Structure Functions Pituitary Hormones uterine contraction, causes milk posterior pituitary peptide; ejection in lactating females (the

"letpolypeptide of 9 amino Oxytocin down" response), responds to suckling acids CYIQNCPLG (C's are reflex and estradiol, lowers steroid disulfide bonded) synthesis in testes responds to osmoreceptor which + senses extracellular [Na ], blood posterior pituitary peptide; Vasopressin pressure regulation, increases H2O polypeptide of 9 amino (antidiuretic hormone, readsorption from distal tubules in acids CYFQNCPRG (C's ADH) kidney, loss results in dilute urine and are disulfide bonded) polydipsia (constant thirst) condition termed diabetes insipidus -MSH most significant, involved in pigmentation, primary responses are anterior pituitary peptides immunomodulation via melanocortin derived from POMC: receptor (MC-1R)-expressing monocytes, macrophages, and polypeptide = 13 amino Melanocyte-stimulating dendritic cells (DCs), down-regulates acids hormones (MSH) the production of proinflammatory and polypeptide = 18 amino immunomodulating cytokines (IL-1, ILacids 6, TNF-, IL-2, IFN-, IL-4, IL-13) as polypeptide = 12 amino well as the expression of costimulatory acids molecules (CD86, CD40, ICAM-1) on antigen-presenting DCs anterior pituitary peptide Adrenocorticotropic stimulates cells of adrenal gland to derived from POMC; hormone (ACTH) also increase steroid synthesis and polypeptide = 39 amino called corticotropin secretion acids anterior pituitary peptides derived from POMC: increases fatty acid release from polypeptide = 93 amino adipocytes acids polypeptide = 60 amino acids Thyrotropin (thyroidanterior pituitary peptides; 2 acts on thyroid follicle cells to stimulate stimulating hormone, proteins: is 96 amino throid hormone synthesis TSH) acids; is 112 general anabolic stimulant, increases Growth hormone (GH, anterior pituitary peptide; release of insulin-like growth factor-I or somatotropin) protein of 191 amino acids (IGF-I), cell growth and bone sulfation stimulates differentiation of secretory anterior pituitary peptide; Prolactin (PRL) cells of mammary gland and stimulates protein of 197 amino acids milk synthesis Luteinizing hormone anterior pituitary peptides; 2 increases ovarian progesterone Lipotropin (LPH)

Hormone

(LH); human chorionic proteins: is 96 amino gonadotropin (hCG) is acids; is 121 similar and produced in placenta

synthesis, luteinization; acts on Leydig cells of testes to increase testosterone synthesis and release and increases interstitial cell development ovarian follicle development and anterior pituitary peptides; 2 ovulation, increases estrogen Follicle-stimulating proteins: is 96 amino production; acts on Sertoli cells of hormone (FSH) acids; is 120 semiferous tubule to increase spermatogenesis back to Table of Contents Hypothalamic Hormones Corticotropin-releasing acts on corticotrope to release ACTH protein of 41 amino acids factor (CRF or CRH) and -endorphin (lipotropin) Gonadotropin-releasing polypeptide of 10 amino acts on gonadotrope to release LH and factor (GnRF or GnRH) acids FSH Prolactin-releasing this may be TRH acts on lactotrope to release prolactin factor (PRF) Prolactin-release may be derived from GnRH acts on lactotrope to inhibit prolactin inhibiting factor (PIF) precursor, 56 amino acids release Growth hormoneprotein of 40 and 44 amino releasing factor (GRF stimulates GH secretion acids or GRH) Somatostatin (SIF, also called growth hormone- polypeptide of 14 and 28 inhibits GH and TSH secretion release inhibiting factor, amino acids GIF) Thyrotropin-releasing peptide of 3 amino acids: stimulates TSH and prolactin secretion EHP factor (TRH or TRF) back to Table of Contents Thyroid Hormones Thyroxine and iodinated dityrosin responds to TSH and stimulates triiodothyronine derivatives oxidations in many cells produced in parafollicular C cells of the 2+ Calcitonin protein of 32 amino acids thyroid, regulation of Ca and Pi metabolism protein of 37 amino acids, product of the calcitonin Calcitonin gene-related gene derived by alternative acts as a vasodilator peptide (CGRP) splicing of the precursor mRNA in the brain back to Table of Contents Parathyroid Hormone 2+ regulation of Ca and Pi metabolism, Parathyroid hormone stimulates bone resorption thus protein of 84 amino acids 2+ (PTH) increasing serum [Ca ], stimulates Pi secretion by kidneys

back to Table of Contents Adipose Tissue Hormones additional discussion of adipocyte hormones and cytokines Adipose Tissue page regulation of overall body weight by limiting food intake and increasing 167 amino acid precursor energy expenditure, regulation of the Leptin processed to 146 amino neuroendocrine axis, inflammatory acids responses, blood pressure, and bone mass 244 amino acid protein with major biological actions are increases Adiponectin 4 distinct functional in insulin sensitivity and fatty acid domains oxidation 108 amino acid pre-protein Resistin induces insulin resistance in humans back to Table of Contents Hormones and Peptides of the Gut additional discussion of gut hormones: Peptide Hormones page and Gut-Brain Interrelationships page Bombesin, also called neuromedin B and 14 amino acids stimulates release of gastrin and CCK gastrin-releasing peptide Glucagon-like peptide 1 Two forms: 31 amino acids, potentiates glucose-dependent insulin (GLP-1) formerly called GLP-1(7-37) and 30 amino secretion, inhibits glucagon secretion, enteroglucagon acids, GLP-1(7-36)amide inhibits gastric emptying Glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide of 42 amino inhibits secretion of gastric acid, polypeptide (GIP) acids enhances insulin secretion originally called gastric inhibitory polypeptide contains all of the amino acids of glucagon (see Figure below); inhibits meal-stimulated gastric acid secretion similar to GLP-1 and GLP-2 action; 37 amino acids, the first 29 induces satiety, decreases weight Oxyntomodulin are identical to glucagon gain, and increases energy consumption; has weak affinity for GLP-1 receptor as well as glucagon receptor, may mimic glucagon actions in liver and pancreas 28 amino acids derived appetite stimulation, stimulates NPY from preproghrelin protein; release, regulation of energy acylated on Ser3 with nGhrelin homeostasis, glucose metabolism, octanoic acid, non-acylated gastric secretion and emptying, insulin forms found in circulation secretion also but not bioactive

acts in opposition to ghrelin action on appetite produced by stomach antrum, Gastrin 17 amino acids stimulates acid and pepsin secretion, also stimulates pancreatic secretions secreted from duodenum at pH values Secretin 27 amino acids below 4.5, stimulates pancreatic acinar cells to release bicarbonate and H2O stimulates gallbladder contraction and predominant form is 33 Cholecystokinin, CCK bile flow, increases secretion of amino acids digestive enzymes from pancreas controls gastrointestinal muscles, Motilin 22 amino acids stimulates release of PP, stimulates gallbladder contractions produced by hypothalamus and GI tract, relaxes the GI, inhibits acid and pepsin secretion, acts as a Vasoactive intestinal 28 amino acids neurotransmitter in peripheral peptide (VIP) autonomic nervous system, increases secretion of H2O and electrolytes from pancreas and gut inhibits release and action of numerous gut peptides, e.g. CKK, Somatostatin 14 amino acid version OXM, PP, gastrin, secretin, motilin, GIP; also inhibits insulin and glucagon secretion from pancreas Substance P, a CNS function in pain (nociception), member of the involved in vomit reflex, stimulates tachykinin family that salivary secretions, induces 11 amino acids includes neurokinin A vasodilation; (NKA) and neurokinin B antagonists have anti-depressant (NKB) properties Pancreatic Polypeptide (polypeptide fold) Family suppresses glucose-induced insulin Pancreatic Polypeptide, 36 amino acids secretion, inhibits bicarbonate and PP protein secretion from pancreas inhibits gastric motility by inhibiting Peptide Tyrosine cholinergic neurotransmission, inhibits 36 amino acids Tyrosine, PYY gastric acid secretion, induces sensations of satiety effects on hypothalamic function in appetite, controls feeding behavior and Neuropeptide Y, NPY 36 amino acids, 6 receptors energy homeostasis, levels increase during starvation to induce food intake 2 peptides: 78 amino acid truncated form and 84 homology to EGF and binds to the Amphiregulin amino acid form with 6 EGF receptor (EGFR) additional N-terminal amino Obestatin

23 amino acids derived from preproghrelin protein

acids back to Table of Contents Pancreatic Hormones produced by -cells of the pancreas, disulfide bonded dipeptide increases glucose uptake and Insulin of 21 and 30 amino acids utilization, increases lipogenesis, general anabolic effects produced by -cells of the pancreas, polypeptide of 29 amino increases lipid mobilization and Glucagon acids glycogenolysis in order to increase blood glucose levels Pancreatic polypeptide, polypeptide of 36 amino increases glycogenolysis, regulation of PP acids gastrointestinal activity inhibition of glucagon and Somatostatin 14 amino acid version somatotropin release back to Table of Contents Placental Hormones Estrogens steroids maintenance of pregnancy Progestins steroids mimic action of progesterone 2 proteins: is 96 amino Chorionic gonadotropin activity similar to LH acids; is 147 Chorionic somatomammotropin protein of 191 amino acids acts like prolactin and GH also called placental lactogen produced in ovarian corpus luteum, 2 proteins of 22 and 32 Relaxin inhibits myometrial contractions, amino acids secretion increases durin gestation back to Table of Contents Gonadal Hormones steroids: estradiol and maturation and function of female Estrogens (ovarian) estrone secondary sex organs implantation of ovum and maintenance Progestins (ovarian) steroid: progesterone of pregnancy maturation and function of male Androgens (testicular) steroid: testosterone secondary sex organs 1 protein ( is 134 amino Inhibins A and B acids; is 115 and 116 inhibition of FSH secretion amino acids) back to Table of Contents Adrenal Cortical Hormones steroids: cortisol and diverse effects on inflammation and Glucocorticoids corticosterone protein synthesis Mineralocorticoids steroids: aldosterone maintenance of salt balance back to Table of Contents

Epinephrine (adrenalin)

Norepinephrine (noradrenalin)

Adrenal Medullary Hormones classic "fight-or-flight" response, increases glycogenolysis, lipid mobilization, smooth muscle derived from tyrosine contraction, cardiac function, binds to all classes of catecholamine receptors (- and -adrenergic) classic "fight-or-flight" response, lipid mobilization, arteriole contraction, also acts as neurotransmitter in the CNS, derived from tyrosine released from noradrenergic neurons, binds all catecholamine receptors except 2-adrenergic

back to Table of Contents Liver Hormones polypeptide of 8 amino acids derived from angiotensinogen (present in the 2-globulin fraction of plasma) which is cleaved by responsible for essential hypertension the kidney enzyme renin to through stimulated synthesis and Angiotensin II give the decapeptide, release of aldosterone from adrenal angiotensin I, the Ccells terminal 2 amino acids are then released (by action of angiotensin-converting enzyme, ACE) to yield angiotensin II back to Table of Contents Kidney Hormones responsible for maintenance of calcium Calcitriol [1,25-(OH)2- derived from 7and phosphorous homeostasis, 2+ vitamin D3] dehydrocholesterol increases intestinal Ca uptake, regulates bone mineralization back to Table of Contents Cardiac Hormones released from heart atria in response several active peptides Atrial natriuretic peptide to hypovolemia, acts on outer adrenal cleaved from a 126 amino (ANP) cells to decrease aldosterone acid precursor production; smooth muscle relaxation back to Table of Contents Pineal Hormones N-acetyl-5Melatonin regulation of circadian rhythms methoxytryptamine