THE CELL Has three main parts: 1. Plasma membrane 2. Cytoplasm 3.

Nucleus Plasma membrane: y Flexible outer surface which separates external from internal environment y Selective barrier y lipid bilayer (phospholipids, cholesterol, and glycolipids) y Lipids are ampiphatic (have both polar and non-polar parts) y Proteins may be integral or peripheral y Integral- extend through the entire membrane and are transmembrane proteins (span the entire lipid and protrude into both the cytosol and extracellular fluid) y Peripheral- not as firmly embedded in the membrane y Functions: a. Ion channels pores through which specific ions (potassium) get into or out of the cell. Selective. Allow only one type of ion to pass through. b. Carriers/ transporters change shape as substances pass through c. Receptors - cellular recognition sites d. Enzymes catalyze chemical reactions e. Linkers anchor proteins in the plasma membranes f. Identity markers - may enable cell to recognize other cells of the same kind y Membrane permeability a. Permeable to: nonpolar, uncharged b. Impermeable to: ions and large, uncharged polar molecules c. Slightly permeable: small, uncharged polar molecules y Gradients: a. Concentration gradient difference in the concentration of a chemical from one place to another b. Sodium is more concentrated outside, whole potassium is more concentrated inside c. Electrical gradient/ membrane potential outside is more negatively charged, inside is more positively charged d. Electrochemical gradient combined influence of concentration and electrical gradients y Transport processes a. Passive moves down gradient using its own kinetic energy Steeper gradient = faster Higher temperature = faster Larger mass of particle = slower Larger surface area = faster Greater diffusion distance = slower i. Simple diffusion substances move freely though the lipid bilayer

ii. Facilitated diffusion channel-mediated (gated) and carrier mediated (with transport maximum) iii. Osmosis solvent permeates - Aquaporins membrane channels for solvents - Hydrostatic pressure pressure exerted by a liquid - Osmotic pressure force a solution with an impermeable solute exerts - Tonicity measure of a solutions ability to change the volume of cells by altering their water content - Isotonic normal RBC shape - Hypotonic bloated RBC, hemolysis - Hypertonic shrinking RBC, crenation b. Active cellular energy is used against gradient and use of ATP i. Primary active transport uses pumps ii. Secondary active transport has symporters (two substances in same direction) and antiporters (in opposite directions) c. Transport in vesicles i. Endocytosis materials move into a cell via vesicle - Receptor mediated vesicle forms after a membrane recognizes a particle - Phagocytosis cell engulfs large particles using pseudopods - Pinocytosis tiny droplets of extracellular fluid are taken up ii. Exocytosis materials move out of cell via vesicle iii. Transcytosis move a substance through a cell Cytoplasm y Consists of all the cellular contents y Cytosol (fluid portion) and organelles (little organs) y Organelles a. Cytoskeleton network of protein filaments i. Microfilaments thinnest; made of actin. Makes basic shape and supports microvilli (fingerlike projections of cell) ii. Intermediate filaments thicker than microfilaments; stabilize positions of other organelles iii. Microtubules largest; made of tubulin. Determines cell shape and cell division b. Centrosome made of two centrioles (9 clusters of 3 microtubules) and pericentriolar material; role in cell division c. Cilia and flagella i. Cilia hairlike projections on surface of cell; anchored to basal body (initiates assemble of cilia and flagella) ii. Flagella tail of sperm d. Ribosomes sites of protein synthesis; free or attached (on rough ER) or in mitochondria e. Endoplasmic reticulum network or membranes

i. Rough ER ii. Smooth ER contains enzymes f. Golgi complex modify, sort, package materials into vesicles for transport; consist of cisternae (cavities). i. Entry (cis face) cisterna that faces rough ER ii. Exit (trans face) cisterna that faces plasma membrane g. Lysosome i. Autophagy - digest substances that enter the cell; engulf organelles and recycles for reuse ii. Autolysis destroy the entire cell h. Peroxisomes remove hydrogen atoms from organic substances i. Proteasomes destruction of unneeded proteins j. Mitochondria powerhouses; generate most ATP i. Outer mitochondrial membrane ii. Inner mitochondrial membrane iii. Cristae iv. matrix Nucleus y Houses most of the cells DNA y Chromosome (a single molecule of DNA) within the nucleus y Chromosomes XX for women, XY for men; 23 from each parent = 46 in total y Chromatin coiled DNA y Genome total genetic information y Linker DNA string between beads y Nuclear envelope double membrane; lipid bilayer y Nuclear pores openings on nuclear envelope and facilitate diffusion between nucleus and cytoplasm y Nucleoli spherical bodies inside of nucleus; produce ribosomes and made of protein, DNA and RNA y Proteome all proteins in an organism y Gene expression DNA is used as a template for synthesis of a protein y Messenger RNA directs the synthesis of protein y Ribosomal RNA joins with ribosomal proteins to make ribosomes y Transfer RNA binds to an amino acid y Enzymes: a. Adenine b. Guanine c. Thymine d. Cytosine e. Uracil y Cell division Somatic (any cell of the body) and germ cell (gametes) a. Mitosis (for somatic cells) i. Interphase period between cell divisions G1 cell duplicates and replication of chromosomes G0 arrested stage S replication of DNA and centrosomes G2 - cell growth, enzyme and protein synthesis ii. Mitotic phase nuclear division

y y y y y

Prophase Chromatin fibers condense into paired chromatids, nucleolus and nuclear envelope disappear, each centrosome moves to opposite side of cell Metaphase centromeres of chromatid pairs line up at metaphase plate Anaphase Centromeres split; identical set of chromosomes move to opposite poles of cell Telophase Nuclear envelope and nucleolus reappears Cytokinesis cytoplasmic division b. Meiosis occurs in gonads and produces gametes. Chromosomes are reduced by half i. Meiosis I crossing over ii. Meiosis II centromeres split and sister chromatids separate and move toward opposite poles of the cell There are 100 trillion cells in the human body There are 200 types of cells Aging normal process accompanied by a progressive alteration of the bodys homeostatic adaptive responses Geriatrics science of medical problems and care for the elderly Gerontology study of problems that come with aging *** TISSUES

Four types of tissues a. Epithelial - covers body surfaces, lines hollow organs, ducts and glands b. Connective protects and supports. Bind organs together, stores energy as fat, immunity c. Muscular generates physical force, movement and body heat d. Nervous Detects change in a variety of conditions inside and outside the body The primary germ layers (first tissues formed in embryo) a. Ectoderm b. Endoderm c. Mesoderm Cell junctions contact points between the plasma membranes of tissue cells a. Tight seal off passageways between cells; stomach, intestines, bladder b. Adherens contain plaque; help epithelial surfaces resist separation during contractile activities; food moving through intestines c. Desmosomes Adhere cells to one another using cadherin (transmembrane glycoprotein) d. Hemidesmosomes adhere cells to basement membrane using integrin (transmembrane protein but half in number of cadherin) e. Gap connexins (membrane proteins) form connexons (fluid-filled tunnels); allow cells to communicate with each other

Epithelial tissue y Selective barriers that limit or aid the transfer of substances into and out of the body y Secretory surfaces that release products produced by the cells onto their free surfaces y Protective surfaces that resist the abrasive influences of the environment y Apical surface faces the body surface, the cavity, or the lumen; contain cilia or microvilli y Lateral surface face the adjacent cells on either side y Basal surface side of cell opposite to apical y Basement membrane thin extracellular membrane made of basal lamina (closer to cells) and reticular lamina (closer to connective tissue) y Avascular epithelial cells to not have its own blood supply y Two types of epithelial tissue: a. Covering and lining outer covering of skin, lining of ducts, cavities, vessels, and organs i. Arrangement of cells in layers - Simple single layer of cells; for diffusion, osmosis, filtration, secretion and absorption - Pseudostratified appears to have multiple layers but only has one; all cells rest on basement membrane - Stratified two or more layers ii. Cell shapes - Squamous flat - Cuboidal as tall as they are wide; have microvilli - Columnar much taller than they are wide - Transitional varied shapes iii. Combinations - Simple squamous - Simple cuboidal - Simple columnar (ciliated and non-ciliated) - Pseudostratified columnar (ciliated and nonciliated) - Stratified squamous - Stratified cuboidal - Stratified columnar - Transitional (varied due to stretching) b. Glandular secreting portion of glands i. Endocrine secrete by diffusion into the bloodstream ii. Exocrine secrete products into ducts - Unicellular goblet cells - Multicellular - Structures of multicellular exocrine glands ~ Branched/compound ~ Unbranched/simple ~ Tubular (tubed shape) ~ Acinar (rounded) ~ Tubuloacinar (combo of tube and round) 1. Simple tubular 2. Simple branched tubular 3. Simple coiled tubular

4. Simple acinar 5. Simple branched acinar 6. Compound tubular 7. Compound acinar 8. Compound tubuloacinar Functions of multicellular exocrine glands (how secretions are released) 1. Merocrine synthesized on ribosomes, goes through golgi then shipped by vescicles 2. Apocrine pinches off from the rest of the cell 3. Holocrine the cell is the secretory product; sloughed off cell is replaced by new cell

Connective Tissue y Consist of extracellular matrix (material located between widely spaced cells) and cells y Highly vascular (but cartilage is avascular and tendons have scanty blood supply) y Blast = immature cells such as fibroblast (connective tissue), chondroblasts (cartilage), osteoblasts (bone) that retain capacity to divide and secrete the extracellular matrix that is a characteristic of that tissue y Cyte = once immature cells produce extracellular matrix, they mature y Connective tissue cells a. Fibroblasts migrate through connective tissue, secreting fibers and certain components of ground substance of the extracellular matrix b. Adipocytes fat cells c. Mast cells alongside blood vessels, produce histamine d. White blood cells e. Macrophages capable of engulfing bacteria by phagocytosis (fixed and wandering) f. Plasma cells secrete antibodies y Ground substance component of a connective tissue between cells and fibers (fluid, semifluid, gelatinous, or calcified); supports cells, binds them together, stores water, and provides medium for exchange y Fibers embedded in extracellular matrix a. Collagen allows tissue flexibility; occur in parallel bundles b. Elastic branch and join together to form a network within a tissue c. Reticular supporting framework of many soft organs y Classification schemes of connective tissues: a. Embryonic connective tissue i. Mesenchyme (tissue in which all connective tissue arise) ii. Mucous connective tissue (found in the umbilical cord) b. Mature connective tissue i. Loose connective tissue - Areolar

Adipose Reticular ii. Dense connective tissue - Dense regular (bundles of collagen fibers regularly arranged; withstand the pulling along axis of fibers) - Dense irregular (collagen fibers arranged irregularly, withstands pulling in all directions such as dermis of skin) - Elastic ( recoiling in lungs and arteries as the heart beats) iii. Cartilage dense network of collagen fibers (mature cartilage - chondrocytes; lacunae where chondrocytes are found; perichondrium surrounds the surface of cartilage) - Hyaline (most abundant in the body, weakest; absorbs shock and reduces friction) - Fibrocartilage (strongest; located in intervertebral disks) - Elastic (maintains shape of external structures such as ear) *** note: intertsitial growth growth from within the tissue *** note: appositional growth growth at the outer surface of tissue iv. Bone tissue/osseous tissue *** note: osteon basic unit of compact bone - Lamellae responsible for the compact nature of bone - Lacunae small spaces between lamellae that contain mature bone cells (osteocytes) - Central canal contains blood vessels and nerves *** note: spongy bone lacks osteons, rather, they are composed of trabeculae, columns of bone v. Liquid connective tissue - Blood tissue (liquid extracellular matrix is blood plasma)  Red blood cells/erythrocytes  White blood cells/leukocytes  Platelets/thrombocytes - Lymph Membranes (sheets of tissue that line a part of a body) a. Epithelial membrane - Mucous membrane - lines a body cavity that opens directly to the exterior - Serous membranes lines a body cavity  Parietal facing outside the cavity  Visceral nearer the inside of the organ  Serous fluid waterly lubricant that allows organs to slide over one another  Pleura lining the outside of the lungs  Pericardium covering the heart  Peritoneum lining the abdominal cavity

Cutaneous membrane covers the entire surface of the body b. Synovial membrane (where bones come together and line the cavities of movable joint) - Synoviocytes discontinuous layer of cells that compose synovial membrane - Synovial fluid lubricates and nourishes cartilage covering the bones at moveable joint and contains macrophages\ Muscular Tissue y Composed of myocytes/muscle fibers y Use ATP to generate force y Types: a. Skeletal attached to bones; voluntary b. Cardiac in the wall of heart; branched and are connected at points (intercalated disks); involuntary c. Smooth blood vessels, ducts, contractions in esophagus; involuntary Nervous Tissue y Neurons nerve cells sensitive to various stimuli a. Dendrites receive input b. Cell body contains nucleus c. Axons sends away messages y Action potentials nerve impulses y Neuroglia