Introduction of Meteorological equipments, data collection and analysis Atmosphere: - The dynamic layer surrounds the earth above

its surface containing various gases, moisture, aerosols etc. Meteorology: - science which deals with atmosphere. Meteor means lower atmosphere and Logos means science. The first person who introduces the word metrology was Aristotae. Weather: - Instantaneous physical state of atmosphere at particular place. Climate: - Generalized weather, statistical average of day to day weather condition computed for long term data for a given region or place. Weather Element:1. Air Temperature 2. Wind 3. Cloud 4. Visibility 5. Evaporation 6. Atmospheric Pressure 7. Humidity 8. Precipitation 9. Radiation 10. Pollution Climatic control: - All parameters of physical, geographical, adaphic, physiographic or man made activities which interact with the weather elements and determine the climate of a place are called climatic control. i.e. latitude, altitude, water body, distance from the sea, high and low pressure belt, mountain, topography, ocean current, vegetation, snow and ice, permanent wind direction. Four - season 1. Spring - March, April, May. 2. Summer - June, July, August. 3. Autumn - September, October, November. 4. Winter - December, January, February.

Season 1. Kharif - 15 June to 15 October. 2. Rabi - Winter season 15 October to 15 February. 3. Zaid - 15 February to 15 June. Agro-Meteorology: - Science investigates meteorological, climatic and hydrological conditions which are significant to agriculture owning to their interaction with the objects and process of agriculture. Climate can be grouped as # Depending on rainfall Climate Arid Semi- Arid Sub- Humid Humid Per- Humid Rainfall (cm/year) <25 25-50 50-100 100-150 >150

# Drought: - Insufficient or no rainfall for a period of time. # Strip Use for Solar Radiation Strip Use Long- Curved Short- Curved Straight- Curved Period 13 April- 31 August 13 October- End of February 1 September- 12 October and 1 March-12 April

Code for weather at the time of observation Code 0 1 Weather Fair Variable Sky

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Data collection and analysis Parameters:1. Total Rainfall 2. Total Number of Rainy Days

Over curst Sand Storm, Dust Storm, Drifting Storm Fog or Thick dust haze Drizzle Rain Snow or sleet Shower Thunder Storm

3. Temperature (Maximum and Minimum) 4. Humidity 5. Evaporation 6. Bright Sun Shine 7. Wind Speed and Direction 8. Depth- Wise soil Temperature Drip Irrigation Introduction The demand of water resources is increasing to meet the water requirement of increasing population, agriculture production and industrialization. The rainfall is the major source of water, either on the soil surface or below the soil surface. The rain is quite variable in time and space. The different major and minor project were developed to minimize the uncertainty in rainfall and to stabilize the agricultural production. But the overall efficiency in the project is as low as 25 to 30 percent. This leads to wastage of huge quantity of precious water and causes problems of water logging and Salinization where ground water is brackish. Different innovations have been made in the methods of irrigation for better water utilization at the farm. Drip irrigation is one of the innovations in irrigation methods in which water is applied near the plants at a slow rate approximating crop consumptive use. Water immediately enters the soil and spread laterally as well as in downward direction. Advantages of drip irrigation are given below

Minimized fertilizer/nutrient loss due to localized application and reduced leaching.

High water application efficiency. Leveling of the field not necessary. Ability to irrigate irregular shaped fields. Allows safe use of recycled water. Moisture within the root zone can be maintained at field capacity. Soil type plays less important role in frequency of irrigation. Minimized soil erosion. Minimized weed growth Highly uniform distribution of water i.e., controlled by output of each nozzle. Lower labour cost. Variation in supply can be regulated by regulating the valves and drippers. Fertigation can easily be included with minimal waste of fertilizers. Foliage remains dry thus reducing the risk of disease. Usually operated at lower pressure than other types of pressurized irrigation,

reducing energy costs. Disadvantages of drip irrigation are:

Expense. Initial cost can be more than overhead systems. Waste. The sun can affect the tubes used for drip irrigation, shortening their

usable life. Longevity is variable.

Clogging. If the water is not properly filtered and the equipment not properly maintained, it can result in clogging. Drip irrigation might be unsatisfactory if herbicides or top dressed fertilizers need sprinkler irrigation for activation. Drip tape causes extra cleanup costs after harvest. You'll need to plan for drip tape winding, disposal, recycling or reuse. Waste of water, time & harvest, if not installed properly. These systems require careful study of all the relevant factors like land topography, soil, water, crop and agroclimatic conditions, and suitability of drip irrigation system and its components.

Germination Problems. In lighter soils subsurface drip may be unable to wet the soil surface for germination. Requires careful consideration of the installation depth. Salinity. Most drip systems are designed for high efficiency, meaning little or no leaching fraction. Without sufficient leaching, salts applied with the irrigation water may build up in the root zone, usually at the edge of the wetting pattern. On the other hand, drip irrigation avoids the high capillary potential of traditional surface-applied irrigation, which can draw salt deposits up from deposits below. Component of Drip Irrigation

A drip irrigation system has six major components

1. Delivery system Mainline distribution to field Sub-mainline (header line) Feeder tubes or connectors Drip lines 2. Filters Sand Screen Disk 3. Pressure regulators Fixed outlet Adjustable outlet 4. Valves or gauges 5. Chemical injectors Positive displacement injectors Pressure differential injectors Water-powered injectors 6. Controllers Manual Computer How these components are put together, and which options are chosen, will depend on the size of the system, the water source, the crop, and the degree of automation desired. Delivery system Mainline distribution to field: Underground polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pipe or aboveground aluminum pipe delivers water from its source (pump, filtration system, etc.) to the sub-mainline (header line). Sub-mainline (header): It is common to use vinyl lay flat hose (polyethylene pipe) as the sub-mainline (header line).This hose is durable, long lasting, and lays flat when not in use so equipment can be driven over it. The lay flat hose, connectors, and feeder tubes are retrieved after each growing season and stored until the following year. Since polyethylene pipe is more rigid, it is not easily rolled up at the end of the season.

Irrigation mainline with screen filter, pressure regulator, pressure gauge, and water meter connected to sub-main Vinyl lay flat hose with connector and drip tape Connectors/couplings: Two basic methods are used to connect the drip tape to the submain. One method uses small plastic tubes called feeder tubes to connect the sub mainline (header line) to each drip tape. Feeder tubes can be inserted directly into the vinyl hose. The second method uses plastic connectors or couplings to connect the drip line to the sub-main. Drip tape and wetting pattern Drip lines: Two basic types of drip lines are used for commercial vegetable production, with turbulent flow drip tape most commonly used. This polyethylene product is thinwalled, collapses when not pressurized, and has emitters formed into its seam during manufacturing. Drip tapes are operated at pressures ranging from 6 to 15 psi. Drip tubes with internally attached emitters are an alternative to turbulent flow drip tapes. Products with in-line or internally attached emitters tend to be more expensive, but often have better water distribution uniformity and better clogging resistance. These products are common in permanent applications, such as subsurface drip irrigation, landscapes, or orchards. Designing and operating a drip system requires knowledge about the drip product being used. Water flow rate, emitter spacing, wall thickness, diameter, and pressure compensation ability are important. Water flow rate is typically specified in gallons per minute per 100 feet of tape (gpm/100 ft) or by the emission rate of a single emitter in gallons per hour (gph). Tape flow rates typically range from 0.2 to 1.0 gpm/100 ft. For vegetable production, tapes with flow rates around 0.5 gpm are often used. Maturing vegetables grown in the northeastern United States require about 2 to 3 hours of irrigation during hot summer days when a 0.5 gpm/100 ft tape is used. Emitter spacing refers to the distance between emitters along the drip line. For vegetables, emitter spacings of 8 to 18 inches are common. On very sandy soils, a closer spacing may be required to assure adequate water distribution. However, closer emitter spacings translate to higher emission rates. This increases the system flow rate and requires a larger pump and pipe size, leading to a higher overall system cost. A 12-inch

emitter spacing works well on many soils and is very common in the northeastern United States. Wall thickness of drip tapes are specified in mils (1 mil = 1/1000ths of an inch). Manufacturers produce drip tapes with wall thickness ranging from 4 to 25 mil. Wall thickness selection should be based on user experience, the number of seasons a product will be used, and the potential for damage by insects, animals, and machinery. Inexperienced users needing a single-season product should begin with a 10 or 15 mil tape to minimize stretching and breaking commonly experienced when first learning installation procedures. Experienced users of single season tapes often prefer 6 to 8 mil products. Tape cost is influenced by wall thickness, so thin-walled tapes cost less than thick tapes. A drip line installed on the soil surface is much more likely to be damaged by birds, animals, and insects than one buried 1 to 3 inches in a bed covered with plastic mulch. Buried lines will also not move around on the bed, which results from the expansion and contraction of the polyethylene. Drip lines laid on the soil surface are also prone to damage by tractors and foot traffic. Although drip tubes are commonly reused, this practice is rare by commercial vegetable growers. Reusing drip tape is an ecologically sound practice, but the cost of retrieval, storage, and repair is high. Diameter of the drip tape is important to consider in system design and is chosen based on row length. Row length directly affects both the flow rate through the tape and pressure loss in the tape. A tape diameter of 58 inch is the industry standard and is common where rows range from 300 to 600 feet. For rows ranging from 600 to 1,500 feet, 78-inch-diameter tape is available. As with wall thickness, the cost of tape is proportional to tape diameter. Pressure compensation refers to a drip lines ability to maintain a specified emission rate over a range of pressures. A pressure compensating line emits water at the same flow rate over a range of pressures. A non-pressure compensating line emits water at a rate that increases linearly with pressure. Commonly used drip lines fall somewhere in the middle and are called partially pressure compensating. For example, many drip lines will experience a 10 percent increase in emission rate when pressure is increased 20 percent. Drip tubes with internally attached emitters are fully pressure compensating, but are more complicated to manufacture and are more expensive.

Filters Filters are essential to the operation of a drip system. Many devices and management techniques are available for cleaning irrigation water. Depending on the water source, settling ponds, self-cleaning suction devices, sand separators, media filters, screen filters, and disk filters are used with drip irrigation systems. Keeping a drip system free of debris is critical because most clogs will irreparably disable a system. Media, screen, and disk filters are characterized by the size of the holes the water passes through in the filter element. The size of the openings is specified by the filters mesh size. Mesh size is inversely related to the size of the filter openings. For example, a 200-mesh filter will capture smaller particles than a 100-mesh filter. For most drip tapes, 150 to 200 mesh filtration is required. For clog-resistant tubes with internally attached emitters, 100mesh filtration is sufficient. Settling ponds use gravity to allow particulate matter to settle to the bottom of a pond. However, other techniques are more suitable and practical, since settling is not efficient in removing suspended matter. Although sand-sized particles will settle in seconds, silt- and clay-sized particles can take hours, weeks, or months to settle. Ponds also support aquatic life that often contributes to clogging problems. Media screen, or disk filters are preferred to remove physical material from water. The location of the suction inlet is an important decision as it affects the quality of the water entering the filtration system. Ideally, the inlet should be located some distance from the edge of the pond, 1 to 2 feet below the surface of the pond. Attaching the inlet of the suction pipe to the bottom of a sealed, partially water-filled 55-gallon drum can serve as a self-adjusting inlet depth regulator. However, it is often impractical to locate the inlet away from the shoreline. Near the pond edge, weeds and algae are often drawn into the inlet. A selfcleaning suction device can reduce the amount of weeds and algae drawn into the system where the organic load is high. This device has a screened, barrelshaped rotating basket around the inlet of the suction pipe. A pressurized water return line from the irrigation system sprays water against the inside of the screen basket, cleaning the basket and forcing weeds and algae away from the inlet. Sand separators are sometimes used in front of media, disk, or screen filters. These devices separate sand and heavy particulate matter by swirling the water passing through them. Sand separators must be sized according to the flow rate to operate properly and will not remove silt- or clay-sized

material. Media filters are the most common filters used in commercial vegetable production. Ranging from 14 to 48 inches in diameter, they are usually installed in pairs. Media filters are expensive, heavy, and large, but can clean poor quality water at high flow rates. In a media filter, 12 to 16 inches of media (sand or crushed rock) act as a three dimensional filtering agent, trapping particles within the top inch or two of media. As the media fills with particulate matter, the pressure drop across the media tank increases, forcing water through smaller and fewer channels. This will eventually disable a media filter, requiring clean water from one tank be routed backwards through the dirty tank to clean the media. This backwashing requires exact flow rates to make the media dance and be thoroughly cleaned. Large, commercial-sized filters require electronic controls and hydraulic valves to route the water. For small operations, a single tank (swimming pool filter) with manual backwashing can be used. Typically, the pressure drop across a clean media tank is 2 to 3 psi. Media tanks should be backwashed when the pressure drop is 5 to 8 psi greater than when the tank is clean. Screen filters are used widely in commercial vegetable production and are the most common irrigation filter used by small operations if the water source is relatively clean. Screen filters can remove debris efficiently like a media filter, but are not capable of removing as much debris as a media filter before cleaning is required. Screen filters are often oversized because they only have a two-dimensional cleaning surface (compared to the media filters three-dimensional filtering action) and a much smaller cleaning surface than do media filters. Screen filters are sometimes used as secondary filters, located downstream of media filters. Cleaning screen filters is important. If neglected, a portion of the screening element will become caked and clogged, forcing water through a smaller area. This can push debris through the screen element and will destroy a filter under extreme cases by rupturing the screening element. Upstream and downstream pressure gauges can judge when a filter requires cleaning. A pressure drop of 1 to 3 psi is normal for a screen filter. Screen filters should be cleaned when the pressure drop is 5 to 8 psi compared to when the filter is clean. Many screen filters contain a flushing valve, making it extremely easy to clean the filter. Disk filters are relatively new devices that possess traits of both media and screen filters. The screening element of a disk filter consists of stacks of thin, doughnut-shaped, grooved disks. The stack of disks forms a cylinder

where water moves from the outside of the cylinder to its core. Like a media filter, the action of the disk filter is three dimensional. Debris is trapped on the surface of the cylinder and also moves a short distance into the cylinder, increasing the capacity of the disk filter. Cleaning a disk filter requires Sand filter, pump, and fertigation unit removing the disk cylinder, expanding the cylinder to loosen Screen filters, pressure regulators, and pressure gauges gate or ball valves or electric solenoid valves automate the system using a time clock, water need sensor, or automatic controller box (computer controller). It is also recommended to install a water meter to monitor total water usage and flow rate in the system. Chemical injectors Three types of chemicals are typically injected into drip irrigation systems: fertilizers, pesticides, and anti-clogging agents. Fertilizers are the most common; the ability to spoon-feed nutrients is partially responsible for the yield increases resulting from drip irrigation. Systemic pesticides are also frequently injected into a drip irrigation system to control insects and protect plants from disease. Chemicals that prevent or repair clogging problems are also injected. Chlorine is used to kill algae, and acids are used to modify water pH and dissolve certain precipitate clogs. The type of chemical being injected is a key consideration in determining the appropriate chemical injector. For fertilizers, maintaining an accurate injection rate is not critical, unless fertilizer is injected on a continuous basis. The most important feature of a fertilizer injector is that it has a high-enough injection rate to complete the injection cycle in a reasonable period. An injector with a capacity of 1 gpm is likely to be sufficient for injecting fertilizer into irrigation zones of less than 10 acres. In contrast, injecting chemicals to prevent clogging requires an accurate and very low injection rate. Since these materials are usually injected continuously at concentration rates of 1 to 10 ppm, a separate injector is often used. Pesticide injection is similar to fertilizer injection, but the volume of material required is usually small compared to the volume of fertilizer required. For this reason, most pesticides can use injectors suited to either fertilizers (high injection rate/low accuracy) or clogging prevention (low injection rate/high accuracy). The type of power available at the injection site can affect injector choice. Injectors are powered by gasoline engines, by the PTO shaft of a tractor, by A/C power, and by the pressure of the irrigation system.

Positive displacement, pressure differential and water powered injectors make up the majority of injectors used for chemigation. Externally powered diaphragm, piston, gear, lobe, and roller (peristaltic) pumps are all positive displacement injectors. These injectors are typically powered by gas, the disks, and using pressurized water to spray the disks clean. Although disk filters have a cleaning capacity between media and screen filters, disk filters are not recommended where organic matter load is high. Both disk and screen filters are configured with electronic controls, hydraulic valves, and special devices to operate as self-cleaning filters. With these attachments, self-cleaning disk and screen filters can be used in place of media filters if the organic matter load is not high. These devices have the advantage of being smaller and lighter, but cost about the same as media filters. Pressure regulators Pressure regulators reduce the water pressure in the irrigation system manifold (the pipeline feeding the drip lines) to the working pressure of the drip lines. Both fixed outlet and adjustable outlet pressure devices are available for a wide range of flow rates. Globe valves regulate pressure by constricting the water flow path. However, they are not recommended because any change in the system flow rate or operating pressure also affects downstream pressure. This could happen when water is routed to a different zone or as a system begins to experience some clogging. The danger of having an unreliable pressure regulator is the system becoming over-pressured. Tape may deform or burst at pressures as low as 30 psi. Valves or gauges Watering several fields or sections of fields from one water source can be accomplished by using automatic or manually operated valves to open and close various zones. A backflow/anti-siphon valve is necessary if using a well or municipal water source or when injecting fertilizers or chemicals into the system. Hand-operated diesel, or electric, have a high chemical resistance, and are medium to high in cost. The injection rate of diaphragm pumps can be adjusted, but piston pumps must be stopped to adjust the injection rate. A piston pump is more chemically resistant than a diaphragm pump, and its injection rate is less affected by downstream pressure. Many growers purchase an expensive, high-quality diaphragm or piston pump for injecting fertilizers. With high cost

come reliability, durability, and peace of mind. Pressurized mixing tanks and venturi injectors are two common pressure differential injectors. These devices often have no moving parts and tend to be very simple because they use the difference in pressure between two different locations on an irrigation system to power the injection process. Pressure tanks are the simplest types of injectors and can work well for fertilization where delivery accuracy is not critical. The venturi injector is more efficient and more accurate than a pressurized mixing tank. Both require that the injector be plumbed parallel to the irrigation mainline and that a constriction be placed in the mainline between the line delivering water to the injector and the line returning to the mainline. Venturi injectors can deliver chemicals very accurately and can be sized for a particular injection rate. They can be used either for injecting fertilizers or chemicals used for clogging prevention. Water-powered injectors are driven by the pressure of the irrigation system. Thus, their principal advantage is they do not require an external power source. Both piston and diaphragm types are available. Their injection rate is either proportional to the system pressure or to the flow rate through the injector. Proportional injectors insert chemicals in proportion to the flow rate. They are particularly useful where chemicals are injected for clogging prevention and a fixed concentration of chemical is required. Changing the system flow rate (for example, by switching from one zone to the next) will not change the concentration of material injected with proportional injectors. Physico-chemical analysis Determination of Carbonate and Bicarbonate The procedure for determining the Carbonate and Bicarbonate is given below: Reagents N/50 H2SO4 solution, N/50 Na2CO3 solution, methyl red indicator, phenolphthalein indicator Principle Carbonate and bicarbonate in solution can be determined by titrating the solution with standard H2SO4 using phenolphthalein and methyl red indicators, respectively. When the color of phenolphthalein disappears it shows the conversion of carbonates into bicarbonates. Now methyl red be added which produces yellow color.

The change of color during titration with H2SO4 from yellow to rose red is an indication of bicarbonates or end point. Reactions 2Na2CO3 + H2SO4 2NaHCO3 +Na2SO4 2NaHCO3 + H2SO4 Na2SO4 + 2H2O + 2CO2 Procedure 1. Pipette 5 ml of the water sample into a 50 ml conical flask and add approximately 5 ml of distilled water to it.
2. Add two drops of phenolphthalein indicator. Appearance of pink color shows the

presence of carbonates in the sample.

3. Titrate it with standard H2SO4 acid until the pink color disappears. Record the

reading as Y.
4. Add 1-2 drops of methyl red indicator to this colorless solution. Titrate with N/50

H2SO4 till the color changes from yellow to rose red (end point). 5. Designate this burette reading as Z. Calculations CO32-, me/l = HCO3-, me/l = Determination of Calcium and Magnesium The procedure for determining the Calcium and Magnesium is given below: Reagents Ammonium chloride ammonium hydroxide buffer, 4N NaOH, standard 0.01N CaCl2 solution, Erichrome black T indicator, ammonium purpurate indicator, N/100 EDTA (ethylenediamine tetra acetic acid solution, hydroxylamine hydrochloride solution, triethanolamine TEA, calcon indicator, NaCN solution.

Principle For the simultaneous determination of Ca and Mg versenate titration method is used in which a known volume of the water is titrated with standard N/100 EDTA using Erichrome Black T indicator in the presence of NH4Cl + NH4OH buffer. The color changes from wine red to blue or green. The stable EDTA Ca complex is formed at pH= 10.0. Procedure 1. Pipette 5 ml water sample into a china dish. 2. Add approximately 10 ml of distilled water. 3. Add 2.5 ml of buffer solution and 3 to 4 drops of Erichrome Black T indicator wine red color appears. 4. Titrate it with standard EDTA solution. 5. The color changes from wine red to blue or green at end point. No tinge of wine red color should remain at the end point.

Calculations ml of water sample taken = 5 ml ml of N/100 EDTA used = X ml Normality of EDTA = N/100 Concentration of Ca + Mg, (me/l) = = = 2 X me/l Where X is volume of standard EDTA solution used in titration. Bouyoucos Hydrometer Method Quantitative determination of the proportions of differently-sized solid particles is called mechanical analysis. This exercise uses the Bouyoucos hydrometer method of mechanical analysis which relies on the principles of dispersion and sedimentation.

Dispersion: Individual soil particles must be dispersed (separated from each other) in an aqueous solution and remain dispersed to enable determination of particle size distribution. However, soils naturally exist as aggregates and not as a dispersed mixture of particles. Aggregates are secondary particles formed by cementing a mixture of primary particles; sand, silt, and clay. Dispersive methods remove or inactivate these binding agents. Only after binding forces have been negated can individual particles separate and their settling rate is properly analyzed. The mixture of dispersed soil particles in water is called a suspension. Once a true suspension state has been achieved, differential settling rates can be used to distinguish particle size distribution. Sedimentation: Sedimentation rate, the settling rate of a mineral particle in water, depends on the size of the particle. Large particles settle out of suspension more rapidly than small particles. Analytical techniques based on this direct sedimentation relationship allow quantification of particle size distribution. The connection between particle size and settling rate is expressed by Stoke's Law. This relationship shows that small particles, those exposing high specific surface area (m2 g-1), produce more resistance to settling through the surrounding solution than large particles and, hence, settle at slower velocities Stoke's Law :

The formula shows that the settling velocity, V, is directly proportional to the square of the particle's effective diameter, D; the acceleration of gravity, g; and the difference between the density of the particle, d1, and density of the liquid, d2; but inversely proportional to the viscosity (resistance to flow) of the liquid, n. The density of water and its viscosity both change in a manner so that particles settle faster with increased temperature. Hence, it may be necessary to apply temperature correction factors as explained with the procedure.

Procedure: Soil Texture by the Bouyoucos Hydrometer Method Purpose To measure soil texture by the hydrometer method. Materials 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Sieved soil (50 g dry wt equivalent if fine-textured, 100 g if sandy). Electric mixer and cup. Sedimentation cylinder (1000 ml). Bouyoucos hydrometer. Thermometer (-20 to10C).

Reagents 1. Sodium hexametaphosphate, 1N.

Procedure 1. Place 50 - 100 g of soil (dry weight equivalent) into a soil dispersing cup. Record the weight to at least 0.1g. 2. Fill cup to within two inches of the top with tap water. If local tap water is hard, use distilled water. Water should be at room temperature, not directly out of tap. 3. 4. 5. Add 5 ml of 1N sodium hexametaphosphate. Allow to slake (soak) for 15 minutes (high-clay soils only). Attach cup to mixer; mix 5 minutes for sandy soils, 15 minutes for fine-textured soils. 6. Transfer suspension to sedimentation cylinder; use tap water from squirt bottle to get all of sample from mixing cup. 7. Fill cylinder to 1000-mL mark with tap water.

8.

Carefully mix suspension with plunger. After removing plunger, begin timing. Carefully place hydrometer into suspension; note reading at 40 seconds. This 40second reading should be repeated several times to improve accuracy. Because the suspension is opaque, read the hydrometer at the top of the meniscus rather than at the bottom.

9.

After final 40-second reading, remove hydrometer, carefully lower a thermometer into the suspension and record the temperature (C). Mixing raises temperature by 3-5C, so it is important to record the temperature for both hydrometer readings (40 sec and 2 hr).

10. Mix suspension again and begin timing for the two-hour reading. Be sure that the cylinder is back from the edge of the counter and in a location where it wont be disturbed. 11. Make up a blank cylinder with water and sodium hexametaphosphate. Record the blank hydrometer reading. If the reading is above 0 (zero) on the hydrometer scale (in other words, if the zero mark is below the surface), record the blank correction as a negative number. Read at the top of the meniscus as before. 12. Take a hydrometer reading at 2 hours, followed by a temperature reading.

This procedure uses a hydrometer to quantify the solid material remaining in suspension at each stage of the sedimentation process. The hydrometer is calibrated to measure the density of a suspension at the hydrometer's center of buoyancy in units of grams per liter. Research has determined that within 40 seconds, sand particles (0.05 mm and larger) have settled below the buoyancy center of the hydrometer. Within two hours, silt

particles (0.05-0.002 mm) have settled and no longer influence the hydrometer. Thus, measuring the density of the soil suspension 40 seconds after shaking and again at 2 hours provides the information necessary to calculate the percentages of sand, silt, and clay in the soil. Drainage Investigations and Design Subsurface drainage aims at the removal of excess groundwater to maintain such a water and salt regime in the root zone that is favorable for sustained crop production. Drainage measures are generally location specific and vary according to soil, climate, irrigation and geo-hydrological conditions, and cropping patterns. For drainage of waterlogged saline soils, information on hydraulic conductivity, drainable porosity, infiltration characteristics, soil salinity, fresh water supplies, and depth of impermeable layer, aquifer parameters, groundwater fluctuations and quality and availability of outlets is often needed. In addition, knowledge of drainage requirement of different crops and criterion for drainage design is also required. The pre-drainage investigations can be conducted at three levels: the reconnaissance, semi detailed and detailed surveys of the area. Reconnaissance Survey Reconnaissance survey helps in determining the technical and economic feasibility of the proposed project. To begin with, a preliminary exploratory survey based on available information and some limited fieldwork is conducted. All kinds of available information, maps (geological, topographical, soil and land use), and reports related with surface and ground water, climate, cropping pattern and yields, and the logs of shallow and deep wells are useful. It is helpful to visit the project area and make inquiries from local people on seasonal variations of drainage problem and the response of the water table and crops to water management practices and also to locate on the base map information on physical and surface water boundaries, source of irrigation water and natural drainage outlets. (a) Topography, Geology and Physiography

A topographical map, on a scale of 1:100,000 to 1:250,000 and contour interval of about 30 cm, of the area of interest and the surrounding areas which may be contributive to the excess water problem is an essential requirement of the drainage investigations. Geological reports and maps of the area, a few lithological profiles, the depth and thickness of water-transmitting layers and the depth of the impervious layers may be examined to identify sources of ground water that might influence drainage requirements. (b) Soil and Land Use In addition to making use of information contained in the standard soil surveys, a few soil profiles in the project area should be studied to a depth of about 1.2m to test its suitability for the production of proposed crops. Special attention should be given to upper root zone (0.0 to 0.30 m) for its infiltration rate, water holding capacity, workability and possible formation of impeding layers. Limiting impeding layers for water percolation are to be identified in the lower root zone (0.3 to 1.20 m). (c) Irrigation Supplies The source of irrigation water and its distribution network in the area need to be investigated. In a canal irrigated area, information on the delta of the command, and system of supply, irrigation intensity and irrigation method is useful to estimate field percolation losses to the drainage system. (d) Surface Drainage Conditions The surface drainage of an area is governed primarily by the volume of expected runoff water and the time allowed for its removal. Rough estimates of the runoff potential of the area and carrying capacity of the natural drains may be worked out to judge the need for an artificial drainage system in the area. (e) Outlet Outlets for disposal of excess subsurface drainage water in irrigated areas may sometimes be difficult to obtain. During reconnaissance survey, special attention may be paid to the location and the capacity and flow characteristics of possible outlets. The outlets may be gravity or pumped outlets. Gravity outlets may include open ditches, pipe drains, constructed or natural channels with sufficient capacity to carry the surface runoff and drain flow. For pumped outlet, the location and installation of the pump and its operational costs must be considered.

(f) Hydrologic Data The detailed climatic and hydrologic data of the area should be collected; a ten year record of various hydrologic parameters is a strict minimum. If reliable data for estimating different water balance components are not available, an immediate programme for collecting observations should be set up. (g) Sub-surface Drainage Conditions This involves a preliminary assessment of (i) the groundwater situation based on existing records on the depth and quality of watertable and its variation during the year and direction of groundwater flow, (ii) the drainability (possible outlet) of the area, and (iii) the average hydraulic conductivity of subsurface layers and the depth to the first layer of poor hydraulic conductivity. These require 1.5 m deep soil pits as well as hand borings upto 5.0 m depth. The hand borings may be made at the soil surface or bottom of the soil pits. The zone between 1.5 m and 2.5 m below the soil surface is of great importance. The number of soil pits and auger borings should approximately be in 1:10 ratio depending upon the geology and expected variability. If no impervious layer (a layer having hydraulic conductivity one tenth or less than that of the layer above) is found within 5 m below soil surface, a few borings upto 15 m depth should be made to investigate the layers below 5 m. The information should be adequate to make clear statements on -

Whether the soil profile is homogeneous or layered. The nature and extent of soil salinity. The depth to the impervious layer. the presence or absence of a pervious to highly pervious horizon at or below drain depth (between 1.5 and 2.5 m) which may cause unstable drain bed and or quick sand conditions. The presence or absence of impeding horizons within the upper 2 m of the soil profile. The depth to the water table and the zone in which it fluctuates during the year. The salinity of ground water (EC and sodium adsorption ratio, SAR).

Areas where the water table is always shallower than 2 m should be indicated as problem areas on maps. A number of deep borings penetrating the entire aquifer, made along the

boundaries of the project area, can help in estimating its natural drainage and also the lateral seepage from outside. The transmissivity of the aquifer estimated from a few pumping tests and the watertable contour map of the area can be utilized to determine the rate of ground water inflow into or outflow from the project area. In summary, a reconnaissance survey provides information on the necessity for drainage, enables a tentative layout of the main drains and the outlet and allows for the feasibility of the drainage scheme to be determined. It also suggests the future programme and intensity of surveys and studies needed in the semi-detailed study phase. Semi-Detailed Surveys Alternate plans are identified on the basis of the results obtained through the project feasibility studies. Semi- detailed and more detailed field surveys (of the types mentioned above) are conducted to permit the estimation of cost of designed project to an accuracy of 10%. The topographic and soil maps of 1: 25,000 or 1: 10,000 scales and contour lines of upto 0.30 m interval are generally required at this stage. At the location of projected canals, ditches and structures, detailed levelling surveys for length and cross-sections should be performed. Further, the information on the nature of salts in the soil and groundwater, and flooding conditions are collected. The semi-detailed studies correspond to the level of 'feasibility studies' which enable to decide the optimal plan for execution. Detailed Surveys A detailed drainage survey involves the collection of all relevant field data that will allow the design of an effective drainage system. All the topics discussed earlier reappear but in a much more detailed and precise form. (a) Topography Topographic maps on a scale of 1:2,500 to 1:10,000 with contour interval of 0.30 m or less are required at this stage. (b) Field Drainage Data The results of the detailed surveys are expected to give elaborate information on the following aspects: - The soil texture and salinity to a depth of 4 to 5 m below ground surface. - Nature and extent of soil salinity, amendment and leaching water requirements. - The occurrence and depth of the impervious layer.

- The occurrence and depth of impeding layers in the upper 4 to 5 m soil profile. - The occurrence, depth and thickness of highly pervious sandy or gravel layers. - The hydraulic conductivity of the soil profile at regular depth intervals, especially in the range of 1.5 to 2.5m or even deeper. - The depth and fluctuations of the ground water table and direction of ground water flow.
-

The chemical composition of ground water, its EC and SAR The potentiometer head at boundaries and at different depths (e.g. at 3, 5 and 10 m) for estimation of natural drainage, the vertical gradient and lateral flow of groundwater into or out of the project area.

The design of a subsurface drainage system requires intensive field tests of a few parameters. The procedures for determining hydraulic conductivity and drainable porosity, and recording groundwater observations are described below: 1. Hydraulic Conductivity The horizontal hydraulic conductivity (K) is one of the most important parameters for design of subsurface drainage system since it controls the spacing of drains. The hydraulic conductivity of a soil represents its average water transmitting property. There are several laboratory and field methods for determination of hydraulic conductivity, but for drainage design purpose, it is always desirable to conduct in situ determination of hydraulic conductivity. In soil layers above the water table or where no water table is present at the time of conducting of test, inversed auger hole method can be employed to determine the hydraulic conductivity. The auger hole method is the most widely recommended method where a water table exits at a sufficiently high level. This method is usable on both homogeneous and layered soils. This is generally usable to a depth of 5 m. Where the desired depth for obtaining information is greater than 5 m, piezometer method is considered practical which can be used to determine horizontal hydraulic conductivity for soil layers as thin as 10 cm and can be usable upto depth of 8 m. The procedures for conducting auger hole tests is described in detail in this lecture, while details of other methods can be found in references given at the end.

Auger Hole Method The procedure is to bore a hole of 10 cm or more in diameter with an auger to a certain depth below the water table. When equilibrium is reached with the surrounding groundwater, a part of water in the hole is bailed out. The water seeps back into the hole and the rate at which water rises in the hole is measured and then converted by a suitable formula or a monograph to hydraulic conductivity (K) of the soil. Care must be taken that not more than about 25 % of the volume of water removed from the hole flows back till the end of measurements. Also the water level in the hole should be reduced 20- 40 cm only (20 cm if expected K is high and 40 cm if expected K is low). For homogeneous soil with the impermeable layer at a certain depth, S 1/2 H below bottom of auger hole, Ernst formula can be used:

4000 r2 K = --------------------------

h -----(1)

(H + 20 r) [2-(h^ /H)]h^ t = C ( h / t) where (ref. Fig. 1) K = hydraulic conductivity (m/day) h/ t= rate of rise of water level in the auger hole (cm/sec) C = Geometry factor = f(h, H , r ,S) 4000 r2 = ----------------------------(H + 20r) (2-h^ /H) h^ C can be calculated from equation (2). This can also be obtained using nomographs given in standard text books on drainage. h = ho - ht, where ho and ht are the depth (in cm) of the water level in the hole below equilibrium (initial) water table at time to and t (in sec) respectively. t = tn - to (sec) (please see example in Appendix 1) (2)

h^ = 1/2 (ho + ht ) = ho - 1/2( h) H = depth of the time bottom of the hole below the equilibrium watertable (cm) S = depth of an impermeable layer below the bottom of the hole (cm) r = radius of hole (cm) The method of determining K in a homogeneous profile can be easily extended to a two layered profile. In a layered profile, initially a shallow auger hole is made which terminates at least 20 cm above the interface of two layers and ensuring that the bore hole contains minimum 40 cm thick water body. The value of hydraulic conductivity of upper layer, K1 is calculated using normal auger hole test. The auger hole is then deepened at least 50 cm below the interface into the second layer and the rise of water level is measured. Further details can be found in standard text books on drainage. If there is no time or money to conduct hydraulic conductivity tests in the field, Table 1 is commonly referred to for qualitative estimates of K from information on soil texture.

Table1. Soil texture - hydraulic conductivity relationship Soil Texture Hydraulic conductivity (m/ day) Clay Silt clay Silt clay loam Clay loam Sandy clay loam Silt loam Loam Very fine sandy loam Fine sandy loam Sandy loam Loamy fine sand Loamy sand Fine sand Sand < 0.01 0.010 - 0.015 0.015 - 0.024 0.024 - 0.012 0.012 - 0.091 0.091 - 0.231 0.231 - 0.427 0.427 - 0.732 0.732 1.036 1.524 2.134 2.743 3.658 1.036 1.524 2.134 2.743 3.658 4.877

Coarse Sand

4.877 - 7.315

2. Drainable Porosity The effective porosity or drainable pore space is defined as the volume of water released or taken into storage in an unconfined aquifer per unit cross sectional area per unit decline or rise of water table as a fraction of total volume of soil. For drainage conditions, drainable porosity of a soil relates the amount of fluctuation of the water table to the amount of groundwater added or drained from the system. Representative drainable porosity values for use in transient state drain spacing equations are difficult to measure accurately. Whenever possible, the drainable porosity should be determined from the measurements of drain discharge and draw-down of existing drains or pilot drains. The representative values of drainable porosity of different textures of soil can be taken as 35% (volume basis) for heavy clays, 6-9% for medium textured soils and 10-15% for sandy soils. US Bureau of reclamation (1984) has developed a generalized relationship between hydraulic conductivity and drainable porosity. 3. Groundwater observations Depth to water table and its seasonal and annual fluctuations determine the extent and severity of the drainage problem. These are measured with the help of observation wells which are mostly installed on a square grid pattern. Piezometers are used to measure the hydrostatic pressure at different depths in the sub- soil layers. Though both observation wells and piezometers are required in the initially stages, piezometers are installed selectively. A battery of piezometers is installed first at one location where the lower end of each piezometer terminates at a different depth. The number is increased if the problem of artesian pressure is indicated. It is advisable to include additional areas adjoining the project site in any groundwater investigation programme. For drainage area of about 100 ha, minimum 20 observation wells should be installed for routine studying general groundwater behavior. For specific studies on system evaluation or drainage materials, the intensity of observation wells will have to be increased considerably. 4. Other Field Tests

In addition to the parameters described above, it is also necessary to determine total porosity and infiltration as well as aquifer characteristics. Total porosity is needed to study the leaching properties of the soil; infiltration characteristics for studying groundwater recharge and leaching of salts; aquifer parameters are important if vertical drainage is considered for controlling water logging and soil salinity. Total porosity can be determined using pycnometer rings while pumping tests are conducted to determine aquifer parameters like transmissivity and specific storage coefficient. The details of these tests, not covered here, can be found in any standard textbook on drainage or groundwater. Drainage Coefficient The drainage coefficient of the drainage system, based on the estimation of volume of water to be drained per unit time during different parts of the year should be determined accurately since it governs the drain spacing as well as dimensions of the field laterals, collectors and pumping station (if any). The computation of design drainage rate requires the consideration of deep percolation losses resulting from rainfall, leaching water, and excessive or non-uniform application of irrigation water, seepage from canals or adjoining areas including where applicable artesian inflow, and natural drainage of the area to be drained. The most common unit of drainage coefficient is mm/day. The drainage coefficient for determining drain spacing can be arrived by considering the general water balance of the area using the following water balance equation: q = Rf + S c + S i - D n where, in terms of volume per unit time per unit area, q = water to be removed by the on -farm drainage system i.e the drainage coefficient Rf = on- farm recharge to the groundwater, i.e. deep percolation losses resulting from rainfall, leaching water, and excessive or non-uniform application of irrigation water Sc = seepage from canals Si = in- seepage, i.e. groundwater flow into the area to be drained including artesian inflow Dn = natural drainage, i.e. groundwater flow out of the area to be drained (4)

There are detailed procedures/ guidelines/ tests for estimating different components of equation 4, which will be covered in other lectures. In practice, design rates are likely to be in the following ranges, if natural drainage or in- seepage are negligibly small: < 1.5 mm/day 1.5- 3.0 mm/day for soils having a low infiltration rate for most soils, with the higher rate for more permeable soils and where cropping intensity is high 3.0- 4.5 mm/day for extreme conditions of climate, crop and salinity management, and under poor irrigation practices > 4.5 mm/day for special conditions, e.g. rice irrigation on light textured soils

The drainage coefficient for some of the sites in India has been observed to be in the range of 1-5 mm/day (Table 2). It would be appropriate to mention that the drainage coefficients based on rainfall are much less applicable in India compared to the recommendations emerging from USA or other countries. It is due to the fact that rainfall in India is received only during the monsoon season that too in few storms. As such, the runoff is much more under the rainfall pattern in India. Moreover, under the irrigated conditions of arid and semi-arid regions, the main function of the drainage is to help in leaching of the salts than to improve aeration. Since excess salts in the root zone are critical to the reclamation process than improvement in the aeration. The emerging guidelines on subsurface drainage coefficient reveal that a drainage coefficient of 1-3 mm day-1 would be sufficient to reclaim waterlogged saline lands (Table 3).

Table 2. Subsurface drainage coefficients at different locations (based on pilot studies)

Site Range

Rainfall

Rate

Recommended

(mm) Chambal (Rajasthan) Sampla (Haryana) Hisar (Haryana) Dabhou (Gujarat) Mundlana (Haryana) Kailanakhas (Haryana) Muraj (Gujarat)
*

(mm day-1) 3.0 2.5 2.0 4.0 5.0 6.8 2.8

(mm day-1) 2.5 - 3.5 2.0 - 3.0 1.5 - 2.5 3.0 - 5.0 5.0 - 5.0 - 7.0 2.0 - 4.0

850* 600 400 800 500 500 500

Variation in the range of 600-1400 mm.

DESIGN OF SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE SYSTEM (a) Calculation of Drain Spacing Using Hooghoudt Equation The Hooghoudt equation is commonly used to calculate the drain spacing L, if the factors q, h,k,D and ro are known. The formula can also be used to calculate the soil constants K and D if q, h, L and ro are known. Since the drain spacing L depends on the equivalent depth de, which in turn is a function of L, the formula can not be given explicitly in L. Its use in drain-spacing formula involves a trial and error procedure or through use of standard nomographs. Table 3: Maximum discharges and drainable areas with pipe drains of diameters as indicated valid for q = 2 mm day1 and i = 0.001 Type pipe Corrugated PVC of Diameter (mm) Outside Inside 60 65 80 100 125 160 52 57 72 91 115 148 100 150 200 250 300 Q (m3 per day d > 100 mm d< = 100 mm 244 477 495 1065 1930 3141 23.5 30.0 56.0 104.0 134 Drainage (ha) 1.2 1.5 2.8 5.2 12.2 24.0 6.7 25 53 97 157 area (ha)

Concrete

Area to be drained by each lateral = 250 m x 80 m = 2 ha; The area per lateral falls in- between the maximum drainable areas for pipes 65/57 mm and 80/72 mm; so the next larger size is to be selected: 80/72 mm pipes.

1) The laterals as specified above discharge into a collector. Other laterals, each 150 m long, are entering the collector on the opposite side. Slope of collector i = 0.001; Length of collector = 1760 m; Concrete pipes are available with inside diameter of 150 mm, 200 mm, 250 mm, 300 mm, respectively:

Introduction of GIS, GPS& analysis of spatial data A geographic information system (GIS) integrates hardware, software, and data for capturing, managing, analyzing, and displaying all forms of geographically referenced information. GIS allows us to view, understand, question, interpret, and visualize data in many ways that reveal relationships, patterns, and trends in the form of maps, globes, reports, and charts. Data representation GIS data represents real objects (such as roads, land use, elevation, trees, waterways, etc.) with digital data determining the mix. Real objects can be divided into two abstractions: discrete objects (e.g., a house) and continuous fields (such as rainfall amount, or elevations). Traditionally, there are two broad methods used to store data in a GIS for both kinds of abstractions mapping references: raster images and vector. Points, lines, and polygons are the stuff of mapped location attribute references. A new hybrid method of storing data is that of identifying point clouds, which combine threedimensional points with RGB information at each point, returning a "3D color image". GIS Thematic maps then are becoming more and more realistically visually descriptive of what they set out to show or determine. It is usually determine with the help of Remote Sensing. The Remote Sensing is basically a multi-disciplinary science which includes a combination of various disciplines such as optics, spectroscopy, photography, computer, electronics and telecommunication, satellite launching etc. All these technologies are integrated to act as one complete system in itself, known as Remote Sensing System. There are a number of stages in a Remote System, working as links in a complete, and each of them is important for successful operation. Stages in Remote Sensing 1. Emission of electromagnetic radiation, or EMR (sun/self- emission). 2. Transmission of energy from the source to the surface of the earth, as well as absorption and scattering. 3. Interaction of EMR with the earth's surface: reflection and emission. 4. Transmission of energy from the surface to the remote sensor. 5. Sensor data output. 6. Data transmission, processing and analysis. Reflectance Characteristics of Earth's Cover types The spectral characteristics of the three main earth surface features are discussed below Vegetation:

The spectral characteristics of vegetation vary with wavelength. A compound in leaves called chlorophyll strongly absorbs radiation in the red and blue wavelengths but reflects green wavelength. The internal structure of healthy leaves acts as diffuse reflector of near infrared wavelengths. Measuring and monitoring the near infrared reflectance is one way that scientists determine how healthy particular vegetation may be. Water: Majority of the radiation incident upon water is not reflected but is either absorbed or transmitted. Longer visible wavelengths and near infrared radiation is absorbed more by water than by the visible wavelengths. Thus water looks blue or blue green due to stronger reflectance at these shorter wavelengths and darker if viewed at red or near infrared wavelengths. The factors that affect the variability in reflectance of a water body are depth of water, materials within water and surface roughness of water. Soil: The majority of radiation incident on a soil surface is either reflected or absorbed and little is transmitted. The characteristics of soil that determine its reflectance properties are its moisture content, organic content, texture, structure and iron oxide content. The soil curve shows less peak and valley variations. The presence of moisture in soil decreases its reflectance. By measuring the energy that is reflected by targets on earth's surface over a variety of different wavelengths, we can build up a spectral signature for that object. And by comparing the response pattern of different features we may be able to distinguish between them, while we might not be able to if we only compared them at one wavelength. For example Water and Vegetation reflect somewhat similarly in the visible wavelength but not in the infrared. Remote sensing can be either passive or active. ACTIVE systems have their own source of energy (such as RADAR) whereas the PASSIVE systems depend upon external source of illumination (such as SUN) or self emission for remote sensing. The most important component of a remote sensing system is the sensor /detector which, records the variation of radiant energy reflected or emitted by objects or surface material. Different types of sensors are available, which are sensitive to different parts of the electromagnetic spectrum. These sensors fall in two broad categories - image forming and non image forming type of sensors. The function of recording system is to convert the energy detected by sensor into a form, which can be perceived. For example in photography, measurement or detection is done by camera lens and recording by the film. Since, the photographic system uses the visible part of spectrum the recording can be easily perceived. But in case of mechanical optical scanner, which can collect energy beyond the visible part of spectrum, there is need to convert the measured energy into a form, which can be perceived. This is done by dividing the incoming energy by beam splitters and filters into different wavelength bands and then converting energy in each wavelength band into electrical signal. The electrical signal is processed to give radiometric data for each band, which is recorded on magnetic tapes. Regions of electromagnetic spectrum, which are of primary concern in remote sensing, are 1. Optical wavelength (Visible, Near IR, Middle IR) - .3 mm - 16 mm. Sensors, which operate in this region, are: Aerial cameras: 0.38 mm to 0.9 mm Thermal scanners: 3 mm to 5 mm

Multispectral scanner: 0.3 mm to 1.1 mm Vidicon / R.B.V.: 0.3 mm to 1.1 mm 2. Microwave wavelengths: 1mm to 1 meter Sensors which operate in these wavelengths / frequencies are mostly active systems like RADAR. Image Interpretation Image interpretation is defined as the act of examining images to identify objects and judge their significance. An interpreter studies remotely sensed data and attempts through logical process to detect, identify, measure and evaluate the significance of environmental and cultural objects, patterns and spatial relationships. It is an information extraction process. ELEMENTS OF IMAGE INTERPRETATION Image interpretation is essential for the efficient and effective use of the data. While the above properties of aerial photographs/imagery help an interpreter to detect objects due to their tonal variations, he must also take advantage of other important characteristics of the objects in order to recognize them. The following elements of image interpretation are regarded as being of general significance, irrespective of the precise nature of the imagery and the features it portrays. 1. Size 2. Shape 3. Texture 4. Pattern 5. Height 6. Shadow 7. Site 8. Association Fundamental Concepts of GPS Traditional methods of surveying and navigation resort to tedious field and astronomical observation for deriving positional and directional information. Diverse field conditions, seasonal variation and many unavoidable circumstances always bias the traditional field approach. However, due to rapid advancement in electronic systems, every aspect of human life is affected to a great deal. Field of surveying and navigation is tremendously benefited through electronic devices. Various Segments of GPS For better understanding of GPS, we normally consider three major segments namely, space segment, Control segment and User segment. Space segment deals with GPS satellites systems, Control segment describes ground based time and orbit control prediction and in User segment various types of existing GPS receiver and its application is dealt. Observation principle and signal structure NAVSTAR GPS is a one-way ranging system i.e. signals are only transmitted by the satellite. Signal travel time between the satellite and the receiver is observed and the range distance is calculated through the knowledge of signal propagation velocity. One way ranging means that a clock reading at the transmitted antenna is compared with a clock reading at the receiver antenna. But since the two clocks are not strictly

synchronized hence the observed signal travel time is biased with systematic synchronization error. Biased ranges are known as pseudo ranges. Simultaneous observations of four pseudo ranges are necessary to determine X, Y, Z coordinates of user antenna and clock bias. Basic Concept of GPS receiver and its components: The main components of a GPS receiver are shown in Fig.10. These are Antenna with pre-amplifier RF section with signal identification and signal processing Micro-processor for receiver control, data sampling and data processing Precision oscillator Power supply User interface, command and display panel Memory, data storage

GPS Signals Each GPS satellite continuously transmits signals, which contain a wealth of information. Depending on the type and accuracy of positioning being carried out, a user may only be interested in a portion of the information included in the GPS signals. Similarly, a given GPS receiver may only enable use of a portion of the available information. It is therefore important for users to understand the content and use of GPS signals. The information contained in GPS signals includes the carrier frequencies, Coarse Acquisition (C/A) and Precise (P) codes and the satellite message. GPS Positioning The principal navigation and positioning technologies in use today are the GPS, Inertial Navigation Systems (INS), radio-navigation systems such as differential GPS, beacons, satellite wide-area systems and local radio links. Recent developments in GPS technologies include the incorporation of the Russian Global Navigation Satellite System (GLONASS) and the networks of low Earth orbit satellites. Applications of navigation and positioning technologies are extensive, involving almost anything that requires positioning infomation. Application areas include: 1 Surveying: geographic location and data analysis including high-resolution asset location mapping 2 GIS: geographic location, data analysis and presentation for asset management 3 Vehicle navigation: installed in anything from commercial passenger cars to tanks 1 2 3 4 Emergency location systems: typically installed in cars, in call-911 and in telecommunications devices made to pass on precise location data Airborne crop spraying: field positioning devices Marine navigation systems: from commercial fish finders to redundant systems on oil tankers Marine docking systems: centimeter level, short range systems for ferries and cargo vessels

Aircraft navigation systems: from simple, en route systems in light aircraft to full landing systems 6 Aircraft CFIT (controlled flight into terrain) avoidance systems: which match aircraft position to three-dimensional maps and warn crews of dangerous approaches to terrain 7 Aerial survey systems: measuring and recording data from the air 8 Hand-held personal navigators: from recreational use to search-and-rescue operations 9 Wide area navigation systems: land-based, fixed data gathering and analysis systems to improve accuracy and integrity of the basic GPS system 10 Robotic vehicles: mining ore extractors, helicopter surveillance, dangerous area surveillance, security surveillance 11 Weapons training pods: attack aircraft weapons training systems Types of GPS Positioning Up to this point, the three segments of GPS have been described and the components of signals broadcasted by the satellites have been explained. Major types of possible positioning methods are as follows. Single Point Positioning 1. Static mode 2. Kinematics mode Relative Point Positioning 1. Static mode 2. Kinematics mode Real-time data collection Post mission processing