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MAHATMA GANDHI AND KARL MARX

(

A STUDY OF SELECTED SOCIAL

THINKERS )

R. P. SINHA

LIBRARY
I

ONIVHBITY OP

CALIPOtNU/

Pro^n

-IS

Librai-

3ngroS

public Lav/ 480 Progiam

SocioioQ-ical Series

No, 2

(A Study of Selected Social Thinkers)

MAHATMA GANDHI & KARL MARX

By.
R. P. Sinha, m.
a.

Sociolop'tcal Series

No, 2

Study of Selected Social Tliinkers^

MAHATMA GANDHI
& KARL MARX

By.

R. P. Sinha, m

a.

All Rights Reserved

Printed and Published by R. P. Sinha, u. a.

at Sisgk Printing Press,

Kanpur.

Opinion
"
Presentation of any work in social thought or other
systematic,

sociological subjects, in a

dable

style,

is

extremely necessary as

and understanwell as useful for an average

simple
in

student.

There are many

still

difficulties

performing
is

such

a task
dable.

successfully,

every effort in this direction

I

commenin

In

this

light,
I

appreciate
his

the hard
will

work put

by

Mr. R.

P. Sinha.

hope that

work

be of considerable

benefit to the students

of Sociology."

From

Sociological Series No.

1.

M.A., Ph.D.

Head of

thg

Department of Sociology,
College, Kanpur.

D. A.V.

CONTENTS
1.

1.

M AH ATM A GANDHI
Chapter
I

Life Sketch (1869-1948 A. O.)

Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi,

'Bapu'
1869, at

popularly

known
the

as
2,

the Father of Indian nation, was born on October

I'orbandar,
his

India.

He was

enjoying

boyafter

hood days of
as a boy,

fourteenth year

when Karl Marx,

his last,
affairs

having attained his climax, had breathed

Gandhi,

was unconcerned with the world

in

though he
Obviously,

was brought up
there
to
Vv^as little

an anti-British atmosphere.
life

show that he was destined become one of the most magnetic personalities and most
in his early

to

compelling leaders of our country's long history.

Gandhi was married at 13 and at 19, when already a father, he went to London to study law. For three years he lived frugally in London on S 20 a month and then returned to India as a qualified barrister and a member of Inner Temple, He was, later in 1922, debarred from the membership of
the Inner
years'

Temple on account of

receiving

sentence of

six

imprisonment by the Indian courts. At the age of 23, he went to South Africa in a law case and stayed there to improve the status of his for twenty years, seeking
fellow

Indians,

who were

discriminated
his

against because

of

their dark skins.

There he developed

philosophy of non-

violent civil disobedience as a

He
and took

returned to India in
to

means towards political ends. 1914, gave away his property,

his joining the

wearing a saintly dress of loin-cloth to symbolize repressed millions who could afford no more.
political

He

preached

and urged the wiping out of religious enmities

and economic freedom from England among Hindus

a vigourous

and Muslims.
political,

He launched

movement

to attain

economic, social and cultural freedom

for India.

He

made

efforts to uplift

the untouchables, declared

by him as

victims of a system called as 'rotten excrescence'. All these

and

many
him

other services of Gandhi elevated his position to a great

reverence in the minds of millions of his countrymen

who

called

Mahatma' (great soul) or *Bapu' considered him as 'God' or 'Super Man'.

*the

(the

father)

and

Gandhi was
due
ducted

in

to his political,

and out of prison during most of his life social and economic activities. He constrikes,

many

fasts

and hunger
10,

using

them

as

means
It

of calling

attention

to a particular injustice.

One

of his fasts

began on February
in

1943 and ended after 21

days.

was
pa-

protest of his internment

behind barbed wire

outbreak of

in the

lace

of

Agha Khan
government

at

Poona,
the

where he was held by the

civil

British

after

disobedience
for

following rejection

of Sir

Stafford Gripps' plan

Indian

independence. In the early days of the second world war, Gandhi refused to support Indian participation in the war on the
side of

Great Britain until the British would guarantee Indian

independence at the close of the war.

Physically

most

toothless.

Gandhi was small, bald, and in On January 30, 1948, he was

fast

later years al-

assassinated in

Delhi shortly after having concluded a

in protest against

communal

strife

between Hindus and Muslims.

Whereas volumes after volumes have been devoted to the life history and valuable works of Mahatma Gandhi, we leave this aspect to the above exfent and switch over to the influences which were at work in
contributions to social
his time.

enabling him to

make valuable

thought as a top-ranking thinker of

Chapter

II

Factors Influencing Gandhian Philosophy

Gandhian
social philosophy
is

the out

come of
also

the influen-

ce of his fore-runners' thinking

on him and
conditions

of political,
in

socio-economic and religious

before

prevalent

India

and during
his

his life lime.

These multifarious influences

to

ranged from

parents and

home

Ruskin and Tolstoy.

Influence of Fore-runners

The

fore-runners of Gandhi,

who

conceived the idea

of

social thinking

on the

basis of traditional non-violence, derived

the origin of their thought mainly

from

Hindu

scriptures

of

Vedas and Upanishads. Manu, Lord Buddha, Jesus Christ, Mohammed the Muslim prophet, w^ho were all advocates of 'Ahimsa', exercised considerable influence on the thinking of

Mahatma Gandhi.
and

Besides, the moral principles of Confucius

the metaphysical thinking originating in China,

worked

as

basic foundation of his thinking.

Gandhi appears

to

have been

partly

influenced

by

his

fore-runners of the West, including

Hegel,

Marx and

Engels.

But he did not agree with either of

them in toto. The contrast between the Gandhian dialectic and that of Karl Marx and Hegal is striking. Each of them has dealt with a different level of abstraction and by comparing them, the dynamic quality of Gandhian concept Immence was the influence on of Satyagraha is illuminated. impact of works of three writers namely Gandhi due to the Thoreau, the American Tolstoy, the Christian anarchist
;

writer
his

who
;

influenced him, during his stay in South Africa, by

civil

experiments of philosophy of non-violence and

disobe-

dience
Last',

John Ruskin, who, by

his

his

unique work -'Unto This

political

by

approach
views

to a systematic

theory

as

well as by his
attention.

on

industrialization, arrested Gandhi's

Influence of Religious

The
which
his

influence of

Socio-Economic Factors mother and conservative Hindu

life,

&

society,
for

home

strictly represented,

was mainly responsible

morality

Gandhi's ideas about the law of

religion.

tought at

He imbibed in his own personal life his home and in his religious environment.
vow which Gandhi had
and Stoic
to lead a chaste

and faith in what he was

Here we
his

are reminded of the

to take before

mother the vow

existence.

Gandhi was deeply influenced by the socio-economic

conditions of Indian society and they along with
dition were, to a very great extent,
political

con-

responsible for

the emer-

gence of

his

valuable approaches to Satyagraha, Non-violence,

Love Truth

&

God, Trusteeship, Socialism

etc.

Nevertheless,

by the above
toto by him.
theorist,
its

factors,

when we say that Gandhi was we never mean that all the

influenced
ideas

concepts of his fore-runners were accepted and agreed

and upon in
than a

As Gandhi was more a practical

his

man

any theoretical formulation of

classification

under any 'Ism'

in

is

not

own philosophy and possible. "He was in

anarchist;

one sense a conservative

another a

philosophical

and on the other a capitalist; and yet again a primitive communist. His writings and speeches show
on one hand a
socialist

some evidence for each of these assertions. He belongs to all these camps and to none of them"^ Every 'Ism' in general and
conservatism as well
as

anarchism

in

particular

influenced

Gandhi no doubt, but none had anything to do with his own concept unless it was modified by his two main techniques the techniques of Satyagraha and Non-violence.

The

practical
in turn

approach

to life as

such and his

in his

own

experi-

ments were
liness),

advocated by Gandhi

preachings

of

the gospel of renunciation (which

may

not

mean
etc.

other worldequality

voluntary poverty, dignity

of

labour,

of

religions,

brotherhood of man, force of God

Any attempt
class

to disturb the

harmony of

life

by

setting

one

of the

people against another, creating class-consciousness and hatred, teaching the cult of violence in place of love,

used to

distress

him

deeply.

He was

adversely influenced

civilization, so

he advocated the

by the Western supremacy of Indian civili-

zation
belief in

which, unlike that of West, was based on morality and

God.
in

mentioned

his

He was primarily a religious man. He has own words that "Most religious men I have
I,

met are

politicians in disguise;

however, wear the guise of a

politician,

am

atleast a religious

but religious."^
ing

This

is

man. My bent is not political from where Gandhi starts in his thinklife.

and doing, whether

in private or public

Chapter

III

Analysis of Gandhian Social Thinking

While entering into the discussion of Gandhian
thinking,
it is

social

necesary to be aware of the fact that he did not

as

propound any systematic theory

the term
little

such.

In

strict

sense

of

Mahatma Gandhi was

not a theorist.

Truly, he had

or no interest in academic analysis,

nor

he had time or

patience for reducing his bulk of experiences into theoretical

formulations.

The above
reply to

fact

evidently supported in
in

Gandhi's
for

own
to

Salyagraha "But

Jone V. Bandurant
experience
it,

regard
is

to

his

approach

Satyagraha
use
it,

not a subject

research.

You must

live

by

it.'"*

Gandhian

thinking

comprises

of

comprehensive

analysis of socio-economic

and

politico-religious

problems from
thinking
to

individualistic as well as socio-centric angles.

There are certain

social

fundamental principles on which

clusters,

Gandhian

and Gandhi,

like a practical idealist,

holds rigidly

those principles.

(A)

Concept of Social Order

It

has been said that an ideal society

is

is

that

in

which
did

every individual

able to live

life

of progressively increasing

wants with minimum output of labour.

not agree to
this

But Gandhi

type of society. It appeared to

to pass

him

as fantastic

as to expect 'a

camel

through the

eye

of a needle.'
the
principle

In

this

connection

Mahatma Gandhi

advocates

of 'Plain Living and

living
for

High Thinking.'* He comments that high means luxurious living which is an impossible proposition

any society as a whole.

is

The

'law

of

life'

according

to

Gandhi,
be

a condition under which a well-ordered

society can

intelligible

and the
is

life

worth

living.

This condition

^e

'law of life'

taken as the law higher than that of destruc-

tion because, as

Gandhi

says,

life

persists in the

midst of dest-

ruction.

All well constructed

societies are

based
like

on the law

of non-violence and

law of

love,

which are
Besides,

two wheels on

which

life's

charriot should move.

Gandhian concept

of ideal society needs universal application of moral law which

demands sympathy and love for every human being, protection of poor by strong men and mutual obligation of services. One's duty in a society should be to do the right and leave the rest
to

God without

thinking about the result of actions.

Sarvodaya Samaj

The concept
for

of ideal society

is

imbibed
in

in

Gandhi's

call

'Sarvodaya Samaj'. Sarvodaya,

'the greatest

Gandhian terminology,
is

means

good

for all.'

This ideal
for the

better than

the

utilitarian ideal of the greatest

good

greatest

number
latter.

because suffering to some

is

inevitably envolved in majority),

the

the

For 51

persons

(representing
is

interest

of 49

(representing minority)
says 'the only ideal

to

be sacrificed.

Hence
is

Gandhi
sacrifice.'

and dignified human doctrine

the greatest

good of

all

and

this

could be achieved by uttermost

Gandhi's 'Sarvodaya'

and 'common good'

for self-realization.

ideal

of Green,
to

both are ethical ideals

B. S.

But according
is

Sharma, Green's
set of
it
is

'common good'

not

something

which one man or

sion of others, but

men can
spiritual

gain or enjoy to the excluactivity

in

which
to

all

may

partake and in which

all

must partake,

if it is

realization of the faculties of the

human

soul.

amount to full Thus Gandhi's

'com-

use of

word

'all'

looks to be better than

Green's term,

mon',
can be

because of the mis-interpretation to which the latter

subject."^

Yet Gandhi remains

society based

silent

on the future
:

structure
is

of

on

his ideal.

He

says

"When

society

delibe-

rately constructed in accordance with the law of

its

structure will be diflferent in

it is

today. But

can not say

in

non violence, material particulars from what advance what the government,
be like."

based wholly on non-violence,

will

8
of

The

chief requirements

Gandhian 'Sarvodaya' are

non-cooperation, non-violence and decentralization of power.

(B)

Gandhian
The
his

Dialectical

Approach
Gandhian
dialectic

basic idea underlying

revolves

around

emphasis on means rather than ends.

stress

Gandhian

technique lays

on purity of means.

Obviously, therefore,

while giving us an idea of his OArn concept of Socialism, Gandhi

says, that Socialism
is

as pure as crystal and, therefore,

it

re-

quires
result
will

crystal
in

means to achieve it. means 'Impure ends. Hence the prince and the peasant impure
like

not be equalised by

cutting off prince's

head, nor the

process of cutting off can equalise the employer

loyed.

and the

emp-

One

cannot reach truthfulness

by untruthfulness.

Truthful conduct alone can reach truth.'

Reasons

for

Gandhi's emphasis on purity of means have

Dr.

bfen

summed up by
1.

Dhawan

as under.'

We

have power over means and not over ends.

of means.

2.
3.

End grows out

According
to

personal experience of Gandhi,

with

perverted means only perverted ends are realised.

4.

The

other course

i.

e.

impurity of means to attain

to

ends or giving priority our finer sentiments.

5.

ends themselves, deadens

It

sometimes so happens that we regard means as

in

ends and,
will
6.

that

case, if

means are bad, the

result

immediately be bad.
is

There
are

no certainty that the bad or violent means

initiated

by good motives.

All fascists speak of

laudable ends.
7.

It

is

dangerous ethics

to

make

the end

as

the

criterion.
8.

Besides,
It

who knows

that the end

is

going to be ending.

may be

short-lived one

and passing away soon.

Corelating the theory of ends and

of Truth and Non-violence,

means with concepts

it

A.Huxley has remarked that

Gandhi, end
is

tends to produce

'a state

of greatest possible unification.'

It

does not at
thing.

all

mean

that, for
fact,

only a secondary

As a matter of
or

he attaches equal importance to

both.

Both are inseparable.

non-violence

For Gandhi, 'Truth'

is
is

is

end and
There-!

'Ahimsa'

simply

means.

fore, for the sake of

Truth, he

capable of sacrificing Ahimsa.

non-violence
also

Gandhi
Truth
(G)
is

lays

more emphasis

on

because
finite.

related with infinite while non-violence with

Gandhian

dialectic
fact,

&

Political theory

As a matter of
specific political

Gandhi did not proceed from any

Yet the significance of
political

ideology.

inestimtheory of his action in the practical field of politics, is here-to-fore, been taken Two essential requisites have, able.
into consideration
First
for

the formulation

of political thought.

was the reflection upon the ends of political action, and Traditional polithe second was of means for achieving them, of ends from means, has tical thought, assuming a separation proceeded to eclipse means by emphasising concern for ends.
approach of Gandhian technique of 'Satyagraha' serves as a possibility of reconciling ends and means

The

dialectical

through a philosophy of action.

Gandhian technique, however, depends considerably upon the manner in which the essential elements are applied and menifested

The

success of

during a given dynamic process of his dialectic action of

Satyagraha.^

Gandhian Approach to Politics and Religion The origin of Gandhian political philosophy can be traced from his religious background. He had not that narrow
(D)

conception of religion which

larly in
politics.
'I

is

held in popular

mind

particu-

West.

It is his religion

which

forces Gandhi's entry into

The

idea bears evidence from Gandhi's

life

own remarks
I

could not be leading a religious

unless
I

identified

myself with the whole of mankind and

unless
I

that

could

not

do

took part in politics.'

10

Dr. B.

With the above reproduction of Gandhian remarks, S. Sharma further evaluates the political philosophy by
the
force

analysing

dynamic

concept of non-violence, 'dharraa' and its and concept of Salyagraha. Acknowledging

the supreme importance of

individual, as emphasised by Gandhi, Dr. Sharma remarks, "The application of non-violent

methods

to politics

is

the unique contribution of Gandhi."^

For achieving

political ends,

Gandhi introduces the

disobedience.

tools

of Satyagraha backed by the elements of love and truth, nonviolence,

non-co-operation and

civil

(E)

Religion co-related with Economics

According to

Sam Hegginbothan
"Religion
to

religion bereft of econo-

mics

is

unbelievable.

be worth

of anything,

must be capable of being reduced when necessary in terms of economics." Gandhi endorses these remarks of S. Hegginbothan,
yet he retains one significant

mental reservation.

Gandhi's
religion to be

mental reservation, is that "Whereas worth anything must be capable of being reducreduced to the terms of religion
or Americanization,

ed to the terms of economics, economics to be worth anything

must

also be capable of being

or spirituality.

Therefore, in the scheme of religion-cum-ecois

nomics, there
as
it is

no room

for exploitation

technically
to

known." ^

According
of slaves,
nery.

Gandhian

ideal, there

is

no room

in

true

economics, which

is

convertible with religion, for the

owning
machi-

may

they consist of

human

beings, cattle or

He

further clarifies his stand by saying that application

of laws of economics must vary with varying conditions.

(F)

Gandhian Socialism
Gandhi's view of Socialii^m
is

reflected
:

in

one of

his

answers which he gave before

"Socialism
in Socialism, the
is

his

death

far

a beautiful word. So
rs

as

am

aware,

mrmb

of society are

qual - none high none

not high

low.
is

In the individual body the head

is

because

it

the top of the body nor are the soles of the feet low because

11

they touch the earth.

are equal, so are the

Even as parts of members of society.

the

individual
is

body

This

Socialism.

and the peasant, the wealthy and the poor, the employer and the employee all are on the same level."
In
it

the prince

Thus Gandhi advocated

distinctions
status,

complete
creed,

eradication
social

of

all

on grounds of

caste,

or

tconomic

Gandhi's conviction was that only truthful, non-violent

and pure-hearted
society in India

socialists will

be able to establish a socialistic

said,
is

and the world. So he

in the

'To

my

knowledge,

there

is

no country
:

world which

purely socialistic'

Governing Factors

ful

ends.

Gandhi lays stress on truthful means With the dynamic forces,

and
Spiritual
his
life,

for attaining

truth-

of

Love,

Truth,

Non-violence
validity
is

Faith,

whose
and

reliability

and

based on

own

fxperiences

experiments in

public and private

Gandhi wanted

to build a
is

new, rather

an ideal

social order.

This ideal of Socialism

kept by him

inline with India's ancient cultural traditions.

spirit

Things of the

counted

far

more than material

civilization

possessions

and worldly
the suprefast to

comforts. For this he advocated to his countrymen

macy
it.

of their

own

and advised them

test

to hold

Their civilization had stood the

satisfy the highest

of time

and

sought to

aspiration

of mankind.

had Gandhi
old

obviously does not agree with the belief that

is

'every thing

bad.'

He

believes that all old that promotes the

is

fare

may

be good and the new which

welfare
of

human weldangerous to the human

accordingly,

and

social

may

be

bad.

He

embraces

the value
bread.'

Truth,

Spinning

Wheel,''

and

'old

brown

Analysing the concept and

significance

of non-violence,

Gandhi

refers to the historical records

development.
violence.

He

tries

According

to

about human origin and to show man's progress towards nonhim, human nature has shown gradual
increasing
attitude
for

decrease of 'Himsa'

and constantly

12

'Abitn^a'

right from conaibalism

to "chase

and hunt and then

con-

to agriculture stages.

Gandhi thus endorsed the Christian phi-

losophy of truth, harmony, brotherhood and justice and

ceived
all

these as attributes of non-violence.

He
spirit
is

observes that

"Man

as

animal

is

violent,
to

but as

non-violent.

The moment he awakes

the spirit

within, he cannot remain violent. Either he progresses towards

'Ahimsa' or rushes to his doom."

that

He

further says, 'If

we

believe
it

mankind has
it
is

steadily

progressed
still

towards

Ahimsa,
in

follows that

has to progress

further.

Nothing
is

this

world

static,
is

everything

is

kinetic. If there

no progression,
can

then there

inevitable retrogression.
it

No one
God

remain

without the eternal cycle, unless

Doctrine of Salyagraha
:

be

himself.'

Gandhi
'Satyagraha

related Satyagraha with Socialism

and said that

every worthy object can be achieved by the use of Satyagraha.

which, if becomes universal, would and do away with despotism and evergrowing militarism under which the nations of the West are groaning and are almost being crushed to death and which fairly promises to overwhelm even the nations of the So Gandhi concludes that Socialism will not be East.'^^
is

a force,

revolutionise social ideals

reached by any other means.

Satyagraha can
moral.

relieve society

from

all evils

political, economic and

:

Chief Characteristics

In regard to the doctrine of Gandhian Sa tyagraha,

following points of explanation arrest our attention.
1.

the

The

doctrine of Satyagraha
life

is

merely an extension of
but

the rule of domestic

2,

to the political.

The law

of Love, which silently

surely

governs
is

the family for the

most part throughout the civilized world,

Gandhi says, 'Satyagraha is a coin on whose face you read Love and on the reverse you read Truth. It is a coin current every where and
nothing but the law of Truth.
this

On

basis

has indefinite value.'

13

3.

Satyagraha

is

self-dependent.
it

It

does not

require
play.
resists.

the assent of the opponent before

can be brought into

On
So

the other hand,

it is

it

shines most

when

the opponent

irresistible.

4.

Satyagraha
that

is

called the

'soul force'
it is

because a

defi-

nite recognition of the soul within

a necessity.

satya-

grahi

believes

death does not mean

cessation of

the

struggle, but a culmination.

5.

Satyahgraha
it

is

twice-blessed.

It
it is

blesses

him who
It

practises

and

also

him against whom

his heart

practised.
to
his

never

injures his

opponent and always appeals either

by the

reason

by gentle arguments or
6.

sacrifice of the self.

all.

Satyagraha can be practised by

Once

its
it

simple

principle of adherence to truth

suffering
7.
is

and insistence upon understood, anybody can practise it.

civil

by

self-

Satyagraha largely appears as

disobedience or

civil resistence.

Thus Gandhi evaluates

concludes with the remarks
efficacy of
:

his

doctrine of Satyagraha

and

'In

my

opinion,

the

beauty and
so

Satyagraha

is

so great

and the doctrine

simple

that

it

can be preached even to

children.'^''*

Socialism and Belief in

God

Gandhi has tremendous

Socialism from
force

faith in

God, and he conceives

is

that

angle.

In his opinion, 'God

a living

he

who

denies the existence of that great force, denies

to himself the use

of that inexhaustible power

the socialism of such

and thus
takes

re-

mains impotent

nature
live.'

men

nowhere, what to say of society in which

(G)

they

Gandhian Concept of Class-Struggle

Gandhi does
believe
believe
in
is

the
the

existence
necessity

of class-struggle. of fomenting and

What he
keeping
it

does not
up.

According
says,
is

to

him, this can be

avoided.

The

real conflict,

he

between intelligence and unintelligence.

it

He, therefore, considers

to be a folly to

keep up such a con-

14

flict.

'Unintelligence must be removed', he stresses.

intelligent
it

'When
to

lab-

our

is

enough
has as

to organise itself
as

and learn

act as

one man,
greater.'

will

have the same weight

mvich
its

money
as

if

not

much
the

Money
of

use

labour.

So equal
affect

consideration

money and labour

does

not

harmony.

Gandhian
based on
his

ideal regarding labour

and

capital

is,

therfore,

concept that

capital

and labour should supple-

ment and help each other. They should cooperate with each other and, like the members of a family, maintain unity and harmony. Thus Gandhi aims at mending and not ending of
the capitalist class. ^^
to him.
table,

The
if

idea of class-war does not appeal

is

He

says,

"In India a class-war

not

only not inevithe

but

it is

avoidable

we have understood
is

message of

non-violence."

So the problem, according to Gandhi,

against class but to educate labour to

not to set class

of
its

sense

dignity.

Here emerges
recognises
i.e. it

his

concept of 'Dignity of Labour' and the con-

cept of 'Non-Possession',
its

own

dignity,

The moment labour money will find its

Gandhi's claim

is

educated and
place,

rightful
is

will be held in trust for labour, for

labour
for

more than
class-

money, observes Gandhi.

avoiding

war

is

based on two

way planning (1) by imposing

(2)

condito

tions

on non-violent methods

by inviting

capitalists

regard them as trustees for those on

whom

they depend for the

capital.

making, the retention and the increase of their

(H)

Gandhian Theory of Trusteeship

Gandhi, no dcubt,

not quite', as

much
But

as
his

end capitalism almost if the most advanced socialists or even

v.-anted
'to

communists.
theory, differ.

methods, even

the

language

of his

Gandhi

is

against capitalism but not

against

capitalists.

He wanted
and

capitalists to

woik

as tiustees for those

who helped
servant

in the increase of capital.

He wanted
allows

marriage between labour

labour's

capital
its

and

conceived capital to be

and not

master.

He

the privileged class or

men

of

15

intellect

even to earn more but their greater earnings must be

used

for the

good of the State. Just

as the

income of all earning

sons of a father goes to the

privileged

common

family-fund, so also, these

men

or classes should have their earnings as trustees.

This was his objective of Trusteeship.

Gandhian Theory of Trusteeship,

that

as
i.

such,

therefore

is

"Every thing belonged

to 'Gopal'

e.

God, and was

re-

ceived from God.

Therefore, it was for His people as a whole and not for a particular individual. When an individual had more than his proportionate portion, he became a trustee of
that

portion for God's people."

The

theory,

thus,
is

has the

religious sanction

behind

it.

No

other theory

compatible

with non-violence.

Gandhi further says that God, who was

no need
also'

all

powerful, had

to

store.
in

He
is

created
live

from day-to-day; hence men

should,

theory,

things.

If this truth

from day-to-day and not stock imbibed by people in general, it would

legalised in-

become

legalised

and Trusteeship would become a

stitution.

The Theory
interests.
'It is

of Trusteeship

maintains the

mutuality of
least,

not unilateral and does not, in the

It is perfectly

imply

superiority of the trustee.

a mutual afTair
his

and
is

each

labour and

capitalist

believes

that

own

interest

best safeguarded by safeguarding the interest of the other."*

Features of Trusteeship
:

Gandhian formula of Trusteeship comprises of the follo wing main features^ 1. Trusteeship provides a means of transforming the
"^

present capitalist order of society into

gives

an egalitarian one.

It

no quarter

to capitalism,

but gives the present owning

This feature
is

class a

chance of reforming

itself.

is

based on

Gandhi's belief that

tion.
2.

human

nature

never

beyond redemp-

It

does not recognise any light to private ownership

in as

of property, except
society for
its

much

as, it

may

be permitted by the

own

welfare.

16

3.

It

does

not

exclude

legislative

regulation

of the

sense of ownership of wealth.

4.

Thus under state-regulaied Trusteeship an

his

indivi-

dual will not be free to hold or use

wealth for

selfish satis-

faction or in disregard to the interests of society.

5.

Similar to the proposal of fixation

of a decent mini-

mum

living

wage, a limit should be fixed for the

maximum
The

income that could be allowed to any person

difference

in society.

between such minimum

and maximum incomes

should be reasonable, equitable and also variable from time

to time, so

much

so

that

the

tendency

would be towards

obliteration of the difference.

5.

The

character of production should be determined by

social necessity

and not by personal whim or greed.

places

Thus Gandi

the institution

of kinship undei; his

theory of Trusteeship of an ideal economic order.

Chapter IV
Critical
According

Estimate
to Dr. B. S,

of

Gandhian Thought
belief in truth

Shaima, Gandhi's

and non-violence summarises the whole philosophy of Mahatma Gandhi. 'Truth and Non-violence are the twin suns around thought revolve.* which all the lesser planets of his life and
Dr. Sharma remarks.' 'The application of non-violent methods
to Politics
is

the unique contribution of Gandhi.'

Gandhian Coraception of Religion

Gandhi has not that narrow conception of
is

religion

which

held in popular mind, particularly in West.

it is

As a matter of
politics.

fact,

his religion that forces

field

Gandhi's entry into

He
and

stepped into the

this f;ict
is

of politics with religious motivations

supported by his
life

own

remarks,

'1

could not be

leading a religious

unless

identified myself with

I

whole of

raarkind and that

Politics.'

could not do unless

took part in

Analysing the concept of religion or *Dharma' as

ed by Gandhi, Dr. Sharma very wide term and includes
It
is

visualisis

says,

'Dharma

for

Gandhi

all

ethics plus something more.

not a static but dynamic thing'.

Gandhi agrees with Dr.

S.

Radhakrishnan who says that Dharma is not a fixed code of mechanical rules, but a living spirit which grows and moves in
response to the development of society.
It
is

relative

to time,
etc.

place,

circumstances,

sex,

age,

temperament, vocation
or

Satisfaction or conviction to conscience

'Atma' should be

attained

with the help of Vedas, Smritis

particularly

by those who

possess

and 'Sadachar' weak mind and are vacillat-

ing and indecisive by nature.

Gandhi, therefore,
vidual conscience
training

gives

supreme importance
to

to

indi-

but then he also prescribes intensive ethical

according
the

and

discipline

laws of

Dharma

18

before one

is

qualified

to

pass

judgment on

thier

validity.

Dharma

is

every
life.

thing

that binds individual from

all sides

in

every walk of

Some
more
to

critics,

however,

feel

an overtone of
or

religious

element in Gandhian philosophy.

be a
'religious

To them Gandhi
a saint

appears

preacher'

than a social

thinker.

Dr. G. N. Dhawan, in course of

his elaborate analysis

of
th-

Gandhian philosophy
ought
it is

says

"In the

realm

of

political

was

not.

socialist,

what Gandhi was than what he In one way he was a conservative, an anarchist, a a liberal, an economist and a politician, while, in the
easier to

say

other, he

was none of the above.* By

fit

this

we simply mean

that

Gandhian ideology could

only

in

any of the above theories but

when

his

own

techniques of Truth, Non-violence and Sat-

yagraha along with the concept of spiritual force are accommodated in them.

He

is

prepared to embrace the concept of

Marxian

socialism, conservatism^

anarchism or even communism

his

but only with due modifications effected by

violence, belief in

tools

of Non-

God, and technique of Satyagraha.

internally systematised

Therefore, to the scholar, seeking

bodies of thought, the study of Gandhi's
elusive

philosophy
efforts

is

simply

and unrewarding.
in

The most

serious

to classify

Gandhi
Still in

terms of any school of political

of thought

theory have failed.

lies

Gandhian development
significance
for
in

contribution

of great

political

philosophy.
political

The unique
philosophy

contribution of
clusters

Gandhi
role

the

realm of

around the

which 'Satyagraha',

as a

technique of
it,

action together

with philosophy of conflict lying behind

may

play in social and political systems based upon them.

Gandhi's emphasis on individual's freedom and

tentialities

his po-

comes quite

close to L. T.

Hobhouse's and Green's

concept of 'positive freedom' and the realisation of the individual's fullest

structure.
potentialities
is

possible only

within
the

the social

The

idea of collective well-being or

right
is

common

good

as underlying"*any claim to private

again conge-

ly

nial.

Like Green, Gandhi had no part

is

to

glorify

the

estate.

For both of them the aim

for all people.

to

make

life

morally meaningful

Gandhian thinking coincides with that of Green when he emphasises that means should be as pure as ends themselves.
As the means, so the end,
the seed, so the tree.
is

the formula of Gandhi.

is

For him,
is

means are the seed while end

is

the tree

and, therefore, as

Neither Traditionalist Nor Orthodox

Gandhi was neither a

traditionalist

nor an orthodox.

His ethical principles superseded traditionalism.

agree with the belief that 'tvery thing that
krit
is

He

did not

written in
effect

Sansindivi-

or

printed in
All that
is

'Shastras' has

any binding

on

dual.
his

old

may

not necessarily be good to

man and

welfare.

Gandhi's attitude
his

towards capital and labour

'Jamindari' and Trusteeship.

was cansistent with

views on

Here

too,

he discarded the traditional ideas for the sake of

social welfare

human and
should act
consumers.'
its

holding

that

'capital
in

and labour
interest

as

trustees

and should work

the

of

He

treated capital as

"labour's servant and not

master."

class.

Both Gandhi and Ruskin sought conversion of the upper Ruskin appealed for the change of heart and transforthrough
justice
as

mation

paramount.

But he could not

Instead,
of
others.

consider the masses

of

men
result

as ends in themselves.

he treated

them

as

means to the end

that

Gandhi
of

conceded the possible

voluntary transformation
recognised the

might

fail.

He, unlike

Ruskin,

power

common man and

speculate.

placed before him the means whereby he

'justice'

could be assured of the

about which Ruskin could only

the

Gandhi believed

in

worth of the individual

man and considered his welfare as the ultimate social goal. The distinction of Gandhian approach is, therefore, the provision of means to achieve that end and a technique of direct
action.

20

In Gandhi's approach to established

traditional approaches,
especially with

institutions

and

reference

to religion

and property, unorthodoxy has emerged as the predominent characteristic. Gandhi used traditional precepts but sought to change established institutions to make them subservient to the needs of the members of the society to the common good
as defined in

terms of individual
it

Vi^elfare.

He

urged abandonsocial

ing

of a cusiom v/hen

proved detrimental to the

welfare.

Gandhi and Conservatism

Conservatism has been said to be
political

'an

attitude

towards

institutions

and philosophy of
a

social

relationships,

which include (a)

cially those

respect for religious institutions,

;

espe-

concerned with religion and property

in

(b)

strong

sense

of continuity
;

the

historical

changes of the social

system
will
(d)

(c)

belief in

the relative impotence of individual

and reason

to deflect social

change from

its

course,

and
the

a keen moral satisfaction in the loyalty

of a society to their stations in
its

that attaches

members

various ranks. ^^

Gandhi, no doubt, agreed with the views of conservatives

so far as they treated society as

an organism

in

which each

member had
bigger

its

own

part

to do,

no one being smaller or

than the other.

He
in

believed in identical indpendence.

Yet, he did not believe

equality, he did not
in social structure.

organic growth of society.

By

mean

the determined place

of individual

He

disregarded the conservative ideas about

the qualities of leadership.

Gandhi,
torted

in course of his biological analogy,

decries

'dis-

notions of superiority and inferiority.'

Gandhi
also

also

values individual freedom but he, side by side,

keeps in

mind that man is essentially a social being. This fact keeps Gandhian ideas in accord with the new 'liberalism' of T. H. Green and parts with metaphysical theory of Hegal. Gandhi says, 'Man has risen to the present status by learning to adjust
his individualism to the

requirements of social progress'. 'Unresis

tricttd

individualism

the

law of the beast of the jungle.

21

We

have to learn to

strike the
is

mean between

individual

free-

dom and

social restraint',

his opinion.

As Dr. Dhawan points

obedience policy was
aspect than by

out,

Gandhi cannot be taken

more
clearly

as

conservative thinker also because of the fact that his

distinguished
obligations,

civil dis-

by moral
as the

political

whereas the preceding

obligation

concept of

civil

disobedience had

political

main

distinction.

Gandhi, no doubt, used traditional precepts

in regard to society

and

social order, yet

he sought

to

change

established institutions to

make them

subservient to

the needs

of the

members
According

of society

to

the

common good

defined in

terms of individual welfareto

Gandhi

"We
and

must gladly give up custom

religion

that

is

against reason, justice

of the heart."
as

He

said that 'Bad

custom should be discarded

the

*ill-gotten

hoard of a miser'.
Qualities of Leadership

Gandhi
fay as
its

also does

not agree with

the
is

conservatism so

selective

nature of leadership

concerned.

His

criteria of leaders lay less in birth or station

than in personal
all, self-

qualities.

'Courage, endurance, fearlessness and, above

sacrifice are the qualities required for

our leaders,' he wrote.

Conservatives' distrust of the masses was also not favoured by

him.

Had Gandhi

not taken experiments with truth, he would

have possibly remained a conservative.

Gandhi and Asarchism Dr. G. N. Dhawan has asserted philosophical anarchist. He reminds us
for *the greatest

that

that
this

Gandhi Gandhi

was a
strove

good of air and held that

end could be

realised 'only in the classless

and

stateless

democracy of autoon renunciation

measure of
local

nomous

village

communities based on non-violence instead of

coercion, on

service instead of exploitation,

instead of acquisitiveness

and on

(he

largest

and individual
Dr.
ai

initiative instead of centralization.'

Dhawan

has further pointed out that Gandhi condoned

degree of state organisation nly

because he believed

that

anarchial society was ideal but unattainable.

22

Criticising the

above views of Dr. Dhawan, asserted in

analytical

one

of the

few

works

on

Gandhian

Political

Thought, Joan V. Bondurant, says that while showing the anarchist trend in Gandhian thought, Dhawan overlooks the
key to 'Gandhian anarchism' and
ficance of the
lier

fails to

formulate the

signi-

political

Gandhian modifications that work upon a famiapproach. Dhawan, according to Bondurant,

relative

errs firstly in not recognising the

unimportance of end-

structure of

Gandhian approach

to the state; secondly, he errs

when he

suggests that

"Gandhi's democracy would be

"

based on non-violence instead of coercion

raised this criticism of Dr.

Bondurant
basis that,
is

Dhawan's remarks on the

is

according to her, an element of coercion

retained and

distinguished by character of non-violence in

Gandhian

ideal.

Perfect *Ahiinsa' is Rare

As Dr. B.
'Ahimsa'
of

S. Sharma has mentioned, Non-violence or Gandhi is not a word of literal interpretation. It

means 'avoiding of injury

or

to

any one through

thought,

words

deeds, with anger or an intention of causing pain.'

G. B.
ticised the

Shaw

has, according to Dr.

Sharma, wrongly
characterising
it

cri-

Gandhian
that

Non-violence
his

by

as

merely a negative aspect of

(Gandhi's)

philosophy.
is

Dr.

Sharma
love etc.
its

says

Non-violence for
also a positive
it is

Gandhi

not only
it

negative aspect but

one

because

involves

To Gandhi
it

a positive

and dynamic
all,

force.

In
evil

active form,
It
is

has goodwill

towards

even

for

the

doers.

not, however, submission

to

the evil

doer

but

"putting one's whole soul against the will of the tyrant."

Gandhi
Ahimsa'
is

is,

however, conscious that the state of perfect

a rare thing and comes

when
it

spirit,
is

mind and

body are

in

complete accord.
is

Moreover,
involved in

rare because

some

'Himsa' or violence

life itself.

Three Levels of Ahimsa

Gandhi
distinguishes

between three

levels

of

'Ahimsa'

in the following

manner.

23

(1)

'Ahimsa'

of the

brave,

who adopts
expediency.

non-violent

methods with conviction.

(2)
(3)

'Ahimsa' as a measure

ot"

'Ahimsa' of coward and effiminate.

prefers the
first level

Gandhi

of 'Ahimsa' and
i.

is

ready to

prefer even violence to the third level

e.

'Ahimsa' of cowards.
requires

He

says that non-violence, being superior to violence,

higher type of courage and inner strength.

think that violence
is

Simetimes people

necessary
it is

for

crushing

down

the

evil.

But, according to Gandhi,

natural,
is

so because non-violence,
is

being

not noted while violence, being un-natural,

noted

openly and laudably.

Sir

Aurther Moore regards non-violence

is

as

mental
suffering
as

viole-

nce,

a method of fighting which

differentiates

open

to

unarmed

people.

C.

M. Case

between persuasive

and

coercive suffering and calls

suffering.

Gandhian Satyagraha
differentiation
is

coercive

Gandhi accepts Case's

between persubetween

asive

and coercive categories but he

not ready to put Satyathe

difference
strikes)

graha in coercive category.

passive resistence

He shows

of the West (boycotts and

and

his

own

satyagraha. In other words,

in the

Gandhi means
is
is

to

say that

whereas

West physical violence

avoided on the ground

of expediency, in his system the

siderations.

same

avoided on moral con-

Gandhi's Disagreement with Communism Gandhi believed in non-violent communism.

nion,

In his opia

communism

of Russian

type,

which

'is

imposed on
'If

people, would be repugnant to India.

He

said,

commu-

nism came without any violence,

it

would be welcome because,

in that case, no property would be held by any body except on behalf of the people and for the people. A millionaire may have his millions but he will hold them for the people. The

State could take charge of

them

whenever

it

would

need

them

for the

common

cause.'

He

does not agree with

the

views of utilitarians,

who
at

justify the use of violence or force

even

in

an ideal

state,

24

least

to prevent a greater evil.

Gandhi, as an

idealist,

always
not

prefers persuation instead of the use offeree.

Force

does

play any part in his ideal.

Gandhi as Practical

Idealist
that

We

have to remember

as well as a practical

man. So,

as a practical

Gandhi was an idealist man, he accepted

its

that the use of force or violence does play

role

in

actual

conditions of

life.

Its existence

in actual

conditions

of

life,

according to Gandhi,
'ideal

cannot be rooted out because, he

ideal

says,

ceases to be
as

an

when

it

is

realised.'

This means
the
in

that

Gandhi

an

idealist

does not

recommend
its

use

of

violence but, as a realist, he does realise

tical politics

necessity

prac-

and

refers

it

as 'unaviodable or inevitable

because

of

human
Dr.

imperfections.'

Dhawan

in

his

book on Gandhian

Political Philo-

sophy,

has characterised Gandhi as a 'practical idealist.'

He

Gandhi was not a dreamer or visionary but visualised human nature in the background of the metaphysical and moral conditions. Gandhi saw not only the physical aspects
says that

of his

personality

but also

his true self, the

inner self

He

touched not only good

also.

side

of

man's

nature

but bad
is

To

speak in the words of Gandhi,

faults,

'There

no one

without

not even
are

not because they

men of God. They are men of God faultless but because they know their

own

faults

.and are even ready to correct themselves.'

reliance

With this psychological background, Gandhi places more and emphasis on individuals than on group from moral

point of view.

He

does not consider

man

to be

merely a brute

but emphasises that

for
rising,

possible

human soul has got immense potentialities and man, by nature, has got capacity for highest development. Gandhi is, however, conscious that a
labour
is

veiy hard

needed

for acquiring
life.

complete mastery

over body and the ethical discipline of

He

says,

'If

for

mastering the physical sciences you devote a whole

life

time,
spi-

how many

lives

may

be needed for mastering the greatest

!'

ritual force that

mankind has known

The

ethical discipline-

25

of Gandhi does not involve any element of suppression, but on contrary, involves essentially a process of sublimation. Gandhian
ideal
^
is

to attain

'perfectibility'

and not

'perfection' because,

Gandhi
body
is

says that
dissolved.

perfection' can be achieved

only

when

the

Tagore

criticised this ideal of

life,

advocated by Gandhi,;
'dull, negative,

and characterised
ding
to Dr.

living

with such ideal as

life.'

incomplete, unsound and against arts of

However, accor-

Dhavvan, Gandhi's ideal

infirm-likf

is

neither psychologically

unsound nor practically

Difference betweea

Nehru and Gandhi

A significant
ed here
briefly.

distinction between the concept of Gandhian

Socialism and that of Pt. Jawahar Lai Nehru,

may

be mention-

Gandhi had
regard,

clarified his

stand in his reply to a

of Feb.
13,

question in this
1937.

published

in

'Harijan'

The

difference between the views of the

two was that

of emphasis on

means.

Pt.

Nehru's emphasis was on results

on means. Although Pt. Nehru believed on non-violence, he would like 'to have Socialism by other means if it was impossible to have it by non-violence.'
while Gandhi emphasised

Gandhi, on the other hand, emphasised only on

non-violence

on the
have
Pt.

basis of principle.

Even

if

he was assured that he could-

have independence by means of violence, he 'would refuse to

it'

because,

for

him,

'it

won't be

real
in

independence.'
over-

Nehru, thus, did not favour Gandhi

putting an

emphasis on non-violence.

Apart from
to rely

this, Pt.

Jawahar Lai Nehru, who appears

than character of
latter

more on

intellect

human

beings,
intellect

further criticised

Gandhi saying that

neglects

before character.

But, as a matter of fact,

Gandhi

does not

do

so.

He

gives

due cognizance

to character as well as intellect.

to
intellect.

He

simply gives secondary importance

Coucept of Non-violent State

As a
force
is

'practical

idealist,'

Gandhi
life

feels that

the
life's

use of

inevitable

in actual

because, he

says,

very

26

existence involves violence.

However, Gandhi, always and

every

where, advocates non-violeace.

Accordingly,

tarian state
force
is

Gandhi does not approve of the authoribecause 'actual state is a process in which use of
For him, state
It
is is

inevitable.

a violence in concentrated

and organised form.

it

a negation of non-violence and hence

can not attain

his ideal of non-violence.

The purpose
potential,

of state, according to Gandhi,

is

to establish
fullest,

conditions under which

man may

realise,

to

the

his
its

and the
in

state

should secure obedience from

the state
fails
its

members

return.

When

to

achieve

this

objective, the individual

must challenge
of

authority.

This

challenge should be in the order

state-authority

disobedience of the

and should be based on the action-technique

of Satyagraha.

The
cracy,
(c)

structure

of non-violent

ideal state,
(a)

as visualised

by Gandhi, comprises of three aspects

(b)

stateless

demo-

federation

of

satyagrahi-village-communities,
of

non-existence

(in perfect society)

heavy
for

transport,

courts,

lawyers, medicines etc.

and,

(d)

need

happy adGandhi,

justment of individual freedom,and social restraint.

however, does not conceive the society

of

Golden Age but

he does believe
violent society.

in the possibility of free

and dominantly non-

Gandhian Working Plan

With
this structure of his ideal

state

in

mind, Gandhi,
focusses his

in course of his

entire

preachings and
:

actions,

concentration on the following aspects

1.

sovereignty.

2.

Working against the theory of absolute Value of manual labour.

Striving for

3.

the

'greatest

good of

all.'

4.
5. 6.

Reduced functions of the state. Use of coercion to be exercised only

in crimes.

Jails to be converted into reformatories.

7.

The system
it

of Police force to be transformed so that

frii

could function Ike

nd of the peoplr..

27

8.

Judicial works to be done mostly by Panchayats.

9.

Economic conditions
social justice.

to

be

equalised

for

securing

10.

Right of co-partnership and

theory of Trusteeship.

practical

approach to

11.
12. 13.

Change

in

revenue system.

Abolition of revenue from drinks and drugs.

Wage

conditions of labour.

14.
15.
16.
17.

Promotion of basic education. Emphasis on duty more than on

right.

No

exclusive nationalisation.

Strengthening the internal organisation.

to

Unsound Responses

Gandhian Thinking
in her book,

Joan V. Bondurant,
violence,

'Conquest of Violence'

has defined the basic precepts

of

Satyagraha

Truth,
ideas.
in

Non

and 'Tapasya'

fself-suffering).

She has given a

She
India

unique assessment of Gandhi's impact upon traditional Hin-

duism and has elaborately examined

in other contexts

his political

has examined the applicability of his methods used

and

in other countries

and

has, consequently,

evaluated the Gandhian philosophy of action, which underlies

his

technique of Satyagraha.

She observes that

Satyagraha
theory.

has far-reaching implications for social and political

It

does

provide constructive and creative means of resolving

many

kinds of conflict.

In the
is

'Preface'

of her book,

Bondurant remarks,

*It

not necessary to subscribe either to the ascetism, so

of Gandhi, nor to his religious notions in

cha-

racteristic

order to

understand and to value the central contribution of his technique of non-violent action. The name, Gandhi, and the word

'Gandhism' frequently touch

off startling

emotional responses.
India
is

The

reservoir of reverence for

Gandhi

in
is

readily

understandable. In the West, the response

order.

often of a different

For, the

non-Indian

is

likely either to

accord Gandhi
his
signifi-

the respect due to a saint and thereby

to dismiss

cance

in

the

mundane

realm of practical

politics,

or

28

worried by what appears to him to be a diffused

'to

spirituality,

iropute to

Gandhi obscurantism and thereby

to

deny the

pertinence of his contribution.'

She further
of poh'iical the

says,

'Again fearing that Gandhian

notions

economy

necessarily issue in primitive agrarianism,

Westerner tends summarily to reject Gandhi's import as

in the current circumstance.'

unmeaningful

She
tend

finally

commends Gandhian philosophy

of action

and depricates such responses saying that 'Such responses to emerge from the Gandhian experience and to obstruct an understanding of Gandhi's total impact. Even more
these

important,

attitudes serve as a barrier to further explo-

ration of the

potentialities of the

technique

which

Gandhi

introduced.'

Compromise between Ends & Means

The
means
challenge of Gandhian 'Satyagraha',

according to

Bondurant, centers upon the necessity of reconciling ends and

through
a

philosophy

of

action.

The

success

of

upon the ^manner in which the essential elements are applied and manipulated during the course of a given Satyagraha action. The Integral part of Gandhian Satyagraha, according to her, is
technique^ she says, depends considerably
necessarily 'a philosophy of conflict.'

'Gandhian

In regard to

'Satyagraha'

and the

relative
critics

scope

of

compromise, advocated by Gandhi, some

with the readiness of Gandlii
holds
that readiness for
"'Satyagraha'.
for

compromise.
is

do not agree But Gandhi

part

compromise

an

essential

of

Eagerness for compromise should

not, however,
if,

mar

the very

mode
fails,

of the Satyagraha.

When, and

the

appeal to reason

one should appeal to heart by sufTering

great 'Tapasya'.
hiie

which Gandhi
but sure.

calls

According to him,
medicine,

it

influences unconsciously,

Homoeopathic

long

'Means of Self-purification
Fasting, according to Gandhi,
is

means of self-purification

and

also of resisting evil.

It

can only be resorted to by in-

29

dividuals or groups but not

by masses.

Mr. George Arundale

called
fasting as a

has criticised this view of Gandhi and has

sort of terrorism.

He
it is

says that the action

of an opponent has
fasting

no alternative between surrender and the

suicide",

"individual's

hence
fast

sort

of terrorism.

On
it

the

occasion of

Yarvada

of Gandhi, Tagore described

as 'the

ultimatum

of mortification to

God

for his

scheme of

things.'

Final Evaluation
Finally

we may agree with Dr. Dhawan's remarks

that

Gandhi's philosophy deserves consideration on so

Firstly
it is

many

grounds.

it

is

in

accordance with the needs of time.

Secondly,

'the

most original contribution of Gandhi to the modern

political theory.'

Emerson has
in his personality.

said that

there are

three

kinds
all

of great
the three

men knower, thinker and doer. Gandhi combines

He
is

practical as well as idealistic.

2.

KARL MARX
Chapter
I

Life Sketch (1818-1883 A.D.)

Socialist movement, Germany, on may 5, 1818. His father, who was a lawyer and had become a Christian, was deeply interested in philosophy and history. He

Karl Marx, the originator of modern

at

was born of Jewish parents

Treves,

encouraged Marx to prepare

teacher. But
rsities

for

the career of a

university

Marx,

after

completing his education in the univeof journalism

of

Bonn and

Berlin, entered the profession

because he soon found that his radical views

eptable in the educational field in

made him unaccof his day.

Germany

Even

then

his radical

views were
left

so

strenuously

opposed by the

government that he
In Paris
its

the country and went to Paris in 1843.

Marx was

influenced by French Socialism and

Paris

leader Proudhan. In 1845 he was expelled from

to Brussels

and

went

and developed deep acquaintance with another

German

Socialist, Friedrich Engels.

life.

With Engels he was

associ-

ated for the rest of his

In 1848 Marx and Engels issued a joint Menifesto of Communism which became the creed and programme of Socialist revolutionaries. The liberal revolution of 1848 made Germany for a short time. it possible for Marx to return to He established a paper in which Engels served as editor. But

with the revival of reactionary political conditions he

exiled again in 1849. Thereafter, he

was

a paper in

London and

lived

became a correspondent of there up to the end of his life. It

he did

was during these

later years that

much

of his

writings.

He

died in

London on March

14, 1883.

The

teachings of Kari

Marx

served as the
in

basis

for the

economic and

political revlutin

Russia

in

1917.

They

3]

were duly embraced by Nicolai Lenin which

resulted

in

the

formation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. In 1867, 1885 and 1895

appeared

the three volumes of

*Das Kapital' in chronological order and

brought world-wide
analysing

fame

to

Karl Marx.

In these volumes he used his unique and

elaborate historical
the social evolution.

method and

laborious

style in

Chapter

II

Factors Influencing Marxian Thinking

Hegalian Philosophy Karl Marx was originally influenced by Hegal, who was entirely an intellectual and was merely concerned with theoretical or the

non-empirical study of developments

to

in

history.

Indeed,

Marx owes

Hegalian philosophy wherein dialectical

system of logic describes inh-rent natural process.

taken even to be the direct descendant of Hegal.

He can

be

But apart
His move-

from the non-empirical influence of Hegal,

his

Marx developed
life.

own

practical thinking

on concrete

facts of

ment from France to Germany and him to study the societies of several

later to

England enabled By dint of his countries.

intelle-

empirical work, he modified the influence of Hegalian

ctual approach in the realms of historical

processes, involving

socio-economic and political conditions.

Marxian philosophy
system when
his empirical

sidetracks

Hegalian

philosophical

approach
retains,

projects

beyond the realm

partially, the

of logic. Nevertheless,

Marx

though

dyna-

mic quality of the

process.

dialectical

process.

Both Hegal and Karl

Marx, took the human development

According
to

in their analysis as a single

Hegal,

each

stage

was

visualised as

higher to the previous one and,

therefore, a link

various stages was observed by him.

visualised that each stage

between the Marx, on the other hand,

This

was the outcome of the previous stage

it

but was contradictory to

in

nature.

was

the

main

distinguishing factor between the thinking of the two.

Process of Alienation

The
was
also

concept

of

'Alienation',

laid

down by Hegal,
him
in

adopted by Karl

Marx and was

The

explained by

his analysis of the

talistic

productive units.

workers, in the capiis

system, do the labour but that labour

i.

transferred to

the other class

e.

employers.

The

transfer

of

work and

la-

bour

to the

employers gives

rise to

the

transfer

of power and

33

authority.

This process of giving power to the other group

as the

(employers), was conceived

process of 'Alienation' by

Marx.
Influence of Other Factors

The
on the
under :
1.

other factors responsible for exercising the influence

social thinking

of

Marx may be summed up

in brief as

His

own

radical nature

was at the root which alwaya

between the
of wealth

worked

as incentive for seeking a solution to the socio-economic

conflict

problems that had emerged out of the

class of property-holders

and property-less section of the Euidea

sphere,
this

ropean

society.

With the development of the

in

and technology
formed as
'old

industrial
in

conflict

was transr

wine

new

bottle'

and prevailed deep-rootedly

industrial workers
class

between the

capitalist class

and the

Bourgeoise and Proletariat.

2.

The

personal knowledge about socio-economic and

pohtical conditions of various, societies helped Marx, to a great

extent, in
society
visualising
in

the

social

bond of men
good
for
all

in relation to

and

propounding the
at the

theory of 'economic deterin

minism,'

aimed

greatest

the socialistic

pattern of society.
3.

Equally significant was the influence of historicism

as the

and empirical study which worked

dialectical
4.

basis for

Marxian

method.
description

The Marxian
was

of historical evolution of
his

society

also greatly influenced

by

approach as a

'parti-

cipant observer' and leader of the Socialist

movement.
for

Marx

described the society as he saw

in the sense that

it.

He was

participant observer
the organi-

he participated in the "plans

sation of all labourers for their

common
a

good.^'''

All these factors, influencing the sociarthinking of

Marx,

ultimately enabled

him

to arrive at

solution

of the entire

problem and that solution was Socialism.

Chapter

III

Analysis of Marxian Social Thinking

In the present analysis of Marxian social thinking, the dogmas of Socialism advocated by Karl Marx, and his econo-

mic

theories

have

got

nothing

to
to

do.

For

estimating

Marx

as a social thinker,

we have
theory

consider only their socio-

logical generalisations.

The
tion

essence of the

of Karl

Marx

is

given in his

'Critique of Political

Economy' published in 1859. Its translahas been done by Stone in his work 'A Contribution to
Society

the Critique of PoHtical Economy.'

(A)

and

Social Consciousness
refers to

According to Marx, society

inter-relations.

individuals

in their

The most important

of inter-actions, which

take place in their relationships, are those which are concerned

with material production.

In the words of Stone,

original

who

translated 'Das Capital', the

work of Marx, we

find that

when men
will.

carry on, in the

that are

social production,

they enter

into definite
their

relations

indispensable

and independent of

These relations

of production correspond to a definite state of development of

their material

power of production.
constitutes

The sum
the
all

total

of these

relations of production

economic structure of
legal

society the real foundation,

super-structures rise

on which

and

political

and

to

which

definite

forms of social conof material

political

sciousness correspond.
life

The mode
life.

of production

determines the general character

spiritual process of
It
is

of the

social,

and

not the consciousness of the

^

men
(B)

that determines their existence but, on the contrary, their

social existence

determines their consciousness

'

Theory of Economic Determinism

In course of his analysis of social evolution in historical

perspective,

Marx

designates the

Asiatic,

the

ancient,

the

35

feudal

and the modern Bourgeoise methods of production

relationship of production
is

as

various epochs in the progress of economic formation of society.

The Bourgeoise
form of

the antagonistic
arises

social process of production.

Such antagonism
life

from the conditions surrounding the

society.

of individuals

in

Productive

forces, at the

same time, developing

in the

womb

of Bourgeoise society, create

the material conditions for

the solution of that

antagonism.
therefore,
society.

The

social

formation constitutes,

the

closing

chapter of the pre-historic stage of

human

This theory

added by Marxian approach to class-struggle covers all essential features of Marxian economic interpretation of history.
Social Level of the

Theory

In other words we

may

say that

Marxian economic

deter-

minism by nature, is not individualistic but social. It depends upon social phenomena. It is constituted of an unbroken chain of deterministic system meaning thereby that the compulsive discipline in one system is a development from the similarly

compulsive conditions

of the preceding sysetm.

So,
is

we

can safely say that the determinism of Marxian theory

tially

essen-

on a

social level.

It is

the social situation that

dictates

a given course of action.

(C)

Production as Lever of Social Change

According
to

Marx, Production works

as a lever of social

change. ^^

Economic
this

factor has been taken as

the

basis of

human
term

development by Marx but he has no where

in his

works defined
this

economic factor

i.

e.

'productive unit'.

Yet by

'productive unit' he meant the economic unit based on produThe concept of productive forces gave rise to the ctive forces.
existing classes.

The concept

of class has

been

visualised

by

Marx from
and

the productive forces

working

in a productive unit

serves as the basic foundation of social system.

Due
and a
arises.

to the forces of production, different

classes

emerge

conflict in their power,

on the

basis of division of labour

Here emerges the

conflict of interests

among

the classes.

36

In

this

development, instruments of capital show a tendency to

in a decreasing

assimilate

number

of

hands,

whereas the
ever

number

of property-less, the so called 'Proletariat' class,

increases.

(D) Role of Capitalistic Class

It

has been discussed above as to

L-^t

how

the capitalistic class

it

comes into existence,

effects of the
1.

us here consider the'way

capital

exercises

a magnetic influence in controlling the

and also the

growth of

this

tendency in a capitalistic society.

In course of time the capitalist class acquires increasing

industrial, political
2.

and

social powers.
class causes

As the

capitalist
this

increase in the

number

of Proletariats,

tendency,

together with the

increase in

population, creates super-abundance of labour.

3.

This in turn

creates

competitive
It

tendency
the

amongs
labourers

workers in commercial market.

means that

are compelled to enter into competition

sell their

among

themselves and

labour to the highest bidder in the market.

4.

Capitalism thus forces the wages to a mere subsistence

level,

with the result that misery and suffering of the Proletariincreased.

ats are exceedingly

There

comes a stage wherein

to

superabundance of labour and competitiveness amongs labour

class renders the

employment
less

possible only

those labourers

who

sell

their lobour for the least wages. This

wage

level

is

just

equal to or even
5.

than subsistence level of wages.

the capitalist class through
its"

In

this

way

tool

of the

'Iron law on one hand, crushes the worker, and on the other hand, concentrates in appropriating to itself an

of wages' ^^

increasing

amount of earnings of labour

class.

This appropriValue';

ated amount has been called by

6.

Marx

as the 'Surplus

The

capitalist class

by virtue of its.might^and shrewd-

ness increases this 'Surplus Value' in course of various

methods

of exploitation of labour class for

taking'possession of as large

a proportion of the earnings of labour as can be possible.

37

This brings us to the stage where the elements of

struggle

class-

and

class-consciousness deserve our attention.

Class-struggle and Class-consciousness

The
labour,

conflict of interests
lies

among
of

the

two

classes, capitalist

at

the

core

the

emergence
is

and and growth

by struggle
existence

of class-consciousness which

in turn

followed

between these two

class gives rise to

classes.

According

to

Marx, the employer's

its

another

class,

employees, for

own
|

and development. For

create the
takes
conflicting
class.

their

own

functioning the

employers
this class

employees' class and, in course of tim?,

position

and

threatens

destruction

of the

employers

In other words, at a certain stage of histotical

d evelop-

ment

the material forces of production

in

society

come

in

conflict

with the existing relations of production,

within which they had been at

with the pro-

perty relations,

work

before.

From forms

of

development of

forces

of production,

these

relations turn into their fetters. ^^

In course of his impartial evaluation of Marxian

Prof.

theory,

Bogardus has analysed Marxian concept

of 'Class-cons-

ciousness.'

He

explains that the growth of capitalism causes a

class-consciousness to develop
riat class.

among

the

members
power.

of Proleta-

Consequently, labour organisations are formed and,

of time,

in course

they acquire
Proletariat

vast
class,

This gradual
their

strength acquired by

through

labour
the

organisations, results in the struggle

capitalist class.

between them

and

Here Marx, with an

finally to

optimistic

attitude,

goes

ahead
is

to

observe that 'By force of numbers, the Proletariat class

bound
is

win and
it

to

overthrow the

capitalist class

in power;

will seize the

means of

now production and manage

which

them

for the

good of

all.'**

we are reminded of
wherein
it

While analysing the Marxian theory of class-struggle, the contents of Communist Manifesto
has been stressed
that

the

history

of

all

hitherto

38

existing societies
slave, patrician

is

the history of class struggle.

"Freeman and

and plebeian, lord and serf, guild master and journeyman, oppressor and oppressed, were in constant opposition to each other and carried on, some times open some
times hidden fight, which ended either
in

revolutionary reruin

construction of society at large or in the

common

of the

contending

classes

has but established

new

classes,

The modern Bourgeoise society...,,,,., new conditions of oppression,

Society, as
hostile

new forms
a whole,
is

of struggle in place of the old ones

splitting

up more and more

into

two great

camps, into two great classes directly facing

geoise

each other Bour-

and Proletariat."^^

(E)

Plan of Marxian Socialism

Ultimately while attacking the problem of his times, with

the sole

weapon of

the latter as

movement, Karl Marx suggests and advocates the following measures^* a solution
Socialistic

to be adopted
1.

when

Proletariat
all

government

starts functioning

:-

Abolition of

rights of inheritance.
in

2.

Abolition of property

form of lands; rent to be

used for public purposes.

3.

Progressive income-tax.

4. 5.
6.
7.

Nationalisation of means of transport and commerce.

Extension of productive enterprises by the State.

Compulsory labour.
Free education and child labour.
Elimination of distrust between town and country.
socialism includes
all

8.

Thus Marxian

people.

It

leads to

equal distribution of wealth, meaning thereby,

that

the

earin

nings from the industry shall be distributed to the workers

proportion to their achievements. It also holds that a class conflict is

inevitable

and that workers must overthrow

to serve as their trustee.

capitalists

together with the government which they control, forming their

own government

Ctiapter
Critical

IV

Estimate

of

Marxian Social Thinking

for
critically

The Following
examining the
1.

points deserve our attention

social thinking of

Karl

Marx:

emphasis on means.

The Marxian concept of Socialism does not put any The first and the last effort of Marx is

concentrated towards the end.

2.
it is

The

use of violence

is

not discarded.

On

the contrary,

advocated as a means to attain the goal.

3.

The
The

capitalist class

is

aimed

to

be

ended

and not

mended.
4.

centralisation of
i.

power and authority

is

concentr-

ated at the top

5.

e.

State, controlled by Proletariats.

The Marxian The

theory can be explained from the rather

point

of view of social determinism

than

economic determi-

nism.

entire doctrine of

Karl Marx, though explained by

is

him on
use

the basis of economics,

takes the society

indeed, social in nature becasocial conflict into his entire

classify

Marx

and the

analysis.

This unquestionably enables us to

him

as a

sociological thinker with

no
:

less success.

(6")

Views of Prof Bogardus

.

According

to

Prof.

Bogardus,

analysed Marxian thinking quite impartially, the

who appears to have name of Karl

Marx

However, Bogardus is of the opinion that Marx was, on one hand optimistic about the success of Proletariat class in seizing the means of production
is

supreme on the

list

of

socialists.

and managing them

'for

the

good of

all'

but,

on the other
described
as a parti-

hand, he did not outline a Utopia.

Besides,

Marx
it

the historical evolution of society only as

he saw

cipant observer and leader of Socialist movement.

40

7. Some of the ardent followers of Karl Marx and even some of the prominent academic writers have characterised him as 'deus exmachina' and proclaimed him to be the 'Galileo'

or the *Darwin' of the Social Sciences.

(8) Sorokin's Criticism
:

An

admirer of Karl

Marx

will,

however, be somewhat

confronted to face the bitter criticism

made by

Prof, Sorokin.
scientific

Prof. Sorokin observes that, firstly,

from a purely

point of view, as far as

is

its

sound elements are concerned, there

nothing

authors, secondly,
scientific,

Marxian theory that was not laid by earlier what is really original, is far from being and thirdly, though the theory deserves the merit of
in

generalising the ideas given before the time of

Marx

in a

some-

what stronger way, the general formulas are expressed in an obscure and ambiguous form and they are not so much the results of any inductive or factual study as of speculative and
dogmatic deduction.
Nevertheless, Prof. Sorokin's criticism of

Marxian

social

thinking appears

to

be impregnated with prejudiced and

unsound

ideas.

KARL MARX AND MAX WEBER

According
role for
to Dr.

^--^

T. Parsons, bureaucracy plays the same

Max Weber

as class-struggle

played

for

Karl

Marx.
as 'ideal

Both these concepts the concept of bureaucracy and the concept of class-struggle

are

conceived by

Max Weber

types' but both, at the

actually existing in the society

same time, are concrete phenomena, and studied by the society.

of capitalism'
is

Max
and
(c)

Weber's

'spirit

based on three main

consequential
traits,

characteristics

(a)

conspicuous
traits.

traits, (b)

additional

These

traits

emerge out of the

that
the

Max
of

Weber's theory of actions

his analysis of capitalism,

in relation to society.

In course

he points out
if it

capitalistic

society

flourishes

better

accepts

bureaucratic
exists

system.

However, no
them.

co-relation or causal

connection

between

41

The Marxian

analysis of capitalism js based

factors of production.

on purely
.

economic conditions and

Similarity of Approach
:

>

A
and

reveals a close

comparative study of the phenomenon of capitalism agreement between the approaches of Karl Marx

Max

Weber.

This agreement lays emphasis on compulsive

aspect of the capitalistic system.

According to

Max
in

Weber,

individual's course of action, within such a system, isdetermined

in the first instance

by the character of situation

which the
such a

'individual

is

placed.

But

according

to

Karl

Marx

situation

is

determined in terms of 'conditions of production.'

a system develops in society,
its
it

Once such

becomes

self-sustai-

ning by virtue of
Points of Difference

compulsive power over individuals.

There
of

is

also a

marked

diflference

between the approaches

Marx and Weber

1.

in relation to their study of capitalism.

fact, tried
i.

Karl Max, as a matter of

to

draw

specific

laws on the basis of which such a system,

lead to self destruction, whereas

e.

capitalism,

would
any

Max Weber

did not refer to

any such
where.
2.

self-destructive

process of capitalistic

system

Max Weber

explained the

'spirit

of capitalism' in terms

of a system of ultimate values and value-attitudes, whereas

Karl Marx explained the system entirely on basically economic

understanding and determined the value system by
system of production.

economic

The

historical researches of

Max Weber
the

were concerned
conditions

mainly with the present.

He

studied

of his

own

country, Germany,

as well as of other countries like Russia

and America.

His study was focussed at the expanded version

of Marxist theory.

Weber's conclusive opinion was that

it

was
with

only the West where the

phenomena
Weber,
it

of Capitalism along

highly sepcialized bureaucracy, comprised of technical experts

and

jurists,

was found.

may

be pointed out, had

Studied 'wirtschaftsethik'

(economic ethics of religion) of six old

42

religions

Confucianism,

Hinduism,

Buddhism,
effects of

Christianity,

Islam and Judaism and considered the

each of them
and,
thereby,

on the economic organization of

life

of people

attempted to co-relate religion with economics.

Marx saw

in the society of his times a

means

of

under-

standing the nature of every society and of the whole history

upto revolution which, according to him, would emanicipate mankind. He applied the economic and materialistic factors
to his study of all historical periods.

Weber, on the other hand, emphasised on the

historical uniqueness.

original

factors of the society and, thereby, attemted to account for the

He

did not accept the

Marxian

claim

of providing the total explanation of history in

terms of ecojustifica-

nomic pheromena and considered

it

only as a 'naive

tion of metaphysical assumption without Besides,

any

scientific value.'

Weber

did not believe that 'ideas rule the world.*

He

supported his contention by presenting the

in

example

of

Trotestantism' as a social fact which helped

the role of ideas in history.

understanding

A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF

GANDHL & MARX

It
is

believed that every social thinker

is

judged on the
political

basis of his considerations of the

socio-economic,

and
time

religious conditions prevailing before

and during
laid

his

life

and

also

by the ideas and concepts

Therefore,
it

down by

his

fore-

runners.

has been our attenipt to have an idea

in

of conditions which prevailed

the

complex

society

and

served as food

Needless to

and Marxian say that Marx and Gandhi, in

for

Gandhian

social thinking.

their

respective

approaches to
trusteeship
to

socialism,

class

conflict,

class-consciousness,

and various other concepts, appear to be quite Yet each of them retains his own uncompromising distinction.
close

each other.

Concept of Socialism
As regards the
Karl
several
ideal

of Socialism, the

approaches
other

oi

Marx and M. K. Gandhi

points
but,
at the

coincide with each

at

at

same time,

certain

stages

there

emerge glaring differences between

the

two.

These

differences

we

find

when,

for

example, we consider the question

of

means and ends,

centralisation or decentralisation of power,

capitalistic system, class-struggle etc.

Nevertheless,
Socialism, like
different
all

it

will
is

not be out of place to mention

interpreted
different
in

that

'isms'
It

different
to

ways

by

people.

bears

meaning

different
to,

persons.

The

interpretations

or

meanings attached
to

or

derived from this term are subjected, on the one hand, to individuals'

own

perception and, on the other hand,

the geo-

graphical, socio-economic

and cultural conditions.

alike, the
differ

No
country.

two interpretations being

methods

for

the

attainment of such interpretations also

from country to

The

peculiar political, social

and economic condi-

44

tions of a nation are responsible as to

how

its

people conceive

of the ideal of Socialism and the means to attain that ideal.

So

it is

quite natural
in the

if

we

find

some

difference,

even funda-

mental

approaches of

Marx and Gandhi.

between the Marxian and Gan-

Inspite of

some

similarity

dhian views on Socialism, the violence as a means, advocated by

as

the former,

makes

all difference.

Marx
e. g.

treats

men

merely

means

for

achieving certain

ends

Socialism and he

approves the use of violence for achieving them.

does not approve violence.

But Gandhi
revolutions
is

He

says that
in

violent

can succeed only

disorganised.

in

that

country

which government

The problem for Gandhi Was as practical as it was for Marx. For both the criterion of truth lay in meeting human
needs.

Both Marx and Gandhi probed into the

problem

as

participant observers

and

leaders of their

respective

move-

ments.

But the distinction emerges when we find that

Marx

accepted the philosophy of History which defined the

of those needs

content

and indicated
perceived

their

satisfaction.

Gandhi, on
developing
i.

the other hand,

the

necessity

for

an

approach, a tool and a form, whereby the content,

stantial

e.

sub-

met and the truth (the relative truth in terms of substantial human needs) of any situation could emerge. We find that Gandhi rejected also the Hegalian concept of reality and reason. He agreed with Feuerbach saying that 'man is the measure of reason.'
needs, could be

human

Dialectical Diflference

of

The contrast between Marx or his fore-runner,

the

Gandhian
is

dialectics

and that

Hegal,

striking.

Each

deals with

a different level of abstraction and by

comparing them the dynamic quality of Satyagraha may be illuminated.

Sidney Hook, while analysing the criterion of dialectical
thinking remarks,

"Only when that whole

or unit

of conti-

nuity, which has been destroyed by the presence of conflicting

factors, has

been restored or re-established in another whole...

validity of our procedure."^
^

...can

we claim

45

On
'For
activity
,

this

basis S.

Hook

defines
:

the

heart of

Marxian

dialectics in the following

words

is

Marx any
its

material, which

the subject of man's

generates

way

it

succeeds in

own normative ideals in relation to the fulfilling human needs. From the reciprocal
and the
actual a
is

influence and interaction between the ideal

new subject matter

the

produced out of which in turn are born

will be changed.'

means by which

it

Marx was
because
it

critical

of the

Hegalian dialectical method

did not allow for the empirical approach.

dialectical

According
system

to his interpretation, the

process controls both the

as a

thought and the action.

of logic and applies to the
tation.

He retains the dialectics human activity solely as

an interpre-

The interaction is expressed in terms of social environment on the one hand and human needs on the other, and it results in the class-struggle. In other words, Marxian development of dialectic is directed to predetermine the content of both thesis and antithesis, creating the class-struggle, and
anticipates a synthesis in the realization of a
classless

society.

Here

lies

the end of

Marxian
is

dialectical

process.

of Marxian dialectics
struggle.
It
is

supplied through
point,

the

The content dogma of classintroduces the

at

this

where

Marx

content,
departs.

the Gandhian Marxian method thusloses

dialectics of Satyagraha strikingly

its

truedynamic and creative

quality by getting entangled with historicism.

Gandhian

dialectic,

which

is

quite

distinct

from that of

Marx

describes a

process resulting from

the

application of a

technique of action to any situatioun of human conflict, a process

essentially creative

and inherently constructive.

in his

Karl Popper,
Enemies',
writes,

book,
is

'The

Open
for

Society

and

its

'Marx

responsible

the

devastating

method of thought within ranks of those who wish to advance the cause of open society. ..Marxian theory, a theory which aims at predictis a purely historical
influences of the historical

ing

the

future

course

of economics

and power, of
"^

political

developments and especially of revolutions."

46

Gandhi agrees with Marx that

through action alone.
empirical
control

beliefs

can be tested
to supply

But he goes further

is

the

which

sacrificed

by the historicism of
content, where he
of conflict.

Marx.

Marx

introduces the subject and

predetermines the structure and direction

But

Gandhi has no such pre-determinations about structure or He insists on process and the techniques only. For him techniques, such as 'Satyagraha,' only lead to .solutions yet unknown.
direction of conflict.
It can, therefore,

be inferred that Gandhian

Satyagraha
that

assumes the rationality of

man rationality

in

the sense

endowed with reason, that man can utilize reason to direct his actions and that a technique for conducting and resolving the conflict can appeal to the rationale in man."^
is

man

Religion in Gandhian Socialism

Gandhi aims

at

the

unity

of

religion

and

socialism.
at
all.

Socialism devoid of religion does not appeal to

says that in terms of religion there
It
is all
is

him

He
is

no duality in Socialism,
the world over,
is

unity.

Looking at society

all

there

nothing but duality or plurality.

absence.
'This

Unity

conspicuous by
is

its

man

is

high, that

man

is

low, that

Hindu,
a
Sikh,

that a Muslim, third a Christian, fourth a Parsi, fifth

sixth a Jew.

Even among

these there
is

are

sub-divisions.
in

In

the unity of

my

conception, there

perfect unity
first

plurality
If

of designs.
is

Socialism begins with the

z-^ros

convert.
first

there
will

one such, you can add

to

one and the

zero
ten

account for ten and every addition will account for

the previous number.'

times

God.

Gandhian concept of socialism imbibes a strong belief in Marxian socialism has no such belief. It precludes
In connection with the unity of religion
socialism,
:

religion all together.

and

as

advocated by Gandhi, two questions have

been levelled
1.

Does

there be any,

it mean that no socialist believes in God ? why have they not made any visible progress

If
?

47

2.

Many Godly

persons have lived before now, but

in

why
to

have they not succeeded

founding a
it

socialistic

state ?

Gandhi answers that

believing socialist
socialism

has perhaps never occurred

is

a
his

that

there

any connection
is

between
to

and

belief in

God.

It

equally

safe

say

that

Godly-men,
says

as a rule, never

commended

socialism to masses.

Gandhian

socialism

is

also related with Satyagraha.

Gandhi

that every worthy object can be achieved by the use of

satyagraha, and emphasises that socialism can not be achieved

by any other means.

As regards the birth of Socialism,
views,
different than those of

Gandhi has

his

own
of

Marx

or other Western socialists.

writer

has mentioned the similarity between the birth

democracy and socialism saying that 'when a few, who

to hold the

ought

economic power
it,

in trust for the others

from

whom
and
to

they derive

use

it

for their

own

self

aggrandizement
is

the detriment of the rest, the inevitable result

the deprivation
i.e.

of the few of the means of economic power by

many

birth

of socialism.'
socialism

But Gandhi

differs

with

this

view and says that

was not born with the discovery of the misuse of capital by capitalists. According to Gandhi, socialism, even

communism, originated from

panishad'
:

the opening verses

of the 'Isho-

W^J

^^W

^^^:

frc?r?T

^"f^ f^^

7f^:

Ishopanishad,
This extract of 'Ishopanishad' explains that

1.

God,

the

Ruler provides
dedicate
all to

all

those in this

universe.

So,

renounce
portion

and
that

Him and
lot.

then enjoy or use

the

may

fall in

your
is,

Never covet any body's

root

possession.

This

therefore, the

from where the

socialism,

according to Gandhi,

was born.
as

He

further says

that
the

when
tech-

some reforms

lost faith in the

is

method of conversion,
'scientific

nique of what

known

socialism'

was

born.

Here Gandhi introduces

his theory of Tiusteeship.

48

No
Gandhian

doubt,
social

there prevails,

almost

at

every
religion

step

of

thinking an overtone of

but we
at the

also observe that Gandhi's

concern

for

human

needs

lies

core of his teachings and experiments.

Gandhi's Disagreement with Western Socialists

Gandhi
centralization
disagrees

with

the

socialists'

belief that

the

of

the

necessaries

of

life

will

conduce to the
are planned

common

welfare

when
state.

the centralized industries

and owned by the

in

Gandhi disagrees also with the environment of violence which the conception of Western socialism takes birth. The

motive lying behind the Western and Gandhian conception of socialism is, no doubt, the same the greatest welfare of the

whole society and the abolition of the hedious

resulting in the existence of millions of 'have-nots'

inequalities,

and handful

of 'haves.'

According
the

The means to attain this end are, however, different. to Gandhian belief this end can be achieved only
'coming into power of bound to fail in the end gained by violence must be lost before superior
declares that
is

with non-violence.

He

Proletariat through violence

is

because what
violence.'

Emphasising

his point of

difference

with the
will

Socialists,

Gandhi

further says,

'Under

my

plan the state

be there to

carry out the will of the people, not to dictate to them or force

them to do its will. Whereas socialists and communists of the West say they can do nothing to bring about economic equality
today.

When

they

get

control over

the

state,

they

will

enforce equality.'

Marxian socialism and even communism of

from those of Gandhi.
in essential selfishness

the

West

are

based on certain conceptions which are fundamentally different

One of their conceptions is their belief of human nature. But Gandhi does not
that essential diffethe brute
is

agree with this conception and emphasises

rence between

man and

that former

can respond
the
passion?

to the call of spirit in him,

can

rise

superior

to

49

that he

owns

in

common

with the brute and, therefore, can be

superior to selfishness and violence. This is the fundamental concept of Hinduism and it is advocated in Gandhian Socialism, With this conception in mind, Gandhi declares, 'Our socialism and communism should, therefore, be based on nonharmonious co-operation of labour and and violence capita], landlord and tenant.' Constructive Programme of Gandlii

Therefore, for the acquisition of the power of non-violent

resistance,
for

Gandhi advocates the only way of honest working

Programme.'
non-violent

the

'Constructive
for
:

Gandhi's 'Constructive
state

Programme'

an

ideal

consisted

of the

following items
1.

Communal
4.

unity,

2.

Removal of
5.

untouchability,

3. 6. 9.

Prohibition,

UseofKhadi,
7.

Other

village industries,

Village sanitation,
Uplift of

Basic education, 8. Adult education,

their

women and
11.

education,

10.

Education

in

health and hygiene,

12.

Development of provincial languages,

13.

National language,
of peasants

perity

'kisans,'

Economic
15.

equality.
16.

14.

Prosr

Labour,
18.

Conditions of

Adivasis,

17. Lepers' condition,

and

Care of students.

Element of Sacrifice The element of sacrifice

bears a

common

feature

in

the

approaches of both, Gandhi and Marx. In Marxian Socialism, of sacrifice emerges with the violent conflict the element between capitalists and the worl^ing class. This conflict calls revolution wherein the highest sacrifice i.e. for a violent
saciifice of life
it self, is

demanded.

non-violent technique requires Sacrifice in Gandhian the same preparation, as docs violent conflict, for offering the highest sacrifice of life itself as a possible outcome of using the technique. A Satyagrahi of Gandhian thought will stick to That deterhis own position so long as he holds it to be true. mination may lead him to extreme endurance and even to death.

Marx

was,

however, opposed to

this

type of sacrifice

yet he called for sacrifice in the circumstances of class-struggle. He calls for sacrifice of the individual life to the irrevocable march of history towards predetermined goals.

4.

Conclusion

Gandhi,

The comparative study of Karl Marx and Mahatma brings us now in a position to evaluate their social

thinking and give a conclusive opinion about both.

own

Both Gandhi and Marx conceived Socialism on their and political background. Marx came forward with 'Socialism' as a solution to the problems
1.

respective social, economic

confronting the European society of his time and, with Engel's

assistance, laid

of 'Communist Manifesto',

programme in the form which served as a preparatory ground for radical revolution and food for a theory, later developed by Fascists, Gandhi, on the other hand, advocated
an end
i.

down

a comprehensive

'Socialism' of his
e.

welfare of

own conception as a dynamic means to attain human society and ultimately laid down
for

a 'Constructive Programme'
socialistic
2.

attaining his ideal of the

pattern of non-violent society.

Marx

believed in the potentialities of forces

of

pro-

duction whereas Gandhi believed more in

the potentialities of

man's nature and aimed at

in particular
3.

'perfectibility' of

human behaviour
socio-

and

society in general.

As we have already attempted to examine the

logical implications of

Marxian theory of 'economic

assert that his

determibetter

nism/ we can obviously

theory

can be
less

explained in terms of social conditions, which are no

tant in governing the economic
conditions.

impor-

From such

an

angle of social determinism, Karl

ted,

Marx can
many

very well be treat-

rather claimed,
is

as sociological thinker.

Gandhi, on the
philosopher
spiriis,

other hand,

belter claimed by

as a social
is

because his social and political thinking

tual unity with a religious background.

underlined by

Religion of Gandhi

however, universal and

his spiritual unity

comprises
it

of

truth,

non-vioience and belief in God. In any case,

will

be a mistake

on the part of those who, due to their inadequate understanding,

51

rush to dismiss his importance by merely calling him a 'Saint*

or a
'religious preacher.'

The

efficacy

and

significance
if

of

Gandhian

social thinking

can be well imagined only

one has

understood

his tools of truth

and non-violence

along with the

action technique of Satyagraha.

4.

Access to the heart of the problem of social and poliis

tical conflict

denied by the historicism of Marx.

is

Marxian
class-

empirical approach
struggle

impregnated with the dogma of

strangles

and the absolutism of his philosophy of history which the development of dialectics on the level where it could enter into a technique of action. Gandhi, on the other hand, with his dialectical approach provides a dynamic control in the field of action

through the fashioning of techniques

for

the
is

creative resolution of conflict.

Gandhian

dialectics,

which

thus quite

distinct

from that of Marx, describes a

of a superior technique

process resulting from the application

of action to any situation of

tially creative
5.

human
starts

conflict

process

essen-

and inherently

constructive.'^

Marxian thinking

from

his belief on

productive

forces as lever of social change.

life

are the basic

Economic conditions of human which Marx developes his entire foundation on

starts

theory.

Gandhian philosophy
is

from

his belief in *Satya.'

The
force,

principle of *Satya'

identified

by Gandhi with God, soul

moral law

etc.,

which holds the universe.

it is

As Dr.
unity

Dhawan

has pointed out,

the principle of spiritual

around which the entire philosophy of Gandhi

being at the root, the unity of
loving
all
all life

clusters. 'Satya'

consists

in

serving

and

with a view of 'greatest good of

all.'

This 'Satya'

or spiritual unity can be realised by non-violence.

this greatest

To

achieve

good, Gandhi emphasises that means should be as

pure as ends.

For cultivating non-violence Gandhi introduces

a code of discipline
tructive

'Bramhacharya.'
must

nonviolent or consi.

'Satyagrahi'

acquire

'Bramhacharya'
all

e.

control on thoughts, words and deeds, over

the

senses.

Gandhian
But as
'ideal'

social ideal lies in stateless

and

casteless society.

can never be realised, he retains the Stale in the

52

second

best

society

as

a concession

to

human

perfection.

Decentralisation of political and economic powers, reduction in functions and importance of State, growth of voluntary associations, removal of dehumanizing poverty and superficiatradition of non-violent resistance according to Gandhi, will bring life withm the understanding of man and make society and State democratic. Over and above, Gandhi never fails to remind us again and again that his philosophy has no finality. Its dynato injustice all
these,
lity,

the

new education and

mic quaUty
the truth.
6.

is

aimed

at searching for

and experimenting with

Gandhi was a true Indian

for race-hatred in his

nationalist.

There was
Every

no room

concept of nationalism.

thing of India attracted him.

India, according to Gandhi, has

every thing that a

aspirations,

can want.

human being, within the highest possible To him, India appeared to be 'Karmain

bhumi'

(land of duty)

contradiction

of

'Bhogbhumi'

(land of enjoyment).
7.

religion

Gandhi's patriotism was subservient to his which had no geographical limitations. His

religion,
life

was

dedicated to service of India through religion of non-violence. The force of spiritual unity, derived from religious and cultural
heritage of India, was so miraculous on
'i

Gandhi that he
I

said,
I

cling to India like a child to

its

mother's breast,

because

feel

that she gives

me

spiritual

nourishment
highest

need. She has the

environment that responds to

that faith
is

my

aspiration.

When
hope of

gone,

I shall feel like

an orphan without

ever finding a guardian.^''

8.

Therefore,

according to

Gandhi, India, with non-

and 'Satyagraha' as a technique action, is fitted for religious supremacy [of the world. regard to the National Government, Gandhi was all out
that, he thought,

violence as her creed

d
In

adoption of non-violence to the utmost extent possible because will be India's great contribution to the peace of the world and the establishment of a new world order.

53

9.

Ambition of Gandhi was much higher than

Indian independence.

his

desire

for

Through

the deliverance of

India,

he sought to deliver the so-called weaker races of the

earth from the crushing heels of the Western exploitation.

10.

In so far as survival and

progress

of

mankind
is

de-

pends on non-violence, which, according to Gandhi,

of
life,

the law

Gandhi,
in

as tlie

most authoritative
political thought.
^'^

exponent of non-

violence

contemporary world, has made an invaluable con-

firibution to social

and

To
out.

express in Gandhi's

own

words,

'Ahimsa

is

one of the

world's greatest principles which no power on earth can

wipe
but

Thousands
will

like

me may
;

die to

vindicate

the

ideal

Ahimsa

never die

and gospel of Ahimsa can be spread

only through believers dying for the cause.'

'If

India makes violence her creed, and

hav^e

survived,

would not care to live in India. ^^ nation of Gandhi and he maintained

I

Such was the determiit

upto the
30,

last.

Ulti-

mately he met

his irony of fate

on Jan.

1948.

Gandhi, the
fell

Indian patriot and the exponent of non-violence,

victim of violence and became Indian martyr.

fatal

5.
1.

Bibiliograpliy
:

J.

Bondurant 'Conquest of Violence' Gh. V, Gandhian Political Philosophy.

2.
3.

Dr, G.N. Dhawan: 'The Political Philosophy of M.Gandhi.*

J.

V. Bondurant

'Conquest of Violence', Conversation

with Gandhi
4.
5.

'Ethical
B.
S.

Religion' P. 56.

Sharnia
of

'Gandhi
My

as Political Thinker'

6.

'Socialism

Conception' Bhartiya

Vidyabhawan

Publications.
7.

G. N.
J.

Dhawan 'The
details
refer

Political Philosophy of
:

M. Gandhi'

8. 9.

V. Bondurant 'Conquest of Violence'

to

Ch. VI.

For other
B. S.

'Gandhi as

Political Thinker',

Sharma.
13,

io. 'Young India' -Nov.

11.

1924.

Tripple Message
tural

of

Spinning
:

Wheel Economic,

Cul-

and Metophorical

See 'Young India' Dec.

8, 1927.

12.
13. 14. 15.

'Young India'-Nov.
'Young India' March

15, 17,

1919
1927.
industrial

By 'Labour' Gandhi means

'Harijan'-Oct. 25,
1952.

labour.

16.
17.

Encyclopedia of Social Sciences, Vol. IV, P. 230-32.

Bogardus-'Dev. of Social Thought'-Marx andj Socialistic

School
tunity

In 1864

Marx
;

availed the long cherished oppor-

of organising the workers

of the world into one

large association

On

Sept. 1928, he initiated the "Inter-

national
in
St.

Workingmens'
Martin's
of

Association"

in

London
organising

Hall

with

an

object

of the

the societies

workingmen, which had

common
class,

aim, namely the emancipation of the working

into

S5

a world of international union for co-operative purposes.

Besides,
in 1869,

Marx

organised

in

Germany

the

Social

Democratic Labour
got strength,

and, in 1875,

movement receiving the support of Lassalle's movement the United Front of German Social DemoParty.

This organised

cracy was at face to

face

position

against
to

capitalism.
its

Consequently,

Bismark was forced

condescended
to

acknowledge

power
18.

and

inaugurate a system of

social insurance in order to appease

its rank and file. Sorokin 'Contemporary Sociological Theories' Economic

School
19.

P. 523.

For further discussion on Marx

'Society' P. 265.

refer to

Mclver

&

Page,

20.

Bogardus 'Dev. of Social Thought'

School
:

Marxian
in

Socialistic

Theory of Wages.
analysis

21. Stone's

of

Marxian Theory
referred
to

Sorokin's

'Contemporary Sociological Theories.'

22.

Communist Menifesto
Social

by Bogardus Dev. of

Thought.'
:

23.

24. Eight-point

25.

Communist Menifesto P. 1213 published in 1913. programme announced by Marx and Engels 'Communist Menifesto.' For detailed study refer to Max Weber's Social Thinking:

Sociological Series
26. 'Studies in the P. 72.

No. 3

Intellectual

Development of Karl Marx>

its

27.

Karl Popper, 'The Open Society and

P. 78.

Enemies', Vol.

II,

28. J. V.

Bondurant
V,

'Conquest of Violence'

Ch, VJ. Theory

VI.

of Dialectics.
29.

Bondurant 'Conquest of Violence' Ch. 'Marx-Hegal -Gandhi dialectical approaches.

J.
:

30.

K. Gandhi, 'India of

My

Dreams'

31. Dr.

Dhawan, 'The

Political

Philosophy of

M. Gandhi'

32.

M. K. Gandhi,

'India

of My

Dreams.'

References
1.

Dr.

Sharma,

B.

S.,

'Gandhi as a
'The

Political

Thinker,'

Allahabad,
2.

1956.
Political

Dr. Dhawan, Gopi Nath,

Philosophy of

Mahatma
14,
3.

Gandhi',

Navajivan Press,

Ahmedabad

1957.

Mahadeo

Prasad, -'Social Philosophy of Mahatma Gandhi',

Vishwavidyalaya Prakashan, Gorakhpur.

4.

Dr. Radhakrishnan,

S.,

'Mahatma Gandhi

Essays

&

Reflections on his Life

and Works', Navajivan Publishing

House, Ahmedabad.
5.

'An Autobiography or The Story of My Experiments with Truth', Tr. by Desai, Mahadeo, 2 Vols., Ahmedabad,
1927,
1929,

6.

'Socialism of

My Conception' By M.K.
in

Gandhi, Bhartiya

Vidya Bhawan Prakashan.

7.
8.

Bose,

N. K., 'Studies
B.,

Gandhism', Calcutta,

1947.

Kumarappa,

'Capitalism,

Socialism and Villagism,'

9.

Madras, 1938. Mashruwala, K. G., *Gandhi and Marx',

1954.

Ahmedabad,
Place',

10.

'Constructive

Programme,
1941.

Its

Meaning and

Ahmedabad,
1

1.

Nehru, Jawaharla), 'Nehru on Gandhi',

New

York, 1948.

12. 13.
14.

Nehru, Jawaharlal, 'An Autobiography', London, 1936.

Munshi, K. M.,

'Gandhi,

Marx K. &
Ryazanov),

Engels E. 'The

The Master', Bombay, 1944. Communist Manifesto' (Ed.

I,

Calcutta 1944.
'Capital'

15.
16.

Marx, K., Marx, K.,

Sorokin,

Vol.

Allen

& Unwin,

1938.

The
P.,

Poverty of Philosophy', Calcutta, 1936.Sociological

Theories';

17.

'Contemporary
1938.

New York & London,

18.

Lenin, 'Marx

&

Marxism', Ed. by Sinha, B.

1946,
of

P.,

Ganga
Social

Granthagar, Lucknow,
19.

Bogardus,

E.

S.,

'History

Development of

Thought.'
20.

Periodicals

and Journals included

in

our Bibliography.

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