SUPPORTINGSTUDENTSIN MATHEMATICS THROUGHTHE USEOF MANIPULATIVES

TerryAnstrom,AmericanInstitutesforResearch
Asocietycanclaimsuccessineradicatingthemaladyofmathematicsilliteracyifandonlyifallitsprogeny areabletodeveloptotheirfullestpotential.Ifitsoffspringcanbecomeemployableworkers,wisely choosingconsumers,andautonomouslythinkingcitizenswhocanbecontributorsinthesupersymbolic quantitativeworldtheywillinherit,thensocietycansay,Victoryisours! ElliottandGarnett(1994,p.15)

Introduction Isitpossibleforall childrentobecomemathematicallyliterate? Toachievethisgoalof mathematicsliteracyandtomeettheneedsofallchildrenrequiresachangeinour thinkingabouttheframeworkofmathematicscurriculaandhowchildrenlearn mathematics.TheNationalCouncilofTeachersofMathematics(NCTM)Curriculum andEvaluationStandardsforSchoolMathematics in1989anditsrevisedframeworkof PrinciplesandStandardsforSchoolMathematics in2000providesavisionforall studentstothinkmathematicallyandhighlightslearningby allstudents. Thepurposeofthisbriefisto:1)discusseducationalreformsthathaveimplicationsfor mathematicsinstructionandstudentswithlearningdisabilities2)discusstheNCTM standardsandprinciplesandwhytheprocessstandardsprovideafoundationformore effectivelearningofmathematics3)showhowimplementationoftheprocessstandards createsaccesstothegeneraleducationcurriculum4)provideanexampleofaresearch basedinstructionalinterventionthatsupportstheattainmentofthegoalsofmathematical literacyforallstudents and5)suggestsomeinteractive,onlinesimulations(virtual manipulatives)andothertechnologicalresourcesthatcanbuildconceptualknowledgein mathforallstudents,specificallyforstudentswithdisabilities.Thisbriefisdesignedto provideinformationtostateanddistrictspecialeducationadministratorsandtechnical assistanceproviders. MathematicsLiteracyandChildrenwithDisabilities Mathematicsliteracyistheabilitytoapplyskillsandconcepts,reasonthrough, communicateabout,andsolvemathematicalproblems(NCTM,1989).Mathematics instructioninvolvesthepedagogicalstrategies,curricularmaterials,andassessmentsthat helpallstudentsmastertheskillsandconceptsrelevanttothedevelopmentof mathematicalliteracy.Fromtheearliestgradesandthroughouttheirschoolexperiences, childrenshouldfeeltheimportanceofsuccessinsolvingproblems,figuringthingsout, andmakingsenseofmathematics.Infact,raisingexpectationsformathematical reasoning,communicating,makingconnections,usingrepresentations,andproblem solvinghasledtohigherstandardsof performanceinmathematics.Thisrequiresthat studentsacquireandretainabroadrangeofmathematicalskillsandconceptsand processestolearnthemathematicscurriculum. Whatdoesthismeanforstudentswithdisabilities?Althougheverystudentisaffectedby theincreasingdemandsandexpectationsinmathematics,studentswithdisabilitiesare placedatanevengreaterdisadvantagebecauseofthedifficultiestheytendtoexperience inacquiringandretainingknowledge(MillerandMercer,1997).Manystudentswith milddisabilitiesexperiencedifficultywithmathematicsduetocharacteristicsthatimpede theirperformance,especiallyinproblemsolvingandcomputation(Maccini&Gagnon, 2000).Deficitsinmathematicsperformancemaybeasseriousaproblemforthese studentsas thereadingdeficitscommonlyattributedtocharacteristicsoflearning disabled(LD)students(Mastropieri,Scruggs,Shiah,1991).

SeveralresearchstudieshavedescribedstudentswithLDwhoexhibiteddeficitsinboth mathematicscomputationandproblemsolving(Cawley,Miller,&School,1987Englert, Culatta,&Horn,1987Scruggs&Masterpieri,1986),aswellastheexecutionofspecific mathematicsstrategies(Swanson&Rhine,1985).CawleyandMiller(1989)reported thateightandnineyearoldsidentifiedasLDperformedataboutafirstgradelevelon computationandapplication.Fleischner,Garnett,andShepherd(1982)foundthatsixth graderswithLDsolvedbasicadditionfactsnobetterthanthirdgraderswithout disabilities. Cawley,Parmar,Yan,andMiller(1996)foundintheirresearchstudiesthatwhile typicallymainstreamstudentslearnmathematicalconceptsatasteadilyincreasingpace, studentswithlearningdisabilitiesacquireskillsinabrokensequenceandhavelower retentionratesthantheirnondisabledpeers.Theseretentionproblemsincreaseasthe conceptsbecomemoredifficult.Specifically,MilesandForcht(1995)reportedthatmany studentswithLDdemonstratedproblemswhentheyfirstencounteredalgebraicconcepts becauseofthesymbolicorabstractreasoninginvolved. BaroodyandHume(1991)remindusthatmostchildrenwithLDarenotintellectually impairedbutrequireinstructionthatisdevelopmentallyappropriatetothewayschildren thinkandlearn.Instructionshouldfocuson:1)understanding 2)learningthatisactive andpurposeful 3)linkingformalinstructiontoinformalknowledge and4)encouraging reflectionanddiscussion.Morespecifically,mathematicsinstructionforall children, includingthosewithLD,should:1)promoteabroadrangeofmathematicalconcepts thatgobeyondcomputationandincludegeometryandfractions 2)activelyinvolve studentsindoingmathematicsthathaveapurpose 3)encourageandbuildonchildrens strengthsandtheirinformalknowledgeand4)encouragestudentstojustify,discuss, andcompareideasandstrategies.

HowtheProcessStandardsPromoteAccessforStudentswithLD Allstudentsneedtohavetheabilitytosolveproblems,makeconnectionswithin mathematicsandwithotherdisciplines,andrepresentmathematicsindifferentforms visuallyandabstractly.TheNCTMprocessstandardsencourageinstructioninwhich studentsaccessmathematicsthroughanunderstandingofmathematical concepts.For studentswithLD,theprocessstandardsbecomeevenmoreimportanttothedevelopment oftheprocessskillswithinthestrategiesdesignedtoassistLDstudentsinbridgingthe gapbetweendoingmathematicsandknowingandunderstandingthemathematics curriculum. TheNCTMcontentandprocessstandards(http://www.nctm.org),alongwiththe ProfessionalStandardsforTeachingMathematics,providethesupportingframework andthestrategiesforallteachers,includingteachersofstudentswithspecialneeds,to giveeverystudentanopportunitytobesuccessfulinmathematics.Thisframeworkfor mathematicsinstructionencouragesallstudentstohavenumerousandvariedexperiences thatallowthem tosolvecomplexproblems,read,write,anddiscussmathematics,test

andbuildargumentsaboutaconjecturesvalidity,andtovaluemathematicsasa connectionwiththerealworld(NCTM,1988). Asetofoverarchingprincipleswithinthe NCTMframeworkandresearchbasedstrategiesareameansofhelpingallstudents becomemoresuccessfulandconfidentmathematicalthinkers. OneoftheprinciplesintheNCTMframeworkistheequityprinciplethatopensthedoor forallstudentstoengageinmathematicalcontentandprocesses.Allstudents,regardless oftheirpersonalcharacteristics,backgrounds,orphysicalchallenges,musthave opportunitiestostudyandsupporttolearnmathematics.(NCTM,2000) Equitydoes notmeanthateverystudentshouldreceiveidenticalinstructioninstead,itdemandsthat reasonableandappropriateaccommodationsbemadeasneededtopromoteaccessto,and attainmentof,mathematicsforstudentswithdisabilities.Theequityprincipledoesnot provideaprescribedwayofachievingsuccessinmathematicsforstudentswith disabilities,butitpromotesanapproach(method)throughtheprocessstandardsasa foundationtobuildupontheunderstandingofmathematicalcontentinaccessingthe generalmathematicscurriculumandencouragesstudentstobecomeindependentlearners andthinkersofmathematics. Giventhediversityofstudents,itisunrealistictoassumethatonecurriculumorsetof standardswillsufficetomeetthemathematicalneedsofeverystudent.Carnine(1992) suggeststhatonemethodtoteachmathematicstoallstudentsisnotlikely,especially consideringthespecialneedsofstudentswithlearningproblems.Mostindividualswith LDneedaccommodationsormodificationsintexts,materials,assignments,teaching methods,tests,andhomework(Bateman,1992). Studentsneedindividualizationto addressthespecificmathematicaldisabilitythatemergesfromtheuniquelearning characteristicsofthestudent. Theprocessstandardsmakelearningmathematics accessibletostudentswithdisabilities.Forstudentstoeffectivelyengageinand understandmathematicalcontentandprocessesandtoalignallstudentswiththeequity principlerecommendedbyNCTM,wemustintegratethesestandardsandprincipleswith effectiveinstructionalinterventionsforstudentswithdisabilities.Theremainderofthis briefdiscussesoneresearchbasedinstructionalapproachtoteachmathematicsto childrenwithLD. ConcreteRepresentationalAbstractInstructionalApproach Childrenwith LDoftenhavedifficultywithsymbolicorabstractconceptsandreasoning. Thesestudentsmayneedextraassistancethroughhandsonmanipulativesandpictorial representationsofmathematicalconcepts.Handsonexperiencesallowstudentsto understandhownumericalsymbolsandabstractequationsoperateataconcretelevel, makingtheinformationmoreaccessibletoallstudents(Devlin,2000Maccini& Gagnon,2000). Oneeffectiveinterventionformathematicsinstructionthatresearchsuggestscanenhance themathematicsperformanceofstudentswithLDistheconcreterepresentational abstract(CRA)sequenceofinstruction.CRAisathreepartinstructionalstrategywith eachpartbuildingonthepreviousinstructiontopromotestudentlearningandretention,

andaddressesconceptualknowledgeofstudentswithLD.TheCRAsequenceof instructionincorporatestheuseofhandsonmanipulativesintheconcretestage,followed bypictorialdisplaysintherepresentationsphase,andinthenextphasefacilitatesabstract reasoningwithnumericalsymbols.Learningdisabledstudentslearningbasic mathematicsfactswithCRAinstructionshowimprovementsinacquisitionandretention ofmathematicalconcepts(Miller&Mercer,1993).CRAsupportsunderstandingof underlyingmathematicalconceptsbeforelearningrules,thatis,movingfroma concretemodelofchipsorblockstoanabstractrepresentation(4x3=12). Accordingto VanDeWalle(2001,p.425)conceptualunderstandingisessentialtomathematics proficiency.Donotbecontentwithrightanswers.Alwaysdemandexplanations.The effectivenessofCRAandthestrategyisdescribedbelow. ResearchonEffectivenessofCRA CRAprovidesastrategyforstudentstogainanunderstandingofthemathematics concepts/skillstheyarelearning.TeachingmathematicsthroughaCRAsequenceof instructionhasabundantsupportforitseffectivenessforstudentswithLD(Harris,Miller andMercer,1995Mercer,Jordan,&Miller,1996Mercer&Mercer,1993Mercer& Mercer,1998Peterson,Mercer,&OShea,1988)andforstudentswithoutlearning disabilities(Baroody,1987Kennedy&Tipps1998VanDeWalle,1994).When studentswithLDareallowedtofirstdevelopaconcreteunderstandingofthe mathematicsconcept/skill,theyaremorelikelytoperformthatmathematicsskilland developtheconceptualunderstandingofthemathematicsconceptattheabstractlevel. Researchbasedstudiesshowthatstudentswhouseconcretematerialsdevelopmore preciseandmorecomprehensivementalrepresentations,oftenshowmoremotivationand ontaskbehavior,understandmathematicalideas,andbetterapplytheseideastolife situations(Harrison&Harrison,1986Suydam&Higgins,1977).Structuredconcrete materialshavebeenusedasafoundationtodevelopconceptsandtoclarifyearlynumber relations,placevalue,computation,fractions,decimals,measurement,geometry,money, percentage,numberbases,storyproblems,probability,andstatistics(Bruni&Silverman, 1986).AdescriptionofCRAfollows.Eachstageinthesequenceincludesexamplesand teacherguidelines. StrategyDescription TheCRAinstructionalsequenceconsistsofthreestagestheconcrete,the representational,andtheabstract,andpromotesunderstandingofmathematicalconcepts forstudentswithLD.Asampleproblemisusedbelowtoillustratethesestages.
SampleProblem:Multiplication(RepeatedAddition) Objective:Studentmodelsmultiplicationproblemasrepeatedadditionof3groupsof4using chips,thendrawingamodel,thenconvertingtotheabstractmathematicallanguageofnumbers. Rachelgives4cookiestoeachofher3friends. Howmanycookiesdoesshegiveoutaltogether?

 Concrete.Intheconcretestage,instructionproceedsthroughasequencewith eachmathematicalconceptfirstmodeledwithconcretematerials,i.e.,redand yellowchips,cubes,basetenblocks,patternblocks,fractionbars,etc.Inthe figurebelow,thestudentuseschipstorepresentcookiesintheproblem,3groups of4cookies(seeFigure1). Thesematerialsbythemselvesarenotenough.The concretemodelmustworktogetherwithteacherguidance,studentinteractions, repeatedteacherdemonstrationsandexplanations,andmanyopportunitiesfor studentstopracticeanddemonstratemasteryofconcepts.Suggestedmaterials andpromptsareincludedintheteacherguidelines. Representational.Intherepresentationalstage,themathematicsconceptis modeledatthesemiconcretelevelwhichmayinvolvedrawingpicturesthat representconcreteobjects(e.g.,circles,dots,tallies,stampsimprintingpictures forcounting).Forthesampleproblemabove,thestudentusescirclestoindicate cookies,andassociateseachgroup/friendwithabox/ovalaroundthecookies(see Figure2).Again,studentsareprovidedmanyopportunitiesforpracticeandto demonstratemasteryofthemathematicsconcept. Abstract.Inthisstage,themathematicsconceptismodeledattheabstractlevel usingonlynumbers,notationandmathematicalsymbols(seeFigure3).The studentwritesanumericalrepresentationofthecookiestofindthetotal(4+4+4 =12)throughrepeatedadditionor(4x3=12)throughmultiplication.Multiple opportunitiesforpracticeanddemonstrationshouldbeprovidedtoachieve masteryofthemathematicsconcept.

Example(Figures13):ConcreteRepresentationalAbstractInstructionalSequence

Thefiguresbelowdescribewhatthestudentisdoingandwhattheteacherisdoingat eachoftheselevels.
Problem:Rachelgives4cookiestoeachofher3friends.Howmanycookiesdoesshegiveout altogether?

Figure1

ConcreteStage:

TeacherGuidelines:
Provide1620chips(manipulatives)infrontofthestudent.Askthe studenttousethechipstoshowwhattheproblemrepresents.How manycookies?Howmanyfriends?(Usemorechipsthanneededso thestudentdecidesonthenumber.)Somestudentsmayneeda board, aspecificareatoarrangethechips.Somestudentsmay arrangethechipsincolumnsorinoneroworinclustersof4each. Alternativerepresentationsarecorrectaslongasthestudentshows 3groupsof4.Ifthestudentsresponseiscorrect,reinforce the studentpositively.Ifincorrect,havethestudenttoucheachchipand countto4,repeatinguntilthestudentsees3groupsof4.Push remainingchipsaside.

Student:
Useschipstomodelthetotalnumberofcookiesgiventofriends. Studentcantouchthechipsandcountallthechipsaloudorteacher canpromptthestudenttocountalone.

Figure2

RepresentationalStage:

TeacherGuidelines:
Provideapaperandpencil,crayonorchalkforthestudenttodraw amodelshowingthenumberofcookieseachfriendhas.Circlesdo nothavetobeperfectcircles.Thesearepicturesofcookies representinganumberforeachfriend.Suggestthatthestudent drawacircleorboxaroundthegroupsof4.Theteachercan provideastringoryarntohelpstudents groupthesepicturesof four.Numbersareimportant.Studentcirclesmaynotbeperfectin sizeorshape.

Student:
Drawspicturesof4smallcirclesrepresentingcookiesingroupsof 3.Thestudentdrawsabox,acircle,orafigurearound eachgroup of4circlesorcookies. 7

Figure3

AbstractStage:

TeacherGuidelines:
Promptthestudenttopointwithhis/herfingerortouchthechipsin eachgroup.Whatisthenumberofchipsineachgroup?Havethe studentwritethenumberinsideabox.Repeatuntilthestudent identifiesall3groups.Howmanyisthataltogether?Writethat numberinthelastbox.Astudentmayneedmoreprompting. Writeplussignsbetweentheboxesandexplainthatcountingallthe chipsin3groupsof4isthesameasadding4+4+4.Thetotalis equalto12.Isthisareasonableanswer?Helpthestudentsmakea connectionthat3groupsof4isthesameassaying3x4.Askthe studentstoexplain,Howisrepeatedadditionthesameas multiplying3times4?

4+4+4=12 Student:
Countsandwritesthenumericalrepresentationofthegroupsand thetotalnumber.Thestudentcanexplainhowhe/shearrivedatthis conclusionoranswer.

3x4=12
Extension:Askthestudentstomodelasimilarproblem.Repeatthe stepsfor2friendsand3cookies.

TheCRAsequenceprovidesagraduatedandconceptuallysupportedframeworkfor studentstocreateameaningfulconnectionbetweenconcrete,representational,and abstractlevelsofunderstanding.Beginningwithvisual,tactile,andkinesthetic experiencestoestablishtheirunderstandingofnumbers,studentsexpandtheir understandingthroughpictorialrepresentationsoftheconcreteobjectsandmovetothe abstractlevelofunderstandingthemeaningofnumbers(numbersense).Teacherscan promptstudentswithquestionsateachstageasindicatedinFigure4.Teacherscanalso readtheproblemaloudandsummarizewhatthestudentcompletedasthestudentsmoves sequentiallythroughthestagesusingmodels,verbalization,drawings,andnumerical representationstoindicateeachstepinorder. Whenimplementingthisstrategy,teachers recognizegoodinstructionbyreferringtoconceptsoractivitiesinthedifferentstages. Forreinforcementofconcepts,instructionmaybecyclic,notjustalinearsequenceof instructionaltasks.
Figure4 Concrete: Representational: PromptsorQuestionsforStudents Howdidyoumodelthis?Whatdidyoushow? Couldyoudrawamodelofthis?Howdidyoudothat?Whatdidyou drawtoshowgroups?Howdidyougroupthese? Whatnumbersandoperationsdidyouusetoshowthisproblem?Is thisanswerareasonablenumber?

Abstract:

Studentscanalsoachieveabetterunderstandingofthemathematicalcontentof multiplicationofnumbersandnumbersensebycreatingnewproblemsandpracticingthe CRAinstructionalsequencethroughtheconcrete,representational,andabstractstages (numericalsymbolsandnumbers). Althoughsomestudentsmaynotneedtodrawpicturestomakeconnectionswiththe abstractconcept,studentsgainconfidenceandreinforcetheconcreteunderstandingby makingdrawingssimilartothemanipulative,andthusbecomemoreindependent problemsolvers.Multipleexperienceswithproblemslikethisallowstudentsto internalizetheproblemsolvingprocessandgivethemthecapabilityofduplicatingthe process. Thus,theCRAinstructionalsequencebecomesavaluableinterventionforstudentswith LDtolearntheNCTMprocessstandardsofproblemsolving,reasoningandproof, communications,connections,andrepresentations.CRAalsoprovidesaprocessfor problemsolvingapplicabletoeveryagegroup,ininformalandformallearningsituations forstudentswithLD.Itestablishesbackgroundknowledge,andmakesstudentsconfident withanapproachtoreasonandmakeconnectionsformorecomplexproblemsolving situations. Figure5showshowCRAiscloselymatchedtotheNCTMprocessstandards.Inthis alignment,theCRAstrategyconnectsthewaystudentslearnmathematicswiththeway

studentsdoandknowmathematicsthroughtheNCTMprocessstandards.The processstandardscutacrosstheNCTMcontentstandardstoallowaccessibilitytothe generalmathematicscurriculumforallstudents.

Figure5 NCTMProcessStandards ProblemSolving Students domathematicstobuildknowledge developstrategiesforproblemsolving buildnewideas Representations Students expressmathnumberasacircleortally expressmathideaasaboxoroval understandslanguage,symbol,andnotation CRAInstructionalSequence(SampleProblem) ConcreteStage representnumbersfromwordproblem initiateCRAstrategy arrangegroupsof4,repeatedaddition RepresentationalStage drawacircletomodelanumberofchips modelagroupof4withanovalorbox representlanguage(4),symbol(+chips)

Communications Concrete/Representational/Abstract Students talkaboutwhattheydidwiththemathematicalidea usethenumberofchipsneeded(C) describeshowtheyarrangedthechipsingroupsandwhy indicategroupswithcircles(R) explainshowtheyarrivedattheanswer countusingrepeatedaddition(A) ReasoningandProof Students findpatternsof4s linked3groupsof4tofindtheanswer investigatedconnectionofaddition&multiplication Concrete/Representational/Abstract reasonedthat3groupsof4chips(C,R) findthetotalwithrepeatedaddition(A) linkedrepeatedadditiontomultiplication(A)

Connections Abstract Students applyrepeatedadditiontosolverealworldproblems understandmultiplicationisrepeatedaddition connectabstractnumberstoconcretemodels 4x3=12 connectgeometricfigurestonumbers drawwithovalsandsquarestomakegroups

Intodayschallengingmathematicsclassroom composedofstudentswithdiverse backgroundsandabilities,teachersseekstrategiesandactivitiestoassiststudents learningandunderstandingof mathematics.Qualityprofessionaldevelopmentcombined withproveneducationaltechnologyaspartof the mathematicscurriculum mayassist educatorsinachievingthisgoal.Virtualmanipulativesandgraphingcalculatorsreplace theconcretemanipulativestoprovidevisualization,helpstudentsmakeconnections,and understandmathematicalrelationsatthetouchofabutton. Asanexample,TexasInstrumentsoffersseveralvarietiesofgraphingcalculators designedtodemonstrateandmanipulategeometricobjectstoassiststudentsin understandingmathematics.TheCabriJr.applicationcanbepreloadedonTI83Plus
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andTI84modelsofgraphingcalculators.Studentscanbuildgeometricconstructions interactivelywithpoints,lines,polygons,circles,andotherbasicobjects.Byaltering geometricfigures,studentscanvisualizeandextendpatterns,makegeneralizations,and arriveatconclusions.Studentsinmostmiddleandhighschoolsarerequiredtopurchase oruseclassroomsetsofcalculatorsinthemathematicsclassroom.Theschooldistrictand organizationssuchasTexasinstrumentsprovideprofessionaldevelopmentonthese calculatorsfor regularandspecialeducation teachers.Teachershaveaccesstoregistering onlineforprofessionaldevelopment,attendingconferences(inpersonorvirtually),and registeringforactivitiestousewiththeCabriJr.application (http://cabrijr.com). Allthe activitiesshowstepbystepinstructionsandtopicsarecorrelatedtoNCTM Standardsfor Geometry.Teachersmaysignuponlinetoreceivenotificationofnewactivitiesandhave accesstoarchivedactivitiesthatcoincidewiththescopeofthedistrictcurriculum. Additionaltechnologicalresourcesdesignedtoassiststudentswithdisabilitiesare applets,small Internetbaseddemonstrationsandmanipulatives.Appletsprovide animatedandvisualpresentationsforstudents, especially thosewithdisabilities,tosee patternsandcharacteristicsof geometricobjects,multiplerepresentations,andother mathematicsconceptsthroughinteractionwithvariablesandobjects.NCTMoffersmath appletsthroughtheirilluminationsseries (http://illuminations.nctm.org/ActivitySearch.aspx). (Zorfass,etal,2006) Conclusions Thisbriefhaspresentedbackgroundinformationaboutinstructionalstrategiesfor studentswithdisabilitiesthatarelinkedtomathematicsreformeffortsexemplifiedbythe NCTMstandardsandprinciples.Studentswithlearningdisabilitiesoftenexperience difficultybridginginformalmathematics(concretemodelsofnumbers)toformalabstract mathematicscurriculum(symbolsandnotationsofmathematicallanguage).Toimprove acquisitionandretention ofessentialmathematicalskillsandconcepts,studentsneed instructionalinterventions,suchasCRA,andinstructionalstrategies,suchasthose embodiedintheNCTMprocessstandardstopromotemathematicalunderstanding.With theimplementationof CRA asonestrategyandtheprocessstandards,thisintervention canopendoorstoenablestudentswithlearningdisabilitiestolearnmoremathematics. Mathematicaltoolswhetherconcretemanipulativesorvirtualmanipulativesare supportivetoolsforlearning.Theuseofmathematicaltoolsshapesthewaystudents thinkandbuildmathematical relationshipsandconnectionstowardconceptual understanding(Fusonetal.1992).Selectingandaccessingtheappropriatetoolsand processesforstudentswithdisabilitiesiscriticaltotheirunderstandingmathematics. Giventhedemandsofnewandexistingfederallegislationthatrequiresmuchhigher levelsofproficiencyandaccountability,oneof thebiggestchallengesistoprovide effectivemathematicsinstructionforstudentswithdisabilities.Implementinginstruction thatincorporatestheprocessstandardsandselectingappropriateinstructional toolsand strategiesforstudentswithLDisonewaytoachievemathematicsliteracyforall.

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