INTEGRAL CALCULUS

THE INDEFINITE INTEGRAL Integration is the process of finding the function whose derivative or differential is given. To denote the process of integration, the symbol is used. Since d(x3 + C) = 3x2dx, then the statement the integral of 3x2 is x3 + C can be expressed symbolically as follows: 3x2dx = x3 + C Since C has no known value, the expression 3x2dx is called an indefinite integral. In general, the indefinite integral of a function f(x) is denoted by f(x)dx and is defined symbolically as follows:

f(x)dx = F(x) + C if dF(x) = f(x)dx

We call the symbol the integral sign , f(x) the integrand, C the constant of integration and F(x) + C the value of the indefinite integral

f(x)

dx.

The

differential

dx

indicates that x is the variable of integration. As symbols of operation, d and are inverse to each other. BASIC INTEGRATION FORMULAS 1. 2. 3.

du = u + C (u + v)dx = udx+ vdx audx = a udx

n

u n+1 4. u du = ----------- + C , n -1 n+1 5.

du/u

= ln /u/ + C

INTEGRATION OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 6. 7. 8. 9.

sinudu = -cos u + C cosudu = sinu + C tanudu = -ln/cosu/ + C cotu du =ln/sinu/ + C secudu = ln/secu + tanu/ + C cscudu = -ln /cscu + cotu/ + C sec udu = tanu + C
2

csc udu = -cotu + C

2

secutanudu = secu + C cscu cotudu = -cscu + C

INTEGRATION OF EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS 1. 2.

e du = u + C
u

a du = a /ln a + C
u u

INTEGRATION OF HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS 1. 2.

sinhudu = cosh u + C coshudu = sinhu + C

3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

tanhudu = ln/coshu/ + C cothu du =ln/sinhu/ + C sech udu = tanhu + C

2

csch udu = -cothu + C

2

sechutanhudu = -sechu + C cschu cothudu = -cschu + C

METHODS OF INTEGRATION Product of sines and cosines 1. 2. 3.

2sinucosvdx = [ sin (u + v) + sin(u v) ] dx + C 2cosucosvdx = [ cos (u + v) + cos(u v) ] dx + C 2sinucosvdx = [ cos (u - v)

- cos(u + v)

] dx + C

Powers of sines and cosines In general, we shall integrate a trigonometric integral of the form

sin

vcosnvdx

where v is a differentiable function of x and m, n, are real numbers. If m = n = 1, or m = 1, n 1 or m 1, n = 1, the integral can easily be evaluated by the method of substitution. For example, we can easily show that
sin x
2

-cos x

sinxcosxdx =

------------ + C = 2

--------------- + C 2

cos x

sinxcos xdx = 3

------------ + C 4
5 sin x

sin4xcosxdx = sinx cosx

------------ + C 5
2sin
3/2

dx = - ------------ + C 3

Consider the following cases: Case I: When m is a positive odd integer and n is any number, we may write

sinmv cosnv = (sinm-1v cosnv) sinv

Since m is odd, then m 1 is even and therefore, we may use the trigonometric identity sin2 v = 1 cos2 v to express sin m 1v in terms of the powers of cosv. Then the given integral is reduced to the form

(sum of powers of cosv) sinvdx

Case II. When m is any number and n is a positive odd integer, we may write sinmv cosnv = (sinmv cosn-1v) sinv
we may use the trigonometric identity cos2 v = 1 sin2 v is to reduce the integral to the form

(sum of powers of sinv) cosv dx

Case III. When m and n are both even integers (either both positive or one positive and one zero) we may write sinmv cosnv = (sin2v) m/2( cos2v) n/2

and then use one or both of the following identities: (1 cos 2v) (1 + cos 2v) 2 sin v = -------------------cos v = -----------------2 2 to reduce the given integral into an integrable form. The identities above are used repeatedly when m or n or both are greater than 2.
2

Powers of Tangent and Secants Consider the trigonometric integral of the form

tan

vsecnvdx

If m = n = 1, we evaluate the integral by secutanudu = secu + C. If m = any number and n = 2, we evaluate the integral by the ordinary method of substitution. For example, by letting u = tan x, we can show that tan4x

tan3usec2udu = ---------- + C
4 Consider the following cases: Case I: When m is any number and n is a positive even integer greater than 2, we may write tanmvsecnv = (tanmvsecn -2v)sec2v and then use the identity

sec2v = 1 +tan2v
to reduce the given integral to the form

(sum of powers of tanv) sec vdx

2

which is now integrable using u n+1 undu = ----------- + C , n -1 with u = tan v n+1

Case II: When m is a positive odd integer and n is any number, we may write tanmvsecnv = (tanm -1vsecn -1v)secvtanv and then use the identity

tan2v = sec2v - 1
to reduce the given integral to the form

(sum of powers of secv) secvtanvdx

which is now integrable using u n+1 u du = ----------- + C , n 1 with u = sec v n+1
n

Case III: When m is a positive odd (or even) integer and n is zero, we may write tanmv = tanm -2v tan2v and then use the identity

tan2v = sec2v - 1
to reduce the given integral to an integrable form.

Powers of Cotangents and Cosecants The technique involved in evaluating the integral

cot tan

vcscnvdx

where v is a differentiable function of x, is similar to that for evaluating the integral

m

vsecnvdx

The identity csc2v = 1 + cot2v or cot2v= csc2v 1 is used to reduce the original expression into an integrable form.

Trigonometric Substitution The trigonometric substitutions which lead to integrable forms are given below.
a) b) c)

When the integrand contains a2 u2 , use the substitution u = asin When the integrand contains a2 + u2 , use the substitution u = atan When the integrand contains u2 a2, use the substitution u = asec

Additional Standard Formulas

1. du 1 = Arctan u/a + C

a2 + u2

2.

du 1 u-a = ln

+C

u a

2a

u+a

3.

du ______ = ln u + a2 + u2 + C a2 + u2 du ______ = ln u + u2 - a2 + C u2 - a2

4.

5.

du = arcsin u/a + C a2 - u2

6.
7. 8.

_____ _____ 2 2 a - u du = u/2 a2 - u2 + (a2/2)arcsin u/a + C

______ ______ ______ 2 2 2 2 2 a + u du = u/2 a + u + (a /2)ln u + u2 + a2 + C _______ _______ _______ 2 2 2 2 2 u - a du = u/2 u - a - ( a /2)ln u + u2 - a2 + C

INTEGRATION BY PARTS Suppose u and v are differentiable functions of x.

u dv =

uv - vdu ----- formula for integrating by parts

To apply this formula, the given differential must be separated into two factors, one factor corresponding to u and the other corresponding to dv. No general rule can be given as to which of the two factors will be u and which will be dv. However, we emphasize that u and dv should be chosen in such a way as to make the integral of dv easy to evaluate. INTEGRATION OF RATIONAL FRACTIONS By definition, a rational fraction is a quotient of two polynomials. Let N(x) and D(x) and be two polynomials having real coefficients and no common factor other than one. Then a rational fraction may be generally represented by N(x) D(x) If the degree of the numerator N(x) is less than the degree of the denominator D(x), then N(x)/D(x) is called proper rational fraction. Otherwise, it is improper rational fraction. For instance, x2 + 9x + 2 is a proper rational fraction (x- 1)(x +1)(x +2) x3 is an improper rational fraction 2 (x - 4) In evaluating the integral of a proper rational fraction, it is important that we know how to represent the given fraction as the sum of simpler fractions. These simpler fractions are called partial fractions. For example, it can be shown that x2 + 9x + 2 2 3 -4 = + + (x - 1)(x +1)(x +2) x1 x+1 x+2 The three simple fractions at the right side of the equation are the partial fractions. Thus to integrate a proper fraction, we simply integrate its equivalent partial fractions.

If N(x)/D(x) is an improper rational fraction, it should first be reduced by division into a polynomial and a proper rational fraction, tha is, N(x) R(x) = Q(x) + D(x) D(x) Where Q(x) is a polynomial and R(x)/D(x) is a proper rational fraction. It is R(x)/D(x) that should be resolved or broken up into partial fractions. For instance, x3 = x + x2- 4 4x x2- 4 4x (x - 2)(x + 2) 2 x-2 2 x+2

= x+

= x+

A proper rational fraction N(x)/D(x) can be broken up (or resolved) into a sum of partial fractions subject to the following cases: Case I: When the factors of D(x) are all linear and none is repeated. To each non-repeated linear factor ax + b, there corresponds a partial fraction of the form A ax + b where A is a constant to be determined.

Case II: When the factors of D(x) are all linear and some are repeated. To each repeated linear factor (ax + b)n , there corresponds the sum of n partial fractions of the form A B + + . . . . ax + b (ax + b)2 L (ax + b)n

where A,B . . . . , L are constants to be determined. Case III: When D(x) contains irreducible quadratic factors and none is repeated. To each nonrepeated irreducible quadratic factor ax2 + bx + c, there corresponds the partial fraction of the form A(2ax + b) + B ax2 + bx + c where A and B are constants to be determined and 2ax + b = d/dx (ax2 + bx + c). Case IV: When D(x) contains irreducible quadratic factors and some are repeated. To each repeated quadratic factor (ax2 + bx + c)n there corresponds the sum of n partial fractions of the form. A(2ax + b) + B C(2ax + b) + D K(2ax + b) + L + + . . . + ax2 + bx + c ax2 + bx + c (ax2 + bx + c)n where A,B,C,D, . , K,L, are constants to be determined. Our next problem is how to determine the constants A, B, . . . . , L. There are two general methods for finding the values of such constants. These are M1. By assigning particular values to x in order to obtain equations involving at least one of the constants. M2. By equating the coefficients of equal powers of x to obtain simultaneous equations involving the constants. Example 1: Evaluate x2 + 9x + 2

(x - 1)(x +1)(x +2)

dx

Solution: Since the denominator contains nonrepeated linear factors, this belongs to Case I. Thus x2 + 9x + 2 A B C = + + (x - 1)(x +1)(x +2) x1 x+1 x+2

(1)

Equation (1) is cleared of fractions by multiplying both sides by (x - 1)(x +1)(x +2). We get x2 + 9x + 2 = A(x - 1)(x +1) + B(x - 1)(x +2) + C(x - 1)(x +1) Let us determine the constant by using M1. Note that When x = 1 , we get 12 = 6A or A = 2 When x = -1 , we get -6 =-2B or B = 3 When x =-2 , we get -12 = 3C or C = -4 If we want to determine the constants by use M2, we start with the equation (2) and proceed as follows: x2 + 9x + 2 = A(x - 1)(x +1) + B(x - 1)(x +2) + C(x - 1)(x +1) = A(x2 + 3x + 2) + B(x2 + x 2) + C(x2 1) = Ax2 + 3Ax + 2A + Bx2 + Bx 2B + Cx2 C = (A + B + C)x2 + (3A + B)x + (2A 2B C) Equating coefficients of equal powers of x, we get x2 : x : x0 : A+B+C =1 3A + B = 9 2A 2B C = 2 (2) (2)

Solving these equations simultaneously, we also obtain A = 2, B = 3 and C = -4. Then x2 + 9x + 2 A = x1 2 = B dx + x+1 3 dx + dx + x+1 dx C

dx
(x - 1)(x +1)(x +2)

dx +
x1 dx

x+2 -4

dx

x+2 dx

dx

2 + 3 - 4 x1 x+1 x+2

= 2 ln |x 1| + 3 ln |x + 1| - 4 ln |x + 2| + C

THE DEFINITE INTEGRAL

Let us assume a given function f(x) to be continuous and always positive, or always negative between two fixed ordinates x = a and x = b; and let F(x) be an integral of f(x). At x = a, the value of the integral is F(a) and at x = b the value is F(b). The difference F(b) F(a) or change in the value of the integral F(x) in the interval from x = a to x = b is called the definite integral of f(x) between the limit x = a and x = b, or simply the integral of f(x) from a to b. We denote the definite by the symbol
b

f(x) dx where the numbers a and b are called the lower and upper limits of
a

integration, respectively. By definition of the definite integral, its value is given by the equation
b a a b

f(x) dx = [ F(x)]

= F(b) F(a)

meaning that the definite integral is the value of the indefinite integral at the upper limit minus its value at the lower limit. While the indefinite integral includes an arbitrary constant C, the definite integral is independent of C, hence the term definite. We note also that the value of the definite integral is not a function of the variable of integration but a constant number, being dependent only upon the constant limits of integration and the form of the function. Example 1.
2
3 4

(x + 2x) dx = [ x /4 + x2]
0

= 4+40 =8

Example 2.
/2
2

/2 0 0

/2

cos x/2 dx = (1 + cos x)dx = [ x + sinx]

=

[ /2 + sin(/2) - 0] =

( + 2)

Properties of the Definite Integral

b a b

1.

f(x) dx = f(x) dx
a

c a

b c

2.

f(x) dx = f(x) dx + f(x) dx

a b b a b a

3.

f(x) dx = f(t) dt + f(z) dz

a

If a = b
a

4.

f(x) dx = 0
a b b a

5.

kf(x) dx = k f(x) dx
a b b a a b a

6.

[f(x) + g(x)]dx = f(x) dx + g(x) dx

Integrals of Even and Odd Functions. A function f(x) is called and even function if it remains unchanged when x is replaced by x, that is f( -x) = f(x) An odd function is one whose sign changes when x is replaced by -x such that f(- x) = - f(x) Theorem I:
a -a

If f(x) is an even function, then

a 0

f(x) dx = 2 f(x) dx
Theorem II:
a

If f(x) is an odd function

f(x) dx = 0
-a

WALLIS FORMULA
/2

(m 1) ( m 3) . . . . . .(2 or 1) (n 1) (n 3) ( 2 or 1)

sinmxcosnxdx =
(m + n ) ( m + n - 2) . . . . . .(2 or 1) m and n are nonnegative integers = /2 =1 if both m and n are even if either one or both are odd

where:

If n = 0
/2

(m 1) ( m 3) . . . . . .(2 or 1)

sin mxdx =
m ( m - 2) . . . . . .(2 or 1) = /2 =1 if m is even if m is odd

where:

If m = 0
/2

(n 1) ( n 3) . . . . . .(2 or 1)

cos n xdx = n ( n - 2) . . . . . .(2 or 1) = /2 =1 if n is even if n is odd

where:

Geometric Applications of the Definite Integral

Area Under a Curve Since the area of a plane region is a real number, we wish to associate the value of the definite integral with a given region. A region is a set of points in the coordinate plane. Suppose y = f(x) is a function which is defined or continuous on a closed interval [a, b]. Let R denote the region bounded by the graph of y = f(x), the vertical lines x = a, x = b and the x-axis as shown in fig. 1. Let A represent the area of R. This area is customarily referred to as the area under a curve.

y = f(x)

y = f(x)

Fig. 1

Fig. 2

Area under the curve y = f(x) from x = a to x = b is given by the definite integral
b

A=
a

y dx

If y = f(x) is entirely below the x-axis, then the ordinate corresponding to each point on the curve is negative ( fig. 2).Hence, the area A of the region from x = a to x = b is given by
b

A=
a

y dx

If y = f(x) is partly positive and partly negative on [a, b], then the graph of y= f(x) crosses the x-axis at some point c (fig. 3). The total area is determined by calculating

y = f(x)
Fig. 3
c b

A1 =

y dx and

A2 =
c

y dx

and adding the results. That is, the total area is A = A1 + A2 Area Between Two Curves We shall now formulate a definition for the area A of the region R bounded by two intersecting curves y = f(x) and y = g(x). Let (a , c) and (b, d) be the points of intersection of the curves shown in fig. 4. Note that the area under the curve y = f(x) from x = a to x = b is
b

Af=
a

y dx

Likewise, the area under the curve y = g(x) from x = a to x = b is

Ag=
a

y dx

Then the difference A f - A g is the desired area of the region R. That is, A=Af- Ag

A=

f(x) dx

g(x) dx

(1)

Thus from (1), we define the area between two curves y = f(x) and y = g(x) which intersect at (a , c) and (b, d) as
b

A=

[f(x) g(x)] dx

y = f(x) y = g(x) Fig. 4 In practice, to find the area A of a region R bounded by y = f(x) and y = g(x), we simply draw a typical rectangular element (or variable rectangle) whose edges are either parallel to the x-axis or to the y-axis. In Fig. 4, the rectangular element is drawn parallel to the y-axis. This element is often referred to as a vertical element of area or a vertical strip. Since the upper end of the element touches the curve y = f(x), we shall refer to y = f(x) as the upper curve. Similarly, since the lower end of the element touches the curve y = g(x), we shall refer to y = g(x) as the lower curve. Then we shall use yu to represent the ordinate of the upper end and yl to represent the lower end of the element. Obviously, the rectangular element has a length of yu yl and width dx. If we let dA represent the area of this variable element, then dA = (yu yl)dx Hence, by the definite integral, the total area bounded by the curves is given by
b

A=
a

(yu yl)dx

The area of the region bounded by the curves y = f(x) and y = g(x) in fig. 4 can also be computed by taking a typical rectangular element with edges parallel to the x=axis. We call this variable element a horizontal element of area or a horizontal strip. Thus in Fig. 5, a horizontal element is shown whose length is xr xl and whose width is dy. The dA of the element is dA = (xr xl)dx and by the definite integral
d

A=
c

(xr xl)dx

where xr and xl are the abscissas of the right and left ends of the horizontal element respectively. In Fig. 5, y = f(x) is the left curve and y = g(x) is the right curve.

y = g(x)

y = g(x)

Fig. 5

HAND-OUTS in INTEGRAL CALCULUS

Prepared by: Engr. Danilo M. Gacusan