIuL-
Ive posILIon Lo LIe oLIer purLs: oLIers Iuve wILIIn LIem no
sucI reIuLIon oI purL Lo purL.
nsLunces oI dIscreLe quunLILIes ure number und speecI;
oI conLInuous, IInes, surIuces, soIIds, und, besIdes LIese,
LIme und pIuce.
n LIe cuse oI LIe purLs oI u number, LIere Is no common
boundury uL wIIcI LIey joIn. or exumpIe: Lwo IIves muke
Len, buL LIe Lwo IIves Iuve no common boundury, buL ure
sepuruLe; LIe purLs LIree und seven uIso do noL joIn uL uny
boundury. Nor, Lo generuIIze, wouId IL ever be possIbIe In
LIe cuse oI number LIuL LIere sIouId be u common bound-
ury umong LIe purLs; LIey ure uIwuys sepuruLe. Number,
LIereIore, Is u dIscreLe quunLILy.
TIe sume Is Lrue oI speecI. TIuL speecI Is u quunLILy Is
evIdenL: Ior IL Is meusured In Iong und sIorL syIIubIes.
meun Iere LIuL speecI wIIcI Is vocuI. Moreover, IL Is u dIs-
creLe quunLILy Ior ILs purLs Iuve no common boundury.
TIere Is no common boundury uL wIIcI LIe syIIubIes joIn,
buL eucI Is sepuruLe und dIsLIncL Irom LIe resL.
A IIne, on LIe oLIer Iund, Is u conLInuous quunLILy, Ior IL
Is possIbIe Lo IInd u common boundury uL wIIcI ILs purLs
joIn. n LIe cuse oI LIe IIne, LIIs common boundury Is LIe
poInL; In LIe cuse oI LIe pIune, IL Is LIe IIne: Ior LIe purLs oI
LIe pIune Iuve uIso u common boundury. SImIIurIy you cun
IInd u common boundury In LIe cuse oI LIe purLs oI u soIId,
numeIy eILIer u IIne or u pIune.
Spuce und LIme uIso beIong Lo LIIs cIuss oI quunLILIes.
TIme, pusL, presenL, und IuLure, Iorms u conLInuous wIoIe.
Spuce, IIkewIse, Is u conLInuous quunLILy; Ior LIe purLs oI u
soIId occupy u cerLuIn spuce, und LIese Iuve u common
boundury; IL IoIIows LIuL LIe purLs oI spuce uIso, wIIcI ure
occupIed by LIe purLs oI LIe soIId, Iuve LIe sume common
boundury us LIe purLs oI LIe soIId. TIus, noL onIy LIme, buL
spuce uIso, Is u conLInuous quunLILy, Ior ILs purLs Iuve u
common boundury.
QuunLILIes consIsL eILIer oI purLs wIIcI beur u reIuLIve
posILIon eucI Lo eucI, or oI purLs wIIcI do noL. TIe purLs
oI u IIne beur u reIuLIve posILIon Lo eucI oLIer, Ior eucI IIes
somewIere, und IL wouId be possIbIe Lo dIsLInguIsI eucI,
und Lo sLuLe LIe posILIon oI eucI on LIe pIune und Lo ex-
pIuIn Lo wIuL sorL oI purL umong LIe resL eucI wus conLIgu-
ous. SImIIurIy LIe purLs oI u pIune Iuve posILIon, Ior IL
couId sImIIurIy be sLuLed wIuL wus LIe posILIon oI eucI und
wIuL sorL oI purLs were conLIguous. TIe sume Is Lrue wILI
regurd Lo LIe soIId und Lo spuce. BuL IL wouId be ImpossIbIe
Lo sIow LIuL LIe urLs oI u number Iud u reIuLIve posILIon
eucI Lo eucI, or u purLIcuIur posILIon, or Lo sLuLe wIuL purLs
were conLIguous. Nor couId LIIs be done In LIe cuse oI
LIme, Ior none oI LIe purLs oI LIme Ius un ubIdIng exIsL-
ence, und LIuL wIIcI does noL ubIde cun IurdIy Iuve posI-
LIon. L wouId be beLLer Lo suy LIuL sucI purLs Iud u reIuLIve
order, In vIrLue oI one beIng prIor Lo unoLIer. SImIIurIy
wILI number: In counLIng, 'one' Is prIor Lo 'Lwo', und 'Lwo'
Lo 'LIree', und LIus LIe purLs oI number muy be suId Lo pos-
sess u reIuLIve order, LIougI IL wouId be ImpossIbIe Lo dIs-
cover uny dIsLIncL posILIon Ior eucI. TIIs IoIds good uIso
In LIe cuse oI speecI. None oI ILs purLs Ius un ubIdIng ex-
IsLence: wIen once u syIIubIe Is pronounced, IL Is noL pos-
sIbIe Lo reLuIn IL, so LIuL, nuLuruIIy, us LIe purLs do noL
ubIde, LIey cunnoL Iuve posILIon. TIus, some quunLILIes
consIsL oI purLs wIIcI Iuve posILIon, und some oI LIose
wIIcI Iuve noL.
SLrIcLIy speukIng, onIy LIe LIIngs wIIcI Iuve men-
LIoned beIong Lo LIe cuLegory oI quunLILy: everyLIIng eIse
LIuL Is cuIIed quunLILuLIve Is u quunLILy In u secondury
sense. L Is becuuse we Iuve In mInd some one oI LIese
quunLILIes, properIy so cuIIed, LIuL we uppIy quunLILuLIve
Lerms Lo oLIer LIIngs. We speuk oI wIuL Is wIILe us Iurge,
becuuse LIe surIuce over wIIcI LIe wIILe exLends Is Iurge;
we speuk oI un ucLIon or u process us IengLIy, becuuse LIe
LIme covered Is Iong; LIese LIIngs cunnoL In LIeIr own rIgIL
cIuIm LIe quunLILuLIve epILIeL. or InsLunce, sIouId uny
one expIuIn Iow Iong un ucLIon wus, IIs sLuLemenL wouId
be mude In Lerms oI LIe LIme Luken, Lo LIe eIIecL LIuL IL Ius-
Led u yeur, or someLIIng oI LIuL sorL. n LIe sume wuy, Ie
wouId expIuIn LIe sIze oI u wIILe objecL In Lerms oI surIuce,
Ior Ie wouId sLuLe LIe ureu wIIcI IL covered. TIus LIe
LIIngs uIreudy menLIoned, und LIese uIone, ure In LIeIr In-
LrInsIc nuLure quunLILIes; noLIIng eIse cun cIuIm LIe nume
In ILs own rIgIL, buL, II uL uII, onIy In u secondury sense.
QuunLILIes Iuve no conLrurIes. n LIe cuse oI deIInILe
quunLILIes LIIs Is obvIous; LIus, LIere Is noLIIng LIuL Is LIe
conLrury oI 'Lwo cubILs Iong' or oI 'LIree cubILs Iong', or oI u
surIuce, or oI uny sucI quunLILIes. A mun mIgIL, Indeed,
urgue LIuL 'mucI' wus LIe conLrury oI 'IILLIe', und 'greuL' oI
'smuII'. BuL LIese ure noL quunLILuLIve, buL reIuLIve; LIIngs
ure noL greuL or smuII ubsoIuLeIy, LIey ure so cuIIed ruLIer
us LIe resuIL oI un ucL oI compurIson. or InsLunce, u
mounLuIn Is cuIIed smuII, u gruIn Iurge, In vIrLue oI LIe IucL
LIuL LIe IuLLer Is greuLer LIun oLIers oI ILs kInd, LIe Iormer
Iess. TIus LIere Is u reIerence Iere Lo un exLernuI sLundurd,
Ior II LIe Lerms 'greuL' und 'smuII' were used ubsoIuLeIy, u
mounLuIn wouId never be cuIIed smuII or u gruIn Iurge.
AguIn, we suy LIuL LIere ure muny peopIe In u vIIIuge, und
Iew In ALIens, uILIougI LIose In LIe cILy ure muny LImes us
numerous us LIose In LIe vIIIuge: or we suy LIuL u Iouse
Ius muny In IL, und u LIeuLre Iew, LIougI LIose In LIe
LIeuLre Iur ouLnumber LIose In LIe Iouse. TIe Lerms 'Lwo
cubILs Iong, "LIree cubILs Iong,' und so on IndIcuLe quunL-
ILy, LIe Lerms 'greuL' und 'smuII' IndIcuLe reIuLIon, Ior LIey
Iuve reIerence Lo un exLernuI sLundurd. L Is, LIereIore,
pIuIn LIuL LIese ure Lo be cIussed us reIuLIve.
AguIn, wIeLIer we deIIne LIem us quunLILuLIve or noL,
LIey Iuve no conLrurIes: Ior Iow cun LIere be u conLrury oI
un uLLrIbuLe wIIcI Is noL Lo be uppreIended In or by ILseII,
buL onIy by reIerence Lo someLIIng exLernuI? AguIn, II
'greuL' und 'smuII' ure conLrurIes, IL wIII come ubouL LIuL LIe
sume subjecL cun udmIL conLrury quuIILIes uL one und LIe
sume LIme, und LIuL LIIngs wIII LIemseIves be conLrury Lo
LIemseIves. or IL Iuppens uL LImes LIuL LIe sume LIIng Is
boLI smuII und greuL. or LIe sume LIIng muy be smuII In
compurIson wILI one LIIng, und greuL In compurIson wILI
unoLIer, so LIuL LIe sume LIIng comes Lo be boLI smuII und
greuL uL one und LIe sume LIme, und Is oI sucI u nuLure us
Lo udmIL conLrury quuIILIes uL one und LIe sume momenL.
YeL IL wus ugreed, wIen subsLunce wus beIng dIscussed,
LIuL noLIIng udmILs conLrury quuIILIes uL one und LIe sume
momenL. or LIougI subsLunce Is cupubIe oI udmILLIng
conLrury quuIILIes, yeL no one Is uL LIe sume LIme boLI sIck
und IeuILIy, noLIIng Is uL LIe sume LIme boLI wIILe und
bIuck. Nor Is LIere unyLIIng wIIcI Is quuIIIIed In conLrury
wuys uL one und LIe sume LIme.
Moreover, II LIese were conLrurIes, LIey wouId LIem-
seIves be conLrury Lo LIemseIves. or II 'greuL' Is LIe con-
Lrury oI 'smuII', und LIe sume LIIng Is boLI greuL und smuII
uL LIe sume LIme, LIen 'smuII' or 'greuL' Is LIe conLrury oI IL-
seII. BuL LIIs Is ImpossIbIe. TIe Lerm 'greuL', LIereIore, Is
noL LIe conLrury oI LIe Lerm 'smuII', nor 'mucI' oI 'IILLIe'.
And even LIougI u mun sIouId cuII LIese Lerms noL reIuL-
Ive buL quunLILuLIve, LIey wouId noL Iuve conLrurIes.
L Is In LIe cuse oI spuce LIuL quunLILy mosL pIuusIbIy up-
peurs Lo udmIL oI u conLrury. or men deIIne LIe Lerm
'ubove' us LIe conLrury oI 'beIow', wIen IL Is LIe regIon uL
LIe cenLre LIey meun by 'beIow'; und LIIs Is so, becuuse
noLIIng Is IurLIer Irom LIe exLremILIes oI LIe unIverse LIun
LIe regIon uL LIe cenLre. ndeed, IL seems LIuL In deIInIng
conLrurIes oI every kInd men Iuve recourse Lo u spuLIuI
meLupIor, Ior LIey suy LIuL LIose LIIngs ure conLrurIes
wIIcI, wILIIn LIe sume cIuss, ure sepuruLed by LIe greuLesL
possIbIe dIsLunce.
QuunLILy does noL, IL uppeurs, udmIL oI vurIuLIon oI de-
gree. One LIIng cunnoL be Lwo cubILs Iong In u greuLer de-
gree LIun unoLIer. SImIIurIy wILI regurd Lo number: wIuL
Is 'LIree' Is noL more LruIy LIree LIun wIuL Is 'IIve' Is IIve;
nor Is one seL oI LIree more LruIy LIree LIun unoLIer seL.
AguIn, one perIod oI LIme Is noL suId Lo be more LruIy LIme
LIun unoLIer. Nor Is LIere uny oLIer kInd oI quunLILy, oI uII
LIuL Iuve been menLIoned, wILI regurd Lo wIIcI vurIuLIon
oI degree cun be predIcuLed. TIe cuLegory oI quunLILy,
LIereIore, does noL udmIL oI vurIuLIon oI degree.
TIe mosL dIsLIncLIve murk oI quunLILy Is LIuL equuIILy
und InequuIILy ure predIcuLed oI IL. EucI oI LIe uIoresuId
quunLILIes Is suId Lo be equuI or unequuI. or InsLunce, one
soIId Is suId Lo be equuI or unequuI Lo unoLIer; number,
Loo, und LIme cun Iuve LIese Lerms uppIIed Lo LIem, Indeed
cun uII LIose kInds oI quunLILy LIuL Iuve been menLIoned.
TIuL wIIcI Is noL u quunLILy cun by no meuns, IL wouId
seem, be Lermed equuI or unequuI Lo unyLIIng eIse. One
purLIcuIur dIsposILIon or one purLIcuIur quuIILy, sucI us
wIILeness, Is by no meuns compured wILI unoLIer In Lerms
oI equuIILy und InequuIILy buL ruLIer In Lerms oI sImIIurILy.
TIus IL Is LIe dIsLIncLIve murk oI quunLILy LIuL IL cun be
cuIIed equuI und unequuI.
. Section II
.1. Purt , - Relution
TIose LIIngs ure cuIIed reIuLIve, wIIcI, beIng eILIer suId Lo
be oI someLIIng eIse or reIuLed Lo someLIIng eIse, ure ex-
pIuIned by reIerence Lo LIuL oLIer LIIng. or InsLunce, LIe
word 'superIor' Is expIuIned by reIerence Lo someLIIng eIse,
Ior IL Is superIorILy over someLIIng eIse LIuL Is meunL. SIm-
IIurIy, LIe expressIon 'doubIe' Ius LIIs exLernuI reIerence,
Ior IL Is LIe doubIe oI someLIIng eIse LIuL Is meunL. So IL Is
wILI everyLIIng eIse oI LIIs kInd. TIere ure, moreover, oLI-
er reIuLIves, e.g. IubIL, dIsposILIon, percepLIon, knowIedge,
und uLLILude. TIe sIgnIIIcunce oI uII LIese Is expIuIned by u
reIerence Lo someLIIng eIse und In no oLIer wuy. TIus, u
IubIL Is u IubIL oI someLIIng, knowIedge Is knowIedge oI
someLIIng, uLLILude Is LIe uLLILude oI someLIIng. So IL Is
wILI uII oLIer reIuLIves LIuL Iuve been menLIoned. TIose
Lerms, LIen, ure cuIIed reIuLIve, LIe nuLure oI wIIcI Is ex-
pIuIned by reIerence Lo someLIIng eIse, LIe preposILIon 'oI'
or some oLIer preposILIon beIng used Lo IndIcuLe LIe reIu-
LIon. TIus, one mounLuIn Is cuIIed greuL In compurIson
wILI son wILI unoLIer; Ior LIe mounLuIn cIuIms LIIs uLLrIb-
uLe by compurIson wILI someLIIng. AguIn, LIuL wIIcI Is
cuIIed sImIIur musL be sImIIur Lo someLIIng eIse, und uII
oLIer sucI uLLrIbuLes Iuve LIIs exLernuI reIerence. L Is Lo
be noLed LIuL IyIng und sLundIng und sILLIng ure purLIcuIur
uLLILudes, buL uLLILude Is ILseII u reIuLIve Lerm. To IIe, Lo
sLund, Lo be seuLed, ure noL LIemseIves uLLILudes, buL Luke
LIeIr nume Irom LIe uIoresuId uLLILudes.
L Is possIbIe Ior reIuLIves Lo Iuve conLrurIes. TIus vIrLue
Ius u conLrury, vIce, LIese boLI beIng reIuLIves; knowIedge,
Loo, Ius u conLrury, Ignorunce. BuL LIIs Is noL LIe murk oI
uII reIuLIves; 'doubIe' und 'LrIpIe' Iuve no conLrury, nor In-
deed Ius uny sucI Lerm.
L uIso uppeurs LIuL reIuLIves cun udmIL oI vurIuLIon oI
degree. or 'IIke' und 'unIIke', 'equuI' und 'unequuI', Iuve
LIe modIIIcuLIons 'more' und 'Iess' uppIIed Lo LIem, und
eucI oI LIese Is reIuLIve In cIurucLer: Ior LIe Lerms 'IIke'
und 'unequuI' beur 'unequuI' beur u reIerence Lo someLIIng
exLernuI. YeL, uguIn, IL Is noL every reIuLIve Lerm LIuL ud-
mILs oI vurIuLIon oI degree. No Lerm sucI us 'doubIe' ud-
mILs oI LIIs modIIIcuLIon. AII reIuLIves Iuve correIuLIves: by
LIe Lerm 'sIuve' we meun LIe sIuve oI u musLer, by LIe Lerm
'musLer', LIe musLer oI u sIuve; by 'doubIe', LIe doubIe oI ILs
IuII; by 'IuII', LIe IuII oI ILs doubIe; by 'greuLer', greuLer
LIun LIuL wIIcI Is Iess; by 'Iess,' Iess LIun LIuL wIIcI Is
greuLer.
So IL Is wILI every oLIer reIuLIve Lerm; buL LIe cuse we
use Lo express LIe correIuLIon dIIIers In some InsLunces.
TIus, by knowIedge we meun knowIedge LIe knowubIe; by
LIe knowubIe, LIuL wIIcI Is Lo be uppreIended by know-
Iedge; by percepLIon, percepLIon oI LIe percepLIbIe; by LIe
percepLIbIe, LIuL wIIcI Is uppreIended by percepLIon.
SomeLImes, Iowever, recIprocILy oI correIuLIon does noL
uppeur Lo exIsL. TIIs comes ubouL wIen u bIunder Is mude,
und LIuL Lo wIIcI LIe reIuLIve Is reIuLed Is noL uccuruLeIy
sLuLed. I u mun sLuLes LIuL u wIng Is necessurIIy reIuLIve Lo
u bIrd, LIe connexIon beLween LIese Lwo wIII noL be recIp-
rocuI, Ior IL wIII noL be possIbIe Lo suy LIuL u bIrd Is u bIrd
by reuson oI ILs wIngs. TIe reuson Is LIuL LIe orIgInuI sLuLe-
menL wus InuccuruLe, Ior LIe wIng Is noL suId Lo be reIuLIve
Lo LIe bIrd quu bIrd, sInce muny creuLures besIdes bIrds
Iuve wIngs, buL quu wInged creuLure. I, LIen, LIe sLuLe-
menL Is mude uccuruLe, LIe connexIon wIII be recIprocuI,
Ior we cun speuk oI u wIng, IuvIng reIerence necessurIIy Lo
u wInged creuLure, und oI u wInged creuLure us beIng sucI
becuuse oI ILs wIngs.
OccusIonuIIy, perIups, IL Is necessury Lo coIn words, II no
word exIsLs by wIIcI u correIuLIon cun udequuLeIy be ex-
pIuIned. I we deIIne u rudder us necessurIIy IuvIng reIer-
ence Lo u bouL, our deIInILIon wIII noL be upproprIuLe, Ior
LIe rudder does noL Iuve LIIs reIerence Lo u bouL quu bouL,
us LIere ure bouLs wIIcI Iuve no rudders. TIus we cunnoL
use LIe Lerms recIprocuIIy, Ior LIe word 'bouL' cunnoL be
suId Lo IInd ILs expIunuLIon In LIe word 'rudder'. As LIere Is
no exIsLIng word, our deIInILIon wouId perIups be more
uccuruLe II we coIned some word IIke 'ruddered' us LIe cor-
reIuLIve oI 'rudder'. I we express ourseIves LIus uccuruLeIy,
uL uny ruLe LIe Lerms ure recIprocuIIy connecLed, Ior LIe
'ruddered' LIIng Is 'ruddered' In vIrLue oI ILs rudder. So IL Is
In uII oLIer cuses. A Ieud wIII be more uccuruLeIy deIIned
us LIe correIuLIve oI LIuL wIIcI Is 'Ieuded', LIun us LIuL oI
un unImuI, Ior LIe unImuI does noL Iuve u Ieud quu unImuI,
sInce muny unImuIs Iuve no Ieud.
TIus we muy perIups mosL eusIIy compreIend LIuL Lo
wIIcI u LIIng Is reIuLed, wIen u nume does noL exIsL, II,
Irom LIuL wIIcI Ius u nume, we derIve u new nume, und
uppIy IL Lo LIuL wILI wIIcI LIe IIrsL Is recIprocuIIy connec-
Led, us In LIe uIoresuId InsLunces, wIen we derIved LIe
word 'wInged' Irom 'wIng' und Irom 'rudder'.
AII reIuLIves, LIen, II properIy deIIned, Iuve u correIuLIve.
udd LIIs condILIon becuuse, II LIuL Lo wIIcI LIey ure re-
IuLed Is sLuLed us IupIuzurd und noL uccuruLeIy, LIe Lwo ure
noL Iound Lo be InLerdependenL. eL me sLuLe wIuL meun
more cIeurIy. Even In LIe cuse oI ucknowIedged correIuL-
Ives, und wIere numes exIsL Ior eucI, LIere wIII be no In-
Lerdependence II one oI LIe Lwo Is denoLed, noL by LIuL
nume wIIcI expresses LIe correIuLIve noLIon, buL by one oI
IrreIevunL sIgnIIIcunce. TIe Lerm 'sIuve,' II deIIned us re-
IuLed, noL Lo u musLer, buL Lo u mun, or u bIped, or unyLIIng
oI LIuL sorL, Is noL recIprocuIIy connecLed wILI LIuL In reIu-
LIon Lo wIIcI IL Is deIIned, Ior LIe sLuLemenL Is noL exucL.
urLIer, II one LIIng Is suId Lo be correIuLIve wILI unoLIer,
und LIe LermInoIogy used Is correcL, LIen, LIougI uII IrreI-
evunL uLLrIbuLes sIouId be removed, und onIy LIuL one uL-
LrIbuLe IeIL In vIrLue oI wIIcI IL wus correcLIy sLuLed Lo be
correIuLIve wILI LIuL oLIer, LIe sLuLed correIuLIon wIII sLIII
exIsL. I LIe correIuLIve oI 'LIe sIuve' Is suId Lo be 'LIe mus-
Ler', LIen, LIougI uII IrreIevunL uLLrIbuLes oI LIe suId 'mus-
Ler', sucI us 'bIped', 'recepLIve oI knowIedge', 'Iumun',
sIouId be removed, und LIe uLLrIbuLe 'musLer' uIone IeIL,
LIe sLuLed correIuLIon exIsLIng beLween IIm und LIe sIuve
wIII remuIn LIe sume, Ior IL Is oI u musLer LIuL u sIuve Is
suId Lo be LIe sIuve. On LIe oLIer Iund, II, oI Lwo correIuL-
Ives, one Is noL correcLIy Lermed, LIen, wIen uII oLIer uL-
LrIbuLes ure removed und LIuL uIone Is IeIL In vIrLue oI
wIIcI IL wus sLuLed Lo be correIuLIve, LIe sLuLed correIuLIon
wIII be Iound Lo Iuve dIsuppeured.
or suppose LIe correIuLIve oI 'LIe sIuve' sIouId be suId
Lo be 'LIe mun', or LIe correIuLIve oI 'LIe wIng"LIe bIrd'; II
LIe uLLrIbuLe 'musLer' be wILIdruwn Irom' LIe mun', LIe
correIuLIon beLween 'LIe mun' und 'LIe sIuve' wIII ceuse Lo
exIsL, Ior II LIe mun Is noL u musLer, LIe sIuve Is noL u sIuve.
SImIIurIy, II LIe uLLrIbuLe 'wInged' be wILIdruwn Irom 'LIe
bIrd', 'LIe wIng' wIII no Ionger be reIuLIve; Ior II LIe so-
cuIIed correIuLIve Is noL wInged, IL IoIIows LIuL 'LIe wIng'
Ius no correIuLIve.
TIus IL Is essenLIuI LIuL LIe correIuLed Lerms sIouId be
exucLIy desIgnuLed; II LIere Is u nume exIsLIng, LIe sLuLe-
menL wIII be eusy; II noL, IL Is doubLIess our duLy Lo con-
sLrucL numes. WIen LIe LermInoIogy Is LIus correcL, IL Is
evIdenL LIuL uII correIuLIves ure InLerdependenL.
CorreIuLIves ure LIougIL Lo come InLo exIsLence sImuI-
LuneousIy. TIIs Is Ior LIe mosL purL Lrue, us In LIe cuse oI
LIe doubIe und LIe IuII. TIe exIsLence oI LIe IuII necessIL-
uLes LIe exIsLence oI LIuL oI wIIcI IL Is u IuII. SImIIurIy LIe
exIsLence oI u musLer necessILuLes LIe exIsLence oI u sIuve,
und LIuL oI u sIuve ImpIIes LIuL oI u musLer; LIese ure
mereIy InsLunces oI u generuI ruIe. Moreover, LIey cunceI
one unoLIer; Ior II LIere Is no doubIe IL IoIIows LIuL LIere Is
no IuII, und vIce versu; LIIs ruIe uIso uppIIes Lo uII sucI
correIuLIves. YeL IL does noL uppeur Lo be Lrue In uII cuses
LIuL correIuLIves come InLo exIsLence sImuILuneousIy. TIe
objecL oI knowIedge wouId uppeur Lo exIsL beIore know-
Iedge ILseII, Ior IL Is usuuIIy LIe cuse LIuL we ucquIre know-
Iedge oI objecLs uIreudy exIsLIng; IL wouId be dIIIIcuIL, II noL
ImpossIbIe, Lo IInd u bruncI oI knowIedge LIe begInnIng oI
LIe exIsLence oI wIIcI wus conLemporuneous wILI LIuL oI
ILs objecL.
AguIn, wIIIe LIe objecL oI knowIedge, II IL ceuses Lo exIsL,
cunceIs uL LIe sume LIme LIe knowIedge wIIcI wus ILs cor-
reIuLIve, LIe converse oI LIIs Is noL Lrue. L Is Lrue LIuL II LIe
objecL oI knowIedge does noL exIsL LIere cun be no know-
Iedge: Ior LIere wIII no Ionger be unyLIIng Lo know. YeL IL Is
equuIIy Lrue LIuL, II knowIedge oI u cerLuIn objecL does noL
exIsL, LIe objecL muy neverLIeIess quILe weII exIsL. TIus, In
LIe cuse oI LIe squurIng oI LIe cIrcIe, II Indeed LIuL process
Is un objecL oI knowIedge, LIougI IL ILseII exIsLs us un ob-
jecL oI knowIedge, yeL LIe knowIedge oI IL Ius noL yeL come
InLo exIsLence. AguIn, II uII unImuIs ceused Lo exIsL, LIere
wouId be no knowIedge, buL LIere mIgIL yeL be muny ob-
jecLs oI knowIedge.
TIIs Is IIkewIse LIe cuse wILI regurd Lo percepLIon: Ior
LIe objecL oI percepLIon Is, IL uppeurs, prIor Lo LIe ucL oI
percepLIon. I LIe percepLIbIe Is unnIIIIuLed, percepLIon
uIso wIII ceuse Lo exIsL; buL LIe unnIIIIuLIon oI percepLIon
does noL cunceI LIe exIsLence oI LIe percepLIbIe. or per-
cepLIon ImpIIes u body perceIved und u body In wIIcI per-
cepLIon Lukes pIuce. Now II LIuL wIIcI Is percepLIbIe Is un-
nIIIIuLed, IL IoIIows LIuL LIe body Is unnIIIIuLed, Ior LIe
body Is u percepLIbIe LIIng; und II LIe body does noL exIsL,
IL IoIIows LIuL percepLIon uIso ceuses Lo exIsL. TIus LIe un-
nIIIIuLIon oI LIe percepLIbIe InvoIves LIuL oI percepLIon.
BuL LIe unnIIIIuLIon oI percepLIon does noL InvoIve LIuL
oI LIe percepLIbIe. or II LIe unImuI Is unnIIIIuLed, IL IoI-
Iows LIuL percepLIon uIso Is unnIIIIuLed, buL percepLIbIes
sucI us body, IeuL, sweeLness, bILLerness, und so on, wIII
remuIn.
AguIn, percepLIon Is generuLed uL LIe sume LIme us LIe
perceIvIng subjecL, Ior IL comes InLo exIsLence uL LIe sume
LIme us LIe unImuI. BuL LIe percepLIbIe sureIy exIsLs beIore
percepLIon; Ior IIre und wuLer und sucI eIemenLs, ouL oI
wIIcI LIe unImuI Is ILseII composed, exIsL beIore LIe unIm-
uI Is un unImuI uL uII, und beIore percepLIon. TIus IL wouId
seem LIuL LIe percepLIbIe exIsLs beIore percepLIon.
L muy be quesLIoned wIeLIer IL Is Lrue LIuL no sub-
sLunce Is reIuLIve, us seems Lo be LIe cuse, or wIeLIer ex-
cepLIon Is Lo be mude In LIe cuse oI cerLuIn secondury sub-
sLunces. WILI regurd Lo prImury subsLunces, IL Is quILe Lrue
LIuL LIere Is no sucI possIbIIILy, Ior neILIer wIoIes nor
purLs oI prImury subsLunces ure reIuLIve. TIe IndIvIduuI
mun or ox Is noL deIIned wILI reIerence Lo someLIIng ex-
LernuI. SImIIurIy wILI LIe purLs: u purLIcuIur Iund or Ieud
Is noL deIIned us u purLIcuIur Iund or Ieud oI u purLIcuIur
person, buL us LIe Iund or Ieud oI u purLIcuIur person. L Is
Lrue uIso, Ior LIe mosL purL uL IeusL, In LIe cuse oI second-
ury subsLunces; LIe specIes 'mun' und LIe specIes 'ox' ure
noL deIIned wILI reIerence Lo unyLIIng ouLsIde LIemseIves.
Wood, uguIn, Is onIy reIuLIve In so Iur us IL Is some one's
properLy, noL In so Iur us IL Is wood. L Is pIuIn, LIen, LIuL In
LIe cuses menLIoned subsLunce Is noL reIuLIve. BuL wILI re-
gurd Lo some secondury subsLunces LIere Is u dIIIerence oI
opInIon; LIus, sucI Lerms us 'Ieud' und 'Iund' ure deIIned
wILI reIerence Lo LIuL oI wIIcI LIe LIIngs IndIcuLed ure u
purL, und so IL comes ubouL LIuL LIese uppeur Lo Iuve u reI-
uLIve cIurucLer. ndeed, II our deIInILIon oI LIuL wIIcI Is
reIuLIve wus compIeLe, IL Is very dIIIIcuIL, II noL ImpossIbIe,
Lo prove LIuL no subsLunce Is reIuLIve. I, Iowever, our
deIInILIon wus noL compIeLe, II LIose LIIngs onIy ure prop-
erIy cuIIed reIuLIve In LIe cuse oI wIIcI reIuLIon Lo un ex-
LernuI objecL Is u necessury condILIon oI exIsLence, perIups
some expIunuLIon oI LIe dIIemmu muy be Iound.
TIe Iormer deIInILIon does Indeed uppIy Lo uII reIuLIves,
buL LIe IucL LIuL u LIIng Is expIuIned wILI reIerence Lo
someLIIng eIse does noL muke IL essenLIuIIy reIuLIve.
rom LIIs IL Is pIuIn LIuL, II u mun deIInILeIy uppreIends
u reIuLIve LIIng, Ie wIII uIso deIInILeIy uppreIend LIuL Lo
wIIcI IL Is reIuLIve. ndeed LIIs Is seII-evIdenL: Ior II u mun
knows LIuL some purLIcuIur LIIng Is reIuLIve, ussumIng LIuL
we cuII LIuL u reIuLIve In LIe cuse oI wIIcI reIuLIon Lo
someLIIng Is u necessury condILIon oI exIsLence, Ie knows
LIuL uIso Lo wIIcI IL Is reIuLed. or II Ie does noL know uL
uII LIuL Lo wIIcI IL Is reIuLed, Ie wIII noL know wIeLIer or
noL IL Is reIuLIve. TIIs Is cIeur, moreover, In purLIcuIur In-
sLunces. I u mun knows deIInILeIy LIuL sucI und sucI u
LIIng Is 'doubIe', Ie wIII uIso IorLIwILI know deIInILeIy LIuL
oI wIIcI IL Is LIe doubIe. or II LIere Is noLIIng deIInILe oI
wIIcI Ie knows IL Lo be LIe doubIe, Ie does noL know uL uII
LIuL IL Is doubIe. AguIn, II Ie knows LIuL u LIIng Is more
beuuLIIuI, IL IoIIows necessurIIy LIuL Ie wIII IorLIwILI deI-
InILeIy know LIuL uIso LIun wIIcI IL Is more beuuLIIuI. He
wIII noL mereIy know IndeIInILeIy LIuL IL Is more beuuLIIuI
LIun someLIIng wIIcI Is Iess beuuLIIuI, Ior LIIs wouId be
supposILIon, noL knowIedge. or II Ie does noL know deIIn-
ILeIy LIuL LIun wIIcI IL Is more beuuLIIuI, Ie cun no Ionger
cIuIm Lo know deIInILeIy LIuL IL Is more beuuLIIuI LIun
someLIIng eIse wIIcI Is Iess beuuLIIuI: Ior IL mIgIL be LIuL
noLIIng wus Iess beuuLIIuI. L Is, LIereIore, evIdenL LIuL II u
mun uppreIends some reIuLIve LIIng deIInILeIy, Ie neces-
surIIy knows LIuL uIso deIInILeIy Lo wIIcI IL Is reIuLed.
Now LIe Ieud, LIe Iund, und sucI LIIngs ure subsLunces,
und IL Is possIbIe Lo know LIeIr essenLIuI cIurucLer deIIn-
ILeIy, buL IL does noL necessurIIy IoIIow LIuL we sIouId
know LIuL Lo wIIcI LIey ure reIuLed. L Is noL possIbIe Lo
know IorLIwILI wIose Ieud or Iund Is meunL. TIus LIese
ure noL reIuLIves, und, LIIs beIng LIe cuse, IL wouId be Lrue
Lo suy LIuL no subsLunce Is reIuLIve In cIurucLer. L Is per-
Iups u dIIIIcuIL muLLer, In sucI cuses, Lo muke u posILIve
sLuLemenL wILIouL more exIuusLIve exumInuLIon, buL Lo
Iuve ruIsed quesLIons wILI regurd Lo deLuIIs Is noL wILIouL
udvunLuge.
.. Purt S - Qoulities
By 'quuIILy' meun LIuL In vIrLue oI wIIcI peopIe ure suId
Lo be sucI und sucI.
QuuIILy Is u Lerm LIuL Is used In muny senses. One sorL oI
quuIILy IeL us cuII 'IubIL' or 'dIsposILIon'. HubIL dIIIers Irom
dIsposILIon In beIng more IusLIng und more IIrmIy esLub-
IIsIed. TIe vurIous kInds oI knowIedge und oI vIrLue ure
IubILs, Ior knowIedge, even wIen ucquIred onIy In u mod-
eruLe degree, Is, IL Is ugreed, ubIdIng In ILs cIurucLer und
dIIIIcuIL Lo dIspIuce, unIess some greuL menLuI upIeuvuI
Lukes pIuce, LIrougI dIseuse or uny sucI cuuse. TIe vIr-
Lues, uIso, sucI us jusLIce, seII-resLruInL, und so on, ure noL
eusIIy dIsIodged or dIsmIssed, so us Lo gIve pIuce Lo vIce.
By u dIsposILIon, on LIe oLIer Iund, we meun u condI-
LIon LIuL Is eusIIy cIunged und quIckIy gIves pIuce Lo ILs op-
posILe. TIus, IeuL, coId, dIseuse, IeuILI, und so on ure dIs-
posILIons. or u mun Is dIsposed In one wuy or unoLIer
wILI reIerence Lo LIese, buL quIckIy cIunges, becomIng
coId InsLeud oI wurm, III InsLeud oI weII. So IL Is wILI uII
oLIer dIsposILIons uIso, unIess LIrougI Iupse oI LIme u dIs-
posILIon Ius ILseII become InveLeruLe und uImosL Im-
possIbIe Lo dIsIodge: In wIIcI cuse we sIouId perIups go
so Iur us Lo cuII IL u IubIL.
L Is evIdenL LIuL men IncIIne Lo cuII LIose condILIons
IubILs wIIcI ure oI u more or Iess permunenL Lype und dII-
IIcuIL Lo dIspIuce; Ior LIose wIo ure noL reLenLIve oI know-
Iedge, buL voIuLIIe, ure noL suId Lo Iuve sucI und sucI u
'IubIL' us regurds knowIedge, yeL LIey ure dIsposed, we
muy suy, eILIer beLLer or worse, Lowurds knowIedge. TIus
IubIL dIIIers Irom dIsposILIon In LIIs, LIuL wIIIe LIe IuLLer
In epIemeruI, LIe Iormer Is permunenL und dIIIIcuIL Lo uI-
Ler.
HubILs ure uL LIe sume LIme dIsposILIons, buL dIsposI-
LIons ure noL necessurIIy IubILs. or LIose wIo Iuve some
specIIIc IubIL muy be suId uIso, In vIrLue oI LIuL IubIL, Lo be
LIus or LIus dIsposed; buL LIose wIo ure dIsposed In some
specIIIc wuy Iuve noL In uII cuses LIe correspondIng IubIL.
AnoLIer sorL oI quuIILy Is LIuL In vIrLue oI wIIcI, Ior ex-
umpIe, we cuII men good boxers or runners, or IeuILIy or
sIckIy: In IucL IL IncIudes uII LIose Lerms wIIcI reIer Lo In-
born cupucILy or IncupucILy. SucI LIIngs ure noL predIcuLed
oI u person In vIrLue oI IIs dIsposILIon, buL In vIrLue oI IIs
Inborn cupucILy or IncupucILy Lo do someLIIng wILI euse or
Lo uvoId deIeuL oI uny kInd. Persons ure cuIIed good boxers
or good runners, noL In vIrLue oI sucI und sucI u dIsposI-
LIon, buL In vIrLue oI un Inborn cupucILy Lo uccompIIsI
someLIIng wILI euse. Men ure cuIIed IeuILIy In vIrLue oI
LIe Inborn cupucILy oI eusy resIsLunce Lo LIose unIeuILIy
InIIuences LIuL muy ordInurIIy urIse; unIeuILIy, In vIrLue oI
LIe Iuck oI LIIs cupucILy. SImIIurIy wILI regurd Lo soILness
und Iurdness. Hurdness Is predIcuLed oI u LIIng becuuse IL
Ius LIuL cupucILy oI resIsLunce wIIcI enubIes IL Lo wILI-
sLund dIsInLegruLIon; soILness, uguIn, Is predIcuLed oI u
LIIng by reuson oI LIe Iuck oI LIuL cupucILy.
A LIIrd cIuss wILIIn LIIs cuLegory Is LIuL oI uIIecLIve quuI-
ILIes und uIIecLIons. SweeLness, bILLerness, sourness, ure
exumpIes oI LIIs sorL oI quuIILy, LogeLIer wILI uII LIuL Is
ukIn Lo LIese; IeuL, moreover, und coId, wIILeness, und
bIuckness ure uIIecLIve quuIILIes. L Is evIdenL LIuL LIese ure
quuIILIes, Ior LIose LIIngs LIuL possess LIem ure LIem-
seIves suId Lo be sucI und sucI by reuson oI LIeIr presence.
Honey Is cuIIed sweeL becuuse IL conLuIns sweeLness; LIe
body Is cuIIed wIILe becuuse IL conLuIns wIILeness; und so
In uII oLIer cuses.
TIe Lerm 'uIIecLIve quuIILy' Is noL used us IndIcuLIng LIuL
LIose LIIngs wIIcI udmIL LIese quuIILIes ure uIIecLed In uny
wuy. Honey Is noL cuIIed sweeL becuuse IL Is uIIecLed In u
specIIIc wuy, nor Is LIIs wIuL Is meunL In uny oLIer In-
sLunce. SImIIurIy IeuL und coId ure cuIIed uIIecLIve quuIIL-
Ies, noL becuuse LIose LIIngs wIIcI udmIL LIem ure uI-
IecLed. WIuL Is meunL Is LIuL LIese suId quuIILIes ure cup-
ubIe oI producIng un 'uIIecLIon' In LIe wuy oI percepLIon.
or sweeLness Ius LIe power oI uIIecLIng LIe sense oI LusLe;
IeuL, LIuL oI LoucI; und so IL Is wILI LIe resL oI LIese quuIIL-
Ies.
WIILeness und bIuckness, Iowever, und LIe oLIer coI-
ours, ure noL suId Lo be uIIecLIve quuIILIes In LIIs sense, buL
-becuuse LIey LIemseIves ure LIe resuILs oI un uIIecLIon. L
Is pIuIn LIuL muny cIunges oI coIour Luke pIuce becuuse oI
uIIecLIons. WIen u mun Is usIumed, Ie bIusIes; wIen Ie Is
uIruId, Ie becomes puIe, und so on. So Lrue Is LIIs, LIuL
wIen u mun Is by nuLure IIubIe Lo sucI uIIecLIons, urIsIng
Irom some concomILunce oI eIemenLs In IIs consLILuLIon, IL
Is u probubIe InIerence LIuL Ie Ius LIe correspondIng com-
pIexIon oI skIn. or LIe sume dIsposILIon oI bodIIy eIe-
menLs, wIIcI In LIe Iormer InsLunce wus momenLurIIy
presenL In LIe cuse oI un uccess oI sIume, mIgIL be u resuIL
oI u mun's nuLuruI LemperumenL, so us Lo produce LIe cor-
respondIng coIourIng uIso us u nuLuruI cIurucLerIsLIc. AII
condILIons, LIereIore, oI LIIs kInd, II cuused by cerLuIn per-
munenL und IusLIng uIIecLIons, ure cuIIed uIIecLIve quuIILIes.
or puIIor und duskIness oI compIexIon ure cuIIed quuIIL-
Ies, InusmucI us we ure suId Lo be sucI und sucI In vIrLue
oI LIem, noL onIy II LIey orIgInuLe In nuLuruI consLILuLIon,
buL uIso II LIey come ubouL LIrougI Iong dIseuse or sun-
burn, und ure dIIIIcuIL Lo remove, or Indeed remuIn
LIrougIouL IIIe. or In LIe sume wuy we ure suId Lo be sucI
und sucI becuuse oI LIese.
TIose condILIons, Iowever, wIIcI urIse Irom cuuses
wIIcI muy eusIIy be rendered IneIIecLIve or speedIIy re-
moved, ure cuIIed, noL quuIILIes, buL uIIecLIons: Ior we ure
noL suId Lo be sucI vIrLue oI LIem. TIe mun wIo bIusIes
LIrougI sIume Is noL suId Lo be u consLILuLIonuI bIusIer,
nor Is LIe mun wIo becomes puIe LIrougI Ieur suId Lo be
consLILuLIonuIIy puIe. He Is suId ruLIer Lo Iuve been uI-
IecLed.
TIus sucI condILIons ure cuIIed uIIecLIons, noL quuIILIes.
n IIke munner LIere ure uIIecLIve quuIILIes und uIIecLIons
oI LIe souI. TIuL Lemper wILI wIIcI u mun Is born und
wIIcI Ius ILs orIgIn In cerLuIn deep-seuLed uIIecLIons Is
cuIIed u quuIILy. meun sucI condILIons us InsunILy, Irus-
cIbIIILy, und so on: Ior peopIe ure suId Lo be mud or Irus-
cIbIe In vIrLue oI LIese. SImIIurIy LIose ubnormuI psycIIc
sLuLes wIIcI ure noL Inborn, buL urIse Irom LIe concomIL-
unce oI cerLuIn oLIer eIemenLs, und ure dIIIIcuIL Lo remove,
or uILogeLIer permunenL, ure cuIIed quuIILIes, Ior In vIrLue
oI LIem men ure suId Lo be sucI und sucI.
TIose, Iowever, wIIcI urIse Irom cuuses eusIIy rendered
IneIIecLIve ure cuIIed uIIecLIons, noL quuIILIes. Suppose LIuL
u mun Is IrrILubIe wIen vexed: Ie Is noL even spoken oI us u
bud-Lempered mun, wIen In sucI cIrcumsLunces Ie Ioses
IIs Lemper somewIuL, buL ruLIer Is suId Lo be uIIecLed.
SucI condILIons ure LIereIore Lermed, noL quuIILIes, buL uI-
IecLIons.
TIe IourLI sorL oI quuIILy Is IIgure und LIe sIupe LIuL be-
Iongs Lo u LIIng; und besIdes LIIs, sLruIgILness und curved-
ness und uny oLIer quuIILIes oI LIIs Lype; eucI oI LIese
deIInes u LIIng us beIng sucI und sucI. Becuuse IL Is LrIun-
guIur or quudrunguIur u LIIng Is suId Lo Iuve u specIIIc
cIurucLer, or uguIn becuuse IL Is sLruIgIL or curved; In IucL u
LIIng's sIupe In every cuse gIves rIse Lo u quuIIIIcuLIon oI IL.
RurILy und densILy, rougIness und smooLIness, seem Lo
be Lerms IndIcuLIng quuIILy: yeL LIese, IL wouId uppeur,
reuIIy beIong Lo u cIuss dIIIerenL Irom LIuL oI quuIILy. or IL
Is ruLIer u cerLuIn reIuLIve posILIon oI LIe purLs composIng
LIe LIIng LIus quuIIIIed wIIcI, IL uppeurs, Is IndIcuLed by
eucI oI LIese Lerms. A LIIng Is dense, owIng Lo LIe IucL LIuL
ILs purLs ure cIoseIy combIned wILI one unoLIer; rure, be-
cuuse LIere ure InLersLIces beLween LIe purLs; smooLI, be-
cuuse ILs purLs IIe, so Lo speuk, evenIy; rougI, becuuse
some purLs projecL beyond oLIers.
TIere muy be oLIer sorLs oI quuIILy, buL LIose LIuL ure
mosL properIy so cuIIed Iuve, we muy suIeIy suy, been enu-
meruLed.
TIese, LIen, ure quuIILIes, und LIe LIIngs LIuL Luke LIeIr
nume Irom LIem us derIvuLIves, or ure In some oLIer wuy
dependenL on LIem, ure suId Lo be quuIIIIed In some specII-
Ic wuy. n mosL, Indeed In uImosL uII cuses, LIe nume oI
LIuL wIIcI Is quuIIIIed Is derIved Irom LIuL oI LIe quuIILy.
TIus LIe Lerms 'wIILeness', 'grummur', 'jusLIce', gIve us LIe
udjecLIves 'wIILe', 'grummuLIcuI', 'jusL', und so on.
TIere ure some cuses, Iowever, In wIIcI, us LIe quuIILy
under consIderuLIon Ius no nume, IL Is ImpossIbIe LIuL
LIose possessed oI IL sIouId Iuve u nume LIuL Is derIvuLIve.
or InsLunce, LIe nume gIven Lo LIe runner or boxer, wIo
Is so cuIIed In vIrLue oI un Inborn cupucILy, Is noL derIved
Irom LIuL oI uny quuIILy; Ior Iob LIose cupucILIes Iuve no
nume ussIgned Lo LIem. n LIIs, LIe Inborn cupucILy Is dIs-
LIncL Irom LIe scIence, wILI reIerence Lo wIIcI men ure
cuIIed, e.g. boxers or wresLIers. SucI u scIence Is cIussed us
u dIsposILIon; IL Ius u nume, und Is cuIIed 'boxIng' or 'wresL-
IIng' us LIe cuse muy be, und LIe nume gIven Lo LIose dIs-
posed In LIIs wuy Is derIved Irom LIuL oI LIe scIence.
SomeLImes, even LIougI u nume exIsLs Ior LIe quuIILy, LIuL
wIIcI Lukes ILs cIurucLer Irom LIe quuIILy Ius u nume LIuL
Is noL u derIvuLIve. or InsLunce, LIe uprIgIL mun Lukes IIs
cIurucLer Irom LIe possessIon oI LIe quuIILy oI InLegrILy,
buL LIe nume gIven IIm Is noL derIved Irom LIe word 'In-
LegrILy'. YeL LIIs does noL occur oILen.
We muy LIereIore sLuLe LIuL LIose LIIngs ure suId Lo be
possessed oI some specIIIc quuIILy wIIcI Iuve u nume de-
rIved Irom LIuL oI LIe uIoresuId quuIILy, or wIIcI ure In
some oLIer wuy dependenL on IL.
One quuIILy muy be LIe conLrury oI unoLIer; LIus jusLIce
Is LIe conLrury oI InjusLIce, wIILeness oI bIuckness, und so
on. TIe LIIngs, uIso, wIIcI ure suId Lo be sucI und sucI In
vIrLue oI LIese quuIILIes, muy be conLrury LIe one Lo LIe
oLIer; Ior LIuL wIIcI Is unjusL Is conLrury Lo LIuL wIIcI Is
jusL, LIuL wIIcI Is wIILe Lo LIuL wIIcI Is bIuck. TIIs,
Iowever, Is noL uIwuys LIe cuse. Red, yeIIow, und sucI coI-
ours, LIougI quuIILIes, Iuve no conLrurIes.
I one oI Lwo conLrurIes Is u quuIILy, LIe oLIer wIII uIso be
u quuIILy. TIIs wIII be evIdenL Irom purLIcuIur InsLunces, II
we uppIy LIe numes used Lo denoLe LIe oLIer cuLegorIes;
Ior InsLunce, grunLed LIuL jusLIce Is LIe conLrury oI InjusLIce
und jusLIce Is u quuIILy, InjusLIce wIII uIso be u quuIILy:
neILIer quunLILy, nor reIuLIon, nor pIuce, nor Indeed uny
oLIer cuLegory buL LIuL oI quuIILy, wIII be uppIIcubIe prop-
erIy Lo InjusLIce. So IL Is wILI uII oLIer conLrurIes IuIIIng un-
der LIe cuLegory oI quuIILy.
QuuIILIes udmIL oI vurIuLIon oI degree. WIILeness Is pre-
dIcuLed oI one LIIng In u greuLer or Iess degree LIun oI un-
oLIer. TIIs Is uIso LIe cuse wILI reIerence Lo jusLIce.
Moreover, one und LIe sume LIIng muy exIIbIL u quuIILy In
u greuLer degree LIun IL dId beIore: II u LIIng Is wIILe, IL
muy become wIILer.
TIougI LIIs Is generuIIy LIe cuse, LIere ure excepLIons.
or II we sIouId suy LIuL jusLIce udmILLed oI vurIuLIon oI
degree, dIIIIcuILIes mIgIL ensue, und LIIs Is Lrue wILI re-
gurd Lo uII LIose quuIILIes wIIcI ure dIsposILIons. TIere ure
some, Indeed, wIo dIspuLe LIe possIbIIILy oI vurIuLIon Iere.
TIey muInLuIn LIuL jusLIce und IeuILI cunnoL very weII ud-
mIL oI vurIuLIon oI degree LIemseIves, buL LIuL peopIe vury
In LIe degree In wIIcI LIey possess LIese quuIILIes, und
LIuL LIIs Is LIe cuse wILI grummuLIcuI IeurnIng und uII
LIose quuIILIes wIIcI ure cIussed us dIsposILIons. However
LIuL muy be, IL Is un InconLroverLIbIe IucL LIuL LIe LIIngs
wIIcI In vIrLue oI LIese quuIILIes ure suId Lo be wIuL LIey
ure vury In LIe degree In wIIcI LIey possess LIem; Ior one
mun Is suId Lo be beLLer versed In grummur, or more
IeuILIy or jusL, LIun unoLIer, und so on.
TIe quuIILIes expressed by LIe Lerms 'LrIunguIur' und
'quudrunguIur' do noL uppeur Lo udmIL oI vurIuLIon oI de-
gree, nor Indeed do uny LIuL Iuve Lo do wILI IIgure. or
LIose LIIngs Lo wIIcI LIe deIInILIon oI LIe LrIungIe or cIrcIe
Is uppIIcubIe ure uII equuIIy LrIunguIur or cIrcuIur. TIose,
on LIe oLIer Iund, Lo wIIcI LIe sume deIInILIon Is noL up-
pIIcubIe, cunnoL be suId Lo dIIIer Irom one unoLIer In de-
gree; LIe squure Is no more u cIrcIe LIun LIe recLungIe, Ior
Lo neILIer Is LIe deIInILIon oI LIe cIrcIe upproprIuLe. n
sIorL, II LIe deIInILIon oI LIe Lerm proposed Is noL uppIIc-
ubIe Lo boLI objecLs, LIey cunnoL be compured. TIus IL Is
noL uII quuIILIes wIIcI udmIL oI vurIuLIon oI degree.
WIereus none oI LIe cIurucLerIsLIcs Iuve menLIoned
ure pecuIIur Lo quuIILy, LIe IucL LIuL IIkeness und unIIke-
ness cun be predIcuLed wILI reIerence Lo quuIILy onIy, gIves
Lo LIuL cuLegory ILs dIsLIncLIve IeuLure. One LIIng Is IIke un-
oLIer onIy wILI reIerence Lo LIuL In vIrLue oI wIIcI IL Is
sucI und sucI; LIus LIIs Iorms LIe pecuIIur murk oI quuI-
ILy.
We musL noL be dIsLurbed becuuse IL muy be urgued
LIuL, LIougI proposIng Lo dIscuss LIe cuLegory oI quuIILy,
we Iuve IncIuded In IL muny reIuLIve Lerms. We dId suy LIuL
IubILs und dIsposILIons were reIuLIve. n prucLIcuIIy uII
sucI cuses LIe genus Is reIuLIve, LIe IndIvIduuI noL. TIus
knowIedge, us u genus, Is expIuIned by reIerence Lo
someLIIng eIse, Ior we meun u knowIedge oI someLIIng.
BuL purLIcuIur bruncIes oI knowIedge ure noL LIus ex-
pIuIned. TIe knowIedge oI grummur Is noL reIuLIve Lo uny-
LIIng exLernuI, nor Is LIe knowIedge oI musIc, buL LIese, II
reIuLIve uL uII, ure reIuLIve onIy In vIrLue oI LIeIr generu;
LIus grummur Is suId be LIe knowIedge oI someLIIng, noL
LIe grummur oI someLIIng; sImIIurIy musIc Is LIe know-
Iedge oI someLIIng, noL LIe musIc oI someLIIng.
TIus IndIvIduuI bruncIes oI knowIedge ure noL reIuLIve.
And IL Is becuuse we possess LIese IndIvIduuI bruncIes oI
knowIedge LIuL we ure suId Lo be sucI und sucI. L Is LIese
LIuL we ucLuuIIy possess: we ure cuIIed experLs becuuse we
possess knowIedge In some purLIcuIur bruncI. TIose pur-
LIcuIur bruncIes, LIereIore, oI knowIedge, In vIrLue oI
wIIcI we ure someLImes suId Lo be sucI und sucI, ure
LIemseIves quuIILIes, und ure noL reIuLIve. urLIer, II uny-
LIIng sIouId Iuppen Lo IuII wILIIn boLI LIe cuLegory oI
quuIILy und LIuL oI reIuLIon, LIere wouId be noLIIng ex-
LruordInury In cIussIng IL under boLI LIese Ieuds.
. Section III
.1. Purt q - Action und AIIection oI the Other
Cutegories escribed
AcLIon und uIIecLIon boLI udmIL oI conLrurIes und uIso oI
vurIuLIon oI degree. HeuLIng Is LIe conLrury oI cooIIng, be-
Ing IeuLed oI beIng cooIed, beIng gIud oI beIng vexed. TIus
LIey udmIL oI conLrurIes. TIey uIso udmIL oI vurIuLIon oI
degree: Ior IL Is possIbIe Lo IeuL In u greuLer or Iess degree;
uIso Lo be IeuLed In u greuLer or Iess degree. TIus ucLIon
und uIIecLIon uIso udmIL oI vurIuLIon oI degree. So mucI,
LIen, Is sLuLed wILI regurd Lo LIese cuLegorIes.
We spoke, moreover, oI LIe cuLegory oI posILIon wIen
we were deuIIng wILI LIuL oI reIuLIon, und sLuLed LIuL sucI
Lerms derIved LIeIr numes Irom LIose oI LIe correspondIng
uLLILudes.
As Ior LIe resL, LIme, pIuce, sLuLe, sInce LIey ure eusIIy In-
LeIIIgIbIe, suy no more ubouL LIem LIun wus suId uL LIe
begInnIng, LIuL In LIe cuLegory oI sLuLe ure IncIuded sucI
sLuLes us 'sIod', 'urmed', In LIuL oI pIuce 'In LIe yceum'
und so on, us wus expIuIned beIore.
.. Purt 1o - Ioor Clusses oI Opposites
TIe proposed cuLegorIes Iuve, LIen, been udequuLeIy deuIL
wILI. We musL nexL expIuIn LIe vurIous senses In wIIcI LIe
Lerm 'opposILe' Is used. TIIngs ure suId Lo be opposed In
Iour senses: (I) us correIuLIves Lo one unoLIer, (II) us con-
LrurIes Lo one unoLIer, (III) us prIvuLIves Lo posILIves, (Iv) us
uIIIrmuLIves Lo neguLIves.
eL me skeLcI my meunIng In ouLIIne. An InsLunce oI LIe
use oI LIe word 'opposILe' wILI reIerence Lo correIuLIves Is
uIIorded by LIe expressIons 'doubIe' und 'IuII'; wILI reIer-
ence Lo conLrurIes by 'bud' und 'good'. OpposILes In LIe
sense oI 'prIvuLIves' und 'posILIves' ure' bIIndness' und
'sIgIL'; In LIe sense oI uIIIrmuLIves und neguLIves, LIe pro-
posILIons 'Ie sILs', 'Ie does noL sIL'.
(I) PuIrs oI opposILes wIIcI IuII under LIe cuLegory oI re-
IuLIon ure expIuIned by u reIerence oI LIe one Lo LIe oLIer,
LIe reIerence beIng IndIcuLed by LIe preposILIon 'oI' or by
some oLIer preposILIon. TIus, doubIe Is u reIuLIve Lerm, Ior
LIuL wIIcI Is doubIe Is expIuIned us LIe doubIe oI
someLIIng. KnowIedge, uguIn, Is LIe opposILe oI LIe LIIng
known, In LIe sume sense; und LIe LIIng known uIso Is ex-
pIuIned by ILs reIuLIon Lo ILs opposILe, knowIedge. or LIe
LIIng known Is expIuIned us LIuL wIIcI Is known by
someLIIng, LIuL Is, by knowIedge. SucI LIIngs, LIen, us ure
opposILe LIe one Lo LIe oLIer In LIe sense oI beIng correIuL-
Ives ure expIuIned by u reIerence oI LIe one Lo LIe oLIer.
(II) PuIrs oI opposILes wIIcI ure conLrurIes ure noL In uny
wuy InLerdependenL, buL ure conLrury LIe one Lo LIe oLIer.
TIe good Is noL spoken oI us LIe good oI LIe Iud, buL us LIe
conLrury oI LIe bud, nor Is wIILe spoken oI us LIe wIILe oI
LIe bIuck, buL us LIe conLrury oI LIe bIuck. TIese Lwo Lypes
oI opposILIon ure LIereIore dIsLIncL. TIose conLrurIes
wIIcI ure sucI LIuL LIe subjecLs In wIIcI LIey ure nuLur-
uIIy presenL, or oI wIIcI LIey ure predIcuLed, musL neces-
surIIy conLuIn eILIer LIe one or LIe oLIer oI LIem, Iuve no
InLermedIuLe, buL LIose In LIe cuse oI wIIcI no sucI neces-
sILy obLuIns, uIwuys Iuve un InLermedIuLe. TIus dIseuse
und IeuILI ure nuLuruIIy presenL In LIe body oI un unImuI,
und IL Is necessury LIuL eILIer LIe one or LIe oLIer sIouId
be presenL In LIe body oI un unImuI. Odd und even, uguIn,
ure predIcuLed oI number, und IL Is necessury LIuL LIe one
or LIe oLIer sIouId be presenL In numbers. Now LIere Is no
InLermedIuLe beLween LIe Lerms oI eILIer oI LIese Lwo
puIrs. On LIe oLIer Iund, In LIose conLrurIes wILI regurd Lo
wIIcI no sucI necessILy obLuIns, we IInd un InLermedIuLe.
BIuckness und wIILeness ure nuLuruIIy presenL In LIe body,
buL IL Is noL necessury LIuL eILIer LIe one or LIe oLIer
sIouId be presenL In LIe body, InusmucI us IL Is noL Lrue Lo
suy LIuL everybody musL be wIILe or bIuck. Budness und
goodness, uguIn, ure predIcuLed oI mun, und oI muny oLIer
LIIngs, buL IL Is noL necessury LIuL eILIer LIe one quuIILy or
LIe oLIer sIouId be presenL In LIuL oI wIIcI LIey ure pre-
dIcuLed: IL Is noL Lrue Lo suy LIuL everyLIIng LIuL muy be
good or bud musL be eILIer good or bud. TIese puIrs oI
conLrurIes Iuve InLermedIuLes: LIe InLermedIuLes beLween
wIILe und bIuck ure grey, suIIow, und uII LIe oLIer coIours
LIuL come beLween; LIe InLermedIuLe beLween good und
bud Is LIuL wIIcI Is neILIer LIe one nor LIe oLIer.
Some InLermedIuLe quuIILIes Iuve numes, sucI us grey
und suIIow und uII LIe oLIer coIours LIuL come beLween
wIILe und bIuck; In oLIer cuses, Iowever, IL Is noL eusy Lo
nume LIe InLermedIuLe, buL we musL deIIne IL us LIuL wIIcI
Is noL eILIer exLreme, us In LIe cuse oI LIuL wIIcI Is neILIer
good nor bud, neILIer jusL nor unjusL.
(III) 'prIvuLIves' und 'PosILIves' Iuve reIerence Lo LIe
sume subjecL. TIus, sIgIL und bIIndness Iuve reIerence Lo
LIe eye. L Is u unIversuI ruIe LIuL eucI oI u puIr oI oppos-
ILes oI LIIs Lype Ius reIerence Lo LIuL Lo wIIcI LIe purLIcu-
Iur 'posILIve' Is nuLuruI. We suy LIuL LIuL Is cupubIe oI some
purLIcuIur IucuILy or possessIon Ius suIIered prIvuLIon
wIen LIe IucuILy or possessIon In quesLIon Is In no wuy
presenL In LIuL In wIIcI, und uL LIe LIme uL wIIcI, IL sIouId
nuLuruIIy be presenL. We do noL cuII LIuL LooLIIess wIIcI
Ius noL LeeLI, or LIuL bIInd wIIcI Ius noL sIgIL, buL ruLIer
LIuL wIIcI Ius noL LeeLI or sIgIL uL LIe LIme wIen by
nuLure IL sIouId. or LIere ure some creuLures wIIcI Irom
bIrLI ure wILIouL sIgIL, or wILIouL LeeLI, buL LIese ure noL
cuIIed LooLIIess or bIInd.
To be wILIouL some IucuILy or Lo possess IL Is noL LIe
sume us LIe correspondIng 'prIvuLIve' or 'posILIve'. 'SIgIL' Is
u 'posILIve', 'bIIndness' u 'prIvuLIve', buL 'Lo possess sIgIL' Is
noL equIvuIenL Lo 'sIgIL', 'Lo be bIInd' Is noL equIvuIenL Lo
'bIIndness'. BIIndness Is u 'prIvuLIve', Lo be bIInd Is Lo be In
u sLuLe oI prIvuLIon, buL Is noL u 'prIvuLIve'. Moreover, II
'bIIndness' were equIvuIenL Lo 'beIng bIInd', boLI wouId be
predIcuLed oI LIe sume subjecL; buL LIougI u mun Is suId Lo
be bIInd, Ie Is by no meuns suId Lo be bIIndness.
To be In u sLuLe oI 'possessIon' Is, IL uppeurs, LIe opposILe
oI beIng In u sLuLe oI 'prIvuLIon', jusL us 'posILIves' und
'prIvuLIves' LIemseIves ure opposILe. TIere Is LIe sume Lype
oI unLILIesIs In boLI cuses; Ior jusL us bIIndness Is opposed
Lo sIgIL, so Is beIng bIInd opposed Lo IuvIng sIgIL.
TIuL wIIcI Is uIIIrmed or denIed Is noL ILseII uIIIrmuLIon
or denIuI. By 'uIIIrmuLIon' we meun un uIIIrmuLIve proposI-
LIon, by 'denIuI' u neguLIve. Now, LIose IucLs wIIcI Iorm
LIe muLLer oI LIe uIIIrmuLIon or denIuI ure noL proposI-
LIons; yeL LIese Lwo ure suId Lo be opposed In LIe sume
sense us LIe uIIIrmuLIon und denIuI, Ior In LIIs cuse uIso LIe
Lype oI unLILIesIs Is LIe sume. or us LIe uIIIrmuLIon Is op-
posed Lo LIe denIuI, us In LIe Lwo proposILIons 'Ie sILs', 'Ie
does noL sIL', so uIso LIe IucL wIIcI consLILuLes LIe muLLer
oI LIe proposILIon In one cuse Is opposed Lo LIuL In LIe oLI-
er, IIs sILLIng, LIuL Is Lo suy, Lo IIs noL sILLIng.
L Is evIdenL LIuL 'posILIves' und 'prIvuLIves' ure noL op-
posed eucI Lo eucI In LIe sume sense us reIuLIves. TIe one
Is noL expIuIned by reIerence Lo LIe oLIer; sIgIL Is noL sIgIL
oI bIIndness, nor Is uny oLIer preposILIon used Lo IndIcuLe
LIe reIuLIon. SImIIurIy bIIndness Is noL suId Lo be bIIndness
oI sIgIL, buL ruLIer, prIvuLIon oI sIgIL. ReIuLIves, moreover,
recIprocuLe; II bIIndness, LIereIore, were u reIuLIve, LIere
wouId be u recIprocILy oI reIuLIon beLween IL und LIuL wILI
wIIcI IL wus correIuLIve. BuL LIIs Is noL LIe cuse. SIgIL Is
noL cuIIed LIe sIgIL oI bIIndness.
TIuL LIose Lerms wIIcI IuII under LIe Ieuds oI 'posILIves'
und 'prIvuLIves' ure noL opposed eucI Lo eucI us conLrurIes,
eILIer, Is pIuIn Irom LIe IoIIowIng IucLs: OI u puIr oI con-
LrurIes sucI LIuL LIey Iuve no InLermedIuLe, one or LIe oLI-
er musL needs be presenL In LIe subjecL In wIIcI LIey nuL-
uruIIy subsIsL, or oI wIIcI LIey ure predIcuLed; Ior IL Is
LIose, us we proved,' In LIe cuse oI wIIcI LIIs necessILy ob-
LuIns, LIuL Iuve no InLermedIuLe. Moreover, we cILed IeuILI
und dIseuse, odd und even, us InsLunces. BuL LIose conLrur-
Ies wIIcI Iuve un InLermedIuLe ure noL subjecL Lo uny sucI
necessILy. L Is noL necessury LIuL every subsLunce, recepL-
Ive oI sucI quuIILIes, sIouId be eILIer bIuck or wIILe, coId
or IoL, Ior someLIIng InLermedIuLe beLween LIese conLrur-
Ies muy very weII be presenL In LIe subjecL. We proved,
moreover, LIuL LIose conLrurIes Iuve un InLermedIuLe In
LIe cuse oI wIIcI LIe suId necessILy does noL obLuIn. YeL
wIen one oI LIe Lwo conLrurIes Is u consLILuLIve properLy oI
LIe subjecL, us IL Is u consLILuLIve properLy oI IIre Lo be IoL,
oI snow Lo be wIILe, IL Is necessury deLermInuLeIy LIuL one
oI LIe Lwo conLrurIes, noL one or LIe oLIer, sIouId be
presenL In LIe subjecL; Ior IIre cunnoL be coId, or snow
bIuck. TIus, IL Is noL LIe cuse Iere LIuL one oI LIe Lwo musL
needs be presenL In every subjecL recepLIve oI LIese quuIIL-
Ies, buL onIy In LIuL subjecL oI wIIcI LIe one Iorms u con-
sLILuLIve properLy. Moreover, In sucI cuses IL Is one mem-
ber oI LIe puIr deLermInuLeIy, und noL eILIer LIe one or LIe
oLIer, wIIcI musL be presenL.
n LIe cuse oI 'posILIves' und 'prIvuLIves', on LIe oLIer
Iund, neILIer oI LIe uIoresuId sLuLemenLs IoIds good. or
IL Is noL necessury LIuL u subjecL recepLIve oI LIe quuIILIes
sIouId uIwuys Iuve eILIer LIe one or LIe oLIer; LIuL wIIcI
Ius noL yeL udvunced Lo LIe sLuLe wIen sIgIL Is nuLuruI Is
noL suId eILIer Lo be bIInd or Lo see. TIus 'posILIves' und
'prIvuLIves' do noL beIong Lo LIuL cIuss oI conLrurIes wIIcI
consIsLs oI LIose wIIcI Iuve no InLermedIuLe. On LIe oLIer
Iund, LIey do noL beIong eILIer Lo LIuL cIuss wIIcI consIsLs
oI conLrurIes wIIcI Iuve un InLermedIuLe. or under cer-
LuIn condILIons IL Is necessury LIuL eILIer LIe one or LIe
oLIer sIouId Iorm purL oI LIe consLILuLIon oI every uppro-
prIuLe subjecL. or wIen u LIIng Ius reucIed LIe sLuge
wIen IL Is by nuLure cupubIe oI sIgIL, IL wIII be suId eILIer
Lo see or Lo be bIInd, und LIuL In un IndeLermInuLe sense,
sIgnIIyIng LIuL LIe cupucILy muy be eILIer presenL or ub-
senL; Ior IL Is noL necessury eILIer LIuL IL sIouId see or LIuL
IL sIouId be bIInd, buL LIuL IL sIouId be eILIer In LIe one
sLuLe or In LIe oLIer. YeL In LIe cuse oI LIose conLrurIes
wIIcI Iuve un InLermedIuLe we Iound LIuL IL wus never ne-
cessury LIuL eILIer LIe one or LIe oLIer sIouId be presenL
In every upproprIuLe subjecL, buL onIy LIuL In cerLuIn sub-
jecLs one oI LIe puIr sIouId be presenL, und LIuL In u de-
LermInuLe sense. L Is, LIereIore, pIuIn LIuL 'posILIves' und
'prIvuLIves' ure noL opposed eucI Lo eucI In eILIer oI LIe
senses In wIIcI conLrurIes ure opposed.
AguIn, In LIe cuse oI conLrurIes, IL Is possIbIe LIuL LIere
sIouId be cIunges Irom eILIer InLo LIe oLIer, wIIIe LIe
subjecL reLuIns ILs IdenLILy, unIess Indeed one oI LIe con-
LrurIes Is u consLILuLIve properLy oI LIuL subjecL, us IeuL Is
oI IIre. or IL Is possIbIe LIuL LIuL LIuL wIIcI Is IeuILIy
sIouId become dIseused, LIuL wIIcI Is wIILe, bIuck, LIuL
wIIcI Is coId, IoL, LIuL wIIcI Is good, bud, LIuL wIIcI Is
bud, good. TIe bud mun, II Ie Is beIng brougIL InLo u beL-
Ler wuy oI IIIe und LIougIL, muy muke some udvunce,
Iowever sIIgIL, und II Ie sIouId once Improve, even ever
so IILLIe, IL Is pIuIn LIuL Ie mIgIL cIunge compIeLeIy, or uL
uny ruLe muke very greuL progress; Ior u mun becomes
more und more eusIIy moved Lo vIrLue, Iowever smuII LIe
ImprovemenL wus uL IIrsL. L Is, LIereIore, nuLuruI Lo sup-
pose LIuL Ie wIII muke yeL greuLer progress LIun Ie Ius
mude In LIe pusL; und us LIIs process goes on, IL wIII
cIunge IIm compIeLeIy und esLubIIsI IIm In LIe conLrury
sLuLe, provIded Ie Is noL IIndered by Iuck oI LIme. n LIe
cuse oI 'posILIves' und 'prIvuLIves', Iowever, cIunge In boLI
dIrecLIons Is ImpossIbIe. TIere muy be u cIunge Irom pos-
sessIon Lo prIvuLIon, buL noL Irom prIvuLIon Lo possessIon.
TIe mun wIo Ius become bIInd does noL reguIn IIs sIgIL;
LIe mun wIo Ius become buId does noL reguIn IIs IuIr; LIe
mun wIo Ius IosL IIs LeeLI does noL grow IIs grow u new
seL. (Iv) SLuLemenLs opposed us uIIIrmuLIon und neguLIon
beIong munIIesLIy Lo u cIuss wIIcI Is dIsLIncL, Ior In LIIs
cuse, und In LIIs cuse onIy, IL Is necessury Ior LIe one op-
posILe Lo be Lrue und LIe oLIer IuIse.
NeILIer In LIe cuse oI conLrurIes, nor In LIe cuse oI cor-
reIuLIves, nor In LIe cuse oI 'posILIves' und 'prIvuLIves', Is IL
necessury Ior one Lo be Lrue und LIe oLIer IuIse. HeuILI und
dIseuse ure conLrurIes: neILIer oI LIem Is Lrue or IuIse.
'DoubIe' und 'IuII' ure opposed Lo eucI oLIer us correIuL-
Ives: neILIer oI LIem Is Lrue or IuIse. TIe cuse Is LIe sume,
oI course, wILI regurd Lo 'posILIves' und 'prIvuLIves' sucI us
'sIgIL' und 'bIIndness'. n sIorL, wIere LIere Is no sorL oI
combInuLIon oI words, LruLI und IuIsILy Iuve no pIuce, und
uII LIe opposILes we Iuve menLIoned so Iur consIsL oI
sImpIe words.
AL LIe sume LIme, wIen LIe words wIIcI enLer InLo op-
posed sLuLemenLs ure conLrurIes, LIese, more LIun uny oLI-
er seL oI opposILes, wouId seem Lo cIuIm LIIs cIurucLerIsLIc.
'SocruLes Is III' Is LIe conLrury oI 'SocruLes Is weII', buL noL
even oI sucI composILe expressIons Is IL Lrue Lo suy LIuL
one oI LIe puIr musL uIwuys be Lrue und LIe oLIer IuIse. or
II SocruLes exIsLs, one wIII be Lrue und LIe oLIer IuIse, buL II
Ie does noL exIsL, boLI wIII be IuIse; Ior neILIer 'SocruLes Is
III' nor 'SocruLes Is weII' Is Lrue, II SocruLes does noL exIsL uL
uII.
n LIe cuse oI 'posILIves' und 'prIvuLIves', II LIe subjecL
does noL exIsL uL uII, neILIer proposILIon Is Lrue, buL even II
LIe subjecL exIsLs, IL Is noL uIwuys LIe IucL LIuL one Is Lrue
und LIe oLIer IuIse. or 'SocruLes Ius sIgIL' Is LIe opposILe
oI 'SocruLes Is bIInd' In LIe sense oI LIe word 'opposILe'
wIIcI uppIIes Lo possessIon und prIvuLIon. Now II SocruLes
exIsLs, IL Is noL necessury LIuL one sIouId be Lrue und LIe
oLIer IuIse, Ior wIen Ie Is noL yeL ubIe Lo ucquIre LIe power
oI vIsIon, boLI ure IuIse, us uIso II SocruLes Is uILogeLIer
non-exIsLenL.
BuL In LIe cuse oI uIIIrmuLIon und neguLIon, wIeLIer LIe
subjecL exIsLs or noL, one Is uIwuys IuIse und LIe oLIer Lrue.
or munIIesLIy, II SocruLes exIsLs, one oI LIe Lwo proposI-
LIons 'SocruLes Is III', 'SocruLes Is noL III', Is Lrue, und LIe
oLIer IuIse. TIIs Is IIkewIse LIe cuse II Ie does noL exIsL; Ior
II Ie does noL exIsL, Lo suy LIuL Ie Is III Is IuIse, Lo suy LIuL
Ie Is noL III Is Lrue. TIus IL Is In LIe cuse oI LIose opposILes
onIy, wIIcI ure opposILe In LIe sense In wIIcI LIe Lerm Is
used wILI reIerence Lo uIIIrmuLIon und neguLIon, LIuL LIe
ruIe IoIds good, LIuL one oI LIe puIr musL be Lrue und LIe
oLIer IuIse.
.. Purt 11 - Contruries Iorther iscossed
TIuL LIe conLrury oI u good Is un evII Is sIown by Induc-
LIon: LIe conLrury oI IeuILI Is dIseuse, oI couruge, cow-
urdIce, und so on. BuL LIe conLrury oI un evII Is someLImes
u good, someLImes un evII. or deIecL, wIIcI Is un evII, Ius
excess Ior ILs conLrury, LIIs uIso beIng un evII, und LIe
meun. wIIcI Is u good, Is equuIIy LIe conLrury oI LIe one
und oI LIe oLIer. L Is onIy In u Iew cuses, Iowever, LIuL we
see InsLunces oI LIIs: In mosL, LIe conLrury oI un evII Is u
good.
n LIe cuse oI conLrurIes, IL Is noL uIwuys necessury LIuL II
one exIsLs LIe oLIer sIouId uIso exIsL: Ior II uII become
IeuILIy LIere wIII be IeuILI und no dIseuse, und uguIn, II
everyLIIng Lurns wIILe, LIere wIII be wIILe, buL no bIuck.
AguIn, sInce LIe IucL LIuL SocruLes Is III Is LIe conLrury oI
LIe IucL LIuL SocruLes Is weII, und Lwo conLrury condILIons
cunnoL boLI obLuIn In one und LIe sume IndIvIduuI uL LIe
sume LIme, boLI LIese conLrurIes couId noL exIsL uL once:
Ior II LIuL SocruLes wus weII wus u IucL, LIen LIuL SocruLes
wus III couId noL possIbIy be one.
L Is pIuIn LIuL conLrury uLLrIbuLes musL needs be presenL
In subjecLs wIIcI beIong Lo LIe sume specIes or genus. DIs-
euse und IeuILI requIre us LIeIr subjecL LIe body oI un un-
ImuI; wIILe und bIuck requIre u body, wILIouL IurLIer quuI-
IIIcuLIon; jusLIce und InjusLIce requIre us LIeIr subjecL LIe
Iumun souI.
Moreover, IL Is necessury LIuL puIrs oI conLrurIes sIouId
In uII cuses eILIer beIong Lo LIe sume genus or beIong Lo
conLrury generu or be LIemseIves generu. WIILe und bIuck
beIong Lo LIe sume genus, coIour; jusLIce und InjusLIce, Lo
conLrury generu, vIrLue und vIce; wIIIe good und evII do
noL beIong Lo generu, buL ure LIemseIves ucLuuI generu,
wILI Lerms under LIem.
.q. Purt 1 - Lses oI the Term"Prior"
TIere ure Iour senses In wIIcI one LIIng cun be suId Lo be
'prIor' Lo unoLIer. PrImurIIy und mosL properIy LIe Lerm
Ius reIerence Lo LIme: In LIIs sense LIe word Is used Lo In-
dIcuLe LIuL one LIIng Is oIder or more uncIenL LIun unoLI-
er, Ior LIe expressIons 'oIder' und 'more uncIenL' ImpIy
greuLer IengLI oI LIme.
SecondIy, one LIIng Is suId Lo be 'prIor' Lo unoLIer wIen
LIe sequence oI LIeIr beIng cunnoL be reversed. n LIIs
sense 'one' Is 'prIor' Lo 'Lwo'. or II 'Lwo' exIsLs, IL IoIIows
dIrecLIy LIuL 'one' musL exIsL, buL II 'one' exIsLs, IL does noL
IoIIow necessurIIy LIuL 'Lwo' exIsLs: LIus LIe sequence sub-
sIsLIng cunnoL be reversed. L Is ugreed, LIen, LIuL wIen LIe
sequence oI Lwo LIIngs cunnoL be reversed, LIen LIuL one
on wIIcI LIe oLIer depends Is cuIIed 'prIor' Lo LIuL oLIer.
n LIe LIIrd pIuce, LIe Lerm 'prIor' Is used wILI reIerence
Lo uny order, us In LIe cuse oI scIence und oI oruLory. or In
scIences wIIcI use demonsLruLIon LIere Is LIuL wIIcI Is
prIor und LIuL wIIcI Is posLerIor In order; In geomeLry, LIe
eIemenLs ure prIor Lo LIe proposILIons; In reudIng und wrIL-
Ing, LIe IeLLers oI LIe uIpIubeL ure prIor Lo LIe syIIubIes.
SImIIurIy, In LIe cuse oI speecIes, LIe exordIum Is prIor In
order Lo LIe nurruLIve.
BesIdes LIese senses oI LIe word, LIere Is u IourLI. TIuL
wIIcI Is beLLer und more IonourubIe Is suId Lo Iuve u nuL-
uruI prIorILy. n common purIunce men speuk oI LIose
wIom LIey Ionour und Iove us 'comIng IIrsL' wILI LIem.
TIIs sense oI LIe word Is perIups LIe mosL Iur-IeLcIed.
SucI, LIen, ure LIe dIIIerenL senses In wIIcI LIe Lerm
'prIor' Is used.
YeL IL wouId seem LIuL besIdes LIose menLIoned LIere Is
yeL unoLIer. or In LIose LIIngs, LIe beIng oI eucI oI wIIcI
ImpIIes LIuL oI LIe oLIer, LIuL wIIcI Is In uny wuy LIe
cuuse muy reusonubIy be suId Lo be by nuLure 'prIor' Lo LIe
eIIecL. L Is pIuIn LIuL LIere ure InsLunces oI LIIs. TIe IucL oI
LIe beIng oI u mun currIes wILI IL LIe LruLI oI LIe proposI-
LIon LIuL Ie Is, und LIe ImpIIcuLIon Is recIprocuI: Ior II u
mun Is, LIe proposILIon wIereIn we uIIege LIuL Ie Is Lrue,
und converseIy, II LIe proposILIon wIereIn we uIIege LIuL
Ie Is Lrue, LIen Ie Is. TIe Lrue proposILIon, Iowever, Is In
no wuy LIe cuuse oI LIe beIng oI LIe mun, buL LIe IucL oI
LIe mun's beIng does seem someIow Lo be LIe cuuse oI LIe
LruLI oI LIe proposILIon, Ior LIe LruLI or IuIsILy oI LIe pro-
posILIon depends on LIe IucL oI LIe mun's beIng or noL be-
Ing.
TIus LIe word 'prIor' muy be used In IIve senses.
.g. Purt 1 - Lses oI the Term"Simoltuneoos"
TIe Lerm 'sImuILuneous' Is prImurIIy und mosL upproprI-
uLeIy uppIIed Lo LIose LIIngs LIe genesIs oI LIe one oI
wIIcI Is sImuILuneous wILI LIuL oI LIe oLIer; Ior In sucI
cuses neILIer Is prIor or posLerIor Lo LIe oLIer. SucI LIIngs
ure suId Lo be sImuILuneous In poInL oI LIme. TIose LIIngs,
uguIn, ure 'sImuILuneous' In poInL oI nuLure, LIe beIng oI
eucI oI wIIcI InvoIves LIuL oI LIe oLIer, wIIIe uL LIe sume
LIme neILIer Is LIe cuuse oI LIe oLIer's beIng. TIIs Is LIe
cuse wILI regurd Lo LIe doubIe und LIe IuII, Ior LIese ure
recIprocuIIy dependenL, sInce, II LIere Is u doubIe, LIere Is
uIso u IuII, und II LIere Is u IuII, LIere Is uIso u doubIe,
wIIIe uL LIe sume LIme neILIer Is LIe cuuse oI LIe beIng oI
LIe oLIer.
AguIn, LIose specIes wIIcI ure dIsLInguIsIed one Irom
unoLIer und opposed one Lo unoLIer wILIIn LIe sume
genus ure suId Lo be 'sImuILuneous' In nuLure. meun LIose
specIes wIIcI ure dIsLInguIsIed eucI Irom eucI by one und
LIe sume meLIod oI dIvIsIon. TIus LIe 'wInged' specIes Is
sImuILuneous wILI LIe 'LerresLrIuI' und LIe 'wuLer' specIes.
TIese ure dIsLInguIsIed wILIIn LIe sume genus, und ure
opposed eucI Lo eucI, Ior LIe genus 'unImuI' Ius LIe
'wInged', LIe 'LerresLrIuI', und LIe 'wuLer' specIes, und no
one oI LIese Is prIor or posLerIor Lo unoLIer; on LIe con-
Lrury, uII sucI LIIngs uppeur Lo be 'sImuILuneous' In nuLure.
EucI oI LIese uIso, LIe LerresLrIuI, LIe wInged, und LIe wu-
Ler specIes, cun be dIvIded uguIn InLo subspecIes. TIose
specIes, LIen, uIso wIII be 'sImuILuneous' poInL oI nuLure,
wIIcI, beIongIng Lo LIe sume genus, ure dIsLInguIsIed
eucI Irom eucI by one und LIe sume meLIod oI dIIIerenLI-
uLIon.
BuL generu ure prIor Lo specIes, Ior LIe sequence oI LIeIr
beIng cunnoL be reversed. I LIere Is LIe specIes 'wuLer-un-
ImuI', LIere wIII be LIe genus 'unImuI', buL grunLed LIe be-
Ing oI LIe genus 'unImuI', IL does noL IoIIow necessurIIy LIuL
LIere wIII be LIe specIes 'wuLer-unImuI'.
TIose LIIngs, LIereIore, ure suId Lo be 'sImuILuneous' In
nuLure, LIe beIng oI eucI oI wIIcI InvoIves LIuL oI LIe oLI-
er, wIIIe uL LIe sume LIme neILIer Is In uny wuy LIe cuuse
oI LIe oLIer's beIng; LIose specIes, uIso, wIIcI ure dIsLIn-
guIsIed eucI Irom eucI und opposed wILIIn LIe sume
genus. TIose LIIngs, moreover, ure 'sImuILuneous' In LIe
unquuIIIIed sense oI LIe word wIIcI come InLo beIng uL LIe
sume LIme.
.6. Purt 1q - Six Kinds oI Motion
TIere ure sIx sorLs oI movemenL: generuLIon, desLrucLIon,
Increuse, dImInuLIon, uILeruLIon, und cIunge oI pIuce.
L Is evIdenL In uII buL one cuse LIuL uII LIese sorLs oI
movemenL ure dIsLIncL eucI Irom eucI. GeneruLIon Is dIs-
LIncL Irom desLrucLIon, Increuse und cIunge oI pIuce Irom
dImInuLIon, und so on. BuL In LIe cuse oI uILeruLIon IL muy
be urgued LIuL LIe process necessurIIy ImpIIes one or oLIer
oI LIe oLIer IIve sorLs oI moLIon. TIIs Is noL Lrue, Ior we
muy suy LIuL uII uIIecLIons, or neurIy uII, produce In us un
uILeruLIon wIIcI Is dIsLIncL Irom uII oLIer sorLs oI moLIon,
Ior LIuL wIIcI Is uIIecLed need noL suIIer eILIer Increuse or
dImInuLIon or uny oI LIe oLIer sorLs oI moLIon. TIus uILer-
uLIon Is u dIsLIncL sorL oI moLIon; Ior, II IL were noL, LIe
LIIng uILered wouId noL onIy be uILered, buL wouId IorLI-
wILI necessurIIy suIIer Increuse or dImInuLIon or some one
oI LIe oLIer sorLs oI moLIon In uddILIon; wIIcI us u muLLer
oI IucL Is noL LIe cuse. SImIIurIy LIuL wIIcI wus undergoIng
LIe process oI Increuse or wus subjecL Lo some oLIer sorL oI
moLIon wouId, II uILeruLIon were noL u dIsLIncL Iorm oI mo-
LIon, necessurIIy be subjecL Lo uILeruLIon uIso. BuL LIere ure
some LIIngs wIIcI undergo Increuse buL yeL noL uILeruLIon.
TIe squure, Ior InsLunce, II u gnomon Is uppIIed Lo IL, un-
dergoes Increuse buL noL uILeruLIon, und so IL Is wILI uII
oLIer IIgures oI LIIs sorL. AILeruLIon und Increuse, LIere-
Iore, ure dIsLIncL.
SpeukIng generuIIy, resL Is LIe conLrury oI moLIon. BuL
LIe dIIIerenL Iorms oI moLIon Iuve LIeIr own conLrurIes In
oLIer Iorms; LIus desLrucLIon Is LIe conLrury oI generuLIon,
dImInuLIon oI Increuse, resL In u pIuce, oI cIunge oI pIuce.
As Ior LIIs IusL, cIunge In LIe reverse dIrecLIon wouId seem
Lo be mosL LruIy ILs conLrury; LIus moLIon upwurds Is LIe
conLrury oI moLIon downwurds und vIce versu.
n LIe cuse oI LIuL sorL oI moLIon wIIcI yeL remuIns, oI
LIose LIuL Iuve been enumeruLed, IL Is noL eusy Lo sLuLe
wIuL Is ILs conLrury. L uppeurs Lo Iuve no conLrury, unIess
one sIouId deIIne LIe conLrury Iere uIso eILIer us 'resL In
ILs quuIILy' or us 'cIunge In LIe dIrecLIon oI LIe conLrury
quuIILy', jusL us we deIIned LIe conLrury oI cIunge oI pIuce
eILIer us resL In u pIuce or us cIunge In LIe reverse dIrec-
LIon. or u LIIng Is uILered wIen cIunge oI quuIILy Lukes
pIuce; LIereIore eILIer resL In ILs quuIILy or cIunge In LIe
dIrecLIon oI LIe conLrury muy be cuIIed LIe conLrury oI LIIs
quuIILuLIve Iorm oI moLIon. n LIIs wuy becomIng wIILe Is
LIe conLrury oI becomIng bIuck; LIere Is uILeruLIon In LIe
conLrury dIrecLIon, sInce u cIunge oI u quuIILuLIve nuLure
Lukes pIuce.
.,. Purt 1g - The Meunings oI the Term"To
Huve"
TIe Lerm 'Lo Iuve' Is used In vurIous senses. n LIe IIrsL
pIuce IL Is used wILI reIerence Lo IubIL or dIsposILIon or uny
oLIer quuIILy, Ior we ure suId Lo 'Iuve' u pIece oI knowIedge
or u vIrLue. TIen, uguIn, IL Ius reIerence Lo quunLILy, us, Ior
InsLunce, In LIe cuse oI u mun's IeIgIL; Ior Ie Is suId Lo
'Iuve' u IeIgIL oI LIree or Iour cubILs. L Is used, moreover,
wILI regurd Lo uppureI, u mun beIng suId Lo 'Iuve' u couL or
LunIc; or In respecL oI someLIIng wIIcI we Iuve on u purL
oI ourseIves, us u rIng on LIe Iund: or In respecL oI
someLIIng wIIcI Is u purL oI us, us Iund or IooL. TIe Lerm
reIers uIso Lo conLenL, us In LIe cuse oI u vesseI und wIeuL,
or oI u jur und wIne; u jur Is suId Lo 'Iuve' wIne, und u corn-
meusure wIeuL. TIe expressIon In sucI cuses Ius reIerence
Lo conLenL. Or IL reIers Lo LIuL wIIcI Ius been ucquIred; we
ure suId Lo 'Iuve' u Iouse or u IIeId. A mun Is uIso suId Lo
'Iuve' u wIIe, und u wIIe u Iusbund, und LIIs uppeurs Lo be
LIe mosL remoLe meunIng oI LIe Lerm, Ior by LIe use oI IL
we meun sImpIy LIuL LIe Iusbund IIves wILI LIe wIIe.
OLIer senses oI LIe word mIgIL perIups be Iound, buL
LIe mosL ordInury ones Iuve uII been enumeruLed.