EARTH SURFACE PROCESSES, VOL.

5, 25-36 (1980)

A SIMULATION STUDY OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF RILLENKARREN

J. R. GLEW AND D.C. FORD

Department of Geography, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada L8S 4K1 Received 17 July 1978 Revised 2 January 1979

SUMMARY
Rillenkarren are patterns of tightly packed, small solution rills found upon bare, sloping surfaces of soluble rocks in all climates. They head at the crest of a slope and are replaced downslope by a planar solution surface, the ausgleichfliiche. Development has been simulated successfully using a rainfall simulator and plaster of paris blocks. Ten principal experiments were completed with blocks at inclinations ranging 22$-60, temperature and rainfall intensity being constant. Results suggest that rillenkarren develop within a hydrodynamic zone of rim effectwhere the depth of threads or sheets of runoff is insufficient to prevent direct raindrop impact upon the underlying soluble solid. Where depth o f runoff becomes sufficient rills are replaced by the ausgleichflache. Between upper and lower limits, rill length is proportional to slope in a log linear manner. Rill cross-sections approximate the parabola, the most effective shape for focussing raindrop erosion in the axis of the trough: this explains the tight packing characteristic. Ausgleichflache and rill troughs evolve by parallel retreat at the original slope angle, the erosion rate being greatest at about 45".
KEY WORDS

Karst Karren Solutional erosion Rim effect Parabolic focussing

INTRODUCTION Rillenkarren are landforms of solutional origin belonging to the karren family of small-scale karst features. They are a type of free karren (Bogli (1960)), i.e. developed upon rock surfaces free of any soil or vegetal cover. Examples are shown in Figures 1A and B. At their simplest, rillenkarren are straight solutional f channels displaying remarkable regularity o form and dimension. They head at the very crest of a slope, extend directly down its fall line and are extinguished downslope where they are replaced by a planar solution surface, termed an ausgleichjluche by Bogli. The channels are tightly packed together, interfluves being limited to mere partitions tapering to razor-sharp edges. In many instances rillenkarren are less regular than this. Adjacent individuals vary greatly in length. They may be discontinuous. Rills curve or are sinuous, and lack parallel alignments. Such irregularities can be related usually to variation o the crestlines and/or curvilinear form of the host rock surface. Frequently, f they reflect the fact that rills are secondary colonists upon the characteristically irregular surfaces of subsoil karren that have been denuded of their soil. Rillenkarren are reported on all three dasses of comparatively soluble rocks-the carbonates, sulphates and halides-and from every type of climatic region. They are of general interest in geomorphology, not only for their regularity of form and universality of distribution, but because they may be seen as the f converse o conventional First Order channel distribution on a planar slope as this was envisaged by R. E. Horton (1945). The rillenkarren channels propagate at the crest and are succeeded downslope by a 'belt of no (channelled) erosion', They are uniformly packed together whereas Horton's initial channels are uniformly separated. Early explanations of rillenkarren development invoked wind action or flowing ice, as well as running f water or combinations of erosion processes. These have long been rejected in favour o the development 0360-1269/80/0105-0025$01.00
@ 1980 by John Wiley & Sons,Ltd.

25

26

J. J. GLEW AND D. C. FORD

Figure 1A. Natural rillenkarren and ausgleichflacheon a Palliser limestone block in a landslide pile at Surprise Valley, Jasper National Park, Alberta. Scale is in inches. B. Simulated rillenkarren on a plaster of paris block at 50, McMaster laboratory. Scale in cms.

under rainfall that is clearly suggested by the wide climatic range of the features. But there has been little consideration of precisely how they are formed, nor are there published quantitative accounts of forms that would appear to be well suited to simple field measurement and statistical analysis. The principal study is by Bogli (1960) who attributes the aqueous solution of rillenkarren and ausgleichflachesurfaces on limestones to the first phase of a four-phase division of carbonate solution processes. Following Plummer and Wigley (1976) this may be written:

H ~ O H++ OHe
CaC03+ H C O H - e Ca+++ HCO;

(14

+ OH-

(1b)

i.e. solution is by simple, almost instantaneous, formation of bicarbonate rather than by reactions involving dissolved and complexed COz as in the genesis of most larger karstic features. That this attribution is broadly correct (though, no doubt, there is some reaction with COz at some times when it is raining on rillenkarren) is indicated by the occurrence of apparently identical forms on gypsum and salt rocks also, where molecular dissociation is the only solution process normally occurring, e.g. :

Bogli states that the length of rill channels tends to increase as the gradient o the host surface increases, but f offers no supporting data. Rate of molecular dissociation is temperature-dependent in a linear manner and Bogli cites the opinion of H. Lehmann that rillenkarren are longer in warmer climates. This is supported by

DEVELOPMENT OF RILLENKARREN

27

Wilford and Wall (1965), Jennings (1971) and Sweeting (1972), but no measured comparative data are offered. There appear to be no published studies of the packing characteristic of rillenkarren. Lundberg (1977) analysed the cross-sectional form of more than 1,000 rills at Chillagoe, Australia. No clear relationships between width, depth, radius, derived parameters, could be established. There was much f scatter of data. None o these variables displayed significant correlation with the slope of the host surface. In 1967, Ford (unpublished) measured rillenkarren on fifty sample blocks of crystalline limestone in a large landslide pile in Surprise Valley, Rocky Mountains of Canada (see Luckman (1976, p. 189) for location). This was an ideal random sampling site because the host rock surfaces offered every variation of gradient and aspect, and of orientation with reference to lithological grain in the rock. Rather sharp lower and upper limiting gradients for the rillenkarren development were established. They were absent where slopes were less than 123-15" and where greater than 75-80", rills were attenuated by development of shallowly scalloped ('cockled') surfaces that are known to be a consequence of the introduction of boundary layer discontinuities into the fluid flow (Goodchild and Ford (1971), Blumberg and Curl (1974)).However, inside the range 12$-75", no statistically significant relationship between gradient and rill length could be established from a sample of more than 1,400 individuals, although both aspect and orientation with regard to lithology could reasonably be excluded as interfering variables: an explanation of this failure is offered below. Packing of rills along the crests of the 50 measured blocks was remarkably uniform, the arithmetic mean frequency being 24 individuals per 30 cm of crest length, with a standard deviation of only 0.50. Failure to establish a significant relationship between rill length and surface gradient from a large sample at an ideal field site led us to suppose that the problem of rillenkarren formation was best tackled by physical simulation under controlled conditions. Lundberg's similar experience with the cross-sections of rills underscores the point. This paper reports the results of a series of successful simulation experiments in the laboratory. EXPERIMENTAL METHODS The basic equipment comprised a rainfall simulator delivering continuous precipitation at constant rate to cast plaster of paris surfaces oriented at fixed gradients. Experiments were conducted at a temperature of 20 f2C. Following Yalin (197 l), satisfactory hydraulic modelling by physical simulation requires that either geometric or dynamic or kinematic similarity with the natural situation be maintained. Ideally, all three will be maintained, or nearly so. Natural rillenkarren are small so that in our experiments it was possible to obtain exact geometric equivalence, i.e. to work at full scale. Accurate modelling of the dynamic and kinematic relationships reduced to considerations of the eroding material, of raindrop size and size distributioh, fall velocity and rainfall intensity. Plaster o paris (artificial gypsum) is a suitable substitute for a rock because it dissolves by molecular f dissociation in the presence of water, is inexpensive and easy to handle and gives comparatively rapid results. Both reagent and commercial grades of plaster were used, without causing significant variation in result in this particular set of experiments. Working surfaces measured 60 x 36 cm, with a depth of 8 cm. Variations in natural rock porosity, permeability and solubility attributable to deposition, lithification and secondary fissuring were not reproduced in the plaster models so that these should be considered simplified soluble substitutes having physical attributes similar to those of limestone, gypsum, etc. The rainfall simulator was of the spraying type, being an enlarged and modified version of a machine originally built at the University of Alberta to study soil erodibility (Bryan (1970)).The McMaster machine has a fall height of 2.6 metres and was able to deliver simulated rainfall uniformly to all parts of the plaster surfaces for periods as long as 800 hours. It was operated at rainfall intensities of 35 or 40 mm/hour. Full technical details are supplied in Glew (1976), pp. 75-84. Properties of the simulated rain were determined by measuring droplets retained in an oil bath placed in the fall area. Their kinetic energy was then calculated from data of Gunn and Kinzer (1949). Results are shown in Figure 2. The simulated rain gave a slightly smaller droplet size range than has been measured in natural rains of the same intensity (Figure 2A) and terminal velocity could not be attained for droplets

28
1 6
I

J. J. GLEW AND D. C. FORD

1 4

1 2
a B

1 0

c
L

E 8
0 6 c

0 Q

a 4 8
2

DROPLET DIAMETER Im.mJ

100

.-

.-90
2 ,

e .0 c 0

- 80
U

E k 70

c
c

60
L

p"
50

DROPLET DIAMETER I m m J

Figure 2A. Comparison between raindrop diameters produced in the McMaster rainfall simulator and those of a natural storm of similar intensity reported by Gunn and Kinzer (1949). B. Relationship between raindrop diameter and percent terminal velocity obtained in the McMaster rainfall simulator

greater than 1mm diameter (Figure 2B) because of a height limitation in the laboratory. Therefore, precise dynamic and kinematic similarity were not attained in the modelling but, both intuitively and from the experiments, the deviation in physical process is regarded as one of degree only, not kind. Its effect was possibly to slow down the rates of rill formation and surface reduction. This is indicated by the results, rillenkarren that appeared identical to natural counterparts being produced in all experiments. It was an unusually successful simulation in this respect. Ancillary techniques were used to measure the evolving rillenkarren and properties of the fluid flow upon the experimental surfaces. There were direct mechanical measurements of rill length, width and depth during and after each experiment. From a special camera mounting, stereographic pairs and triple line projections were taken at fixed time intervals. Total reduction (lowering) was measured at 25 positions on each experimental surface every 100 hours by a micrometer accurate to 1/ 1000inch and referenced to four brass pins cast into the plaster. Accurate measurement of the tiny, pulsing threads of flow in individual rills proved infeasible but rill flow was observed in a general fashion by injecting dye into the simulator.

DEVELOPMENT OF RILLENKARREN

29

Thickness of the film of water flowing on the ausgleichflache was determined indirectly by the simultaneous comparison of colour saturation of dyed liquid on the surface with that passing through a calibrated wedge aperture. With standard camera equipment, this permitted estimates to within f 0.05 mm. Details of these techniques are given by Glew (1976), pp. 85-98. A total of 18 experiments with fresh blocks were conducted. Three preliminary experiments with plaster block at 45" were run for more than 650 hours each. These established that the simulation worked well, giving reproducible results as indicated in Figure 3 and that rillenkarren attained equilibrium length and stable width after 300-350 hours. Ten principal experiments with plaster were then run in which gradient was varied for different experiments between 22g and 60", and the ancillary measures were employed. Each experiment was operated for 500+ hours: measures of rill length, etc., quoted here are from measurements made at termination when all rills had long attained equilibrium. In the last two experiments in this series inferences concerning critical water film flow thickness for rill and ausgleichflache development were tested by introducing flow fences of copper sheet into the working surfaces. Finally, five brief experiments were conducted with blocks of crystalline common salt cut from commercial salt licks. With the same rainfall intensities and range of gradients as were used for the plaster models, rillenkarren of greater width and depth rapidly developed upon the salt. Length of rillenkarren could not be compared with those on plaster because the salt blocks were too narrow to eliminate edge effects described below. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Collectively the experimental data support the hypothesis that rillenkarren are rainfall-induced phenomena. In all cases closely packed rills were propagated from the crests of the inclined working f surfaces and terminated in ausgleichflache. There was no significant change o slope angle during the course of each experiment, i.e. taken as a whole, the surfaces displayed simple parallel retreat. In all experiments with plaster short, very shallow rills could be discerned at the crest after a few tens of hours of rainfall. These lengthened and deepened steadily for approximately 200 hours after which the rate of lengthening declined, ceasing altogether between 300 and 400 hours. Rate of deepening also declined but some deepening may still have been occurring when the experiments were terminated at 500 hours. Initial rills varied substantially in width; greater uniformity was produced by a process of lateral coalescence in which wider rills consumed adjoining, narrower ones. This process was rarely fully completed: at 500 hours most surfaces retained a few narrow, partly consumed rills towards their crests. This characteristic is to be seen on most natural rillenkarren surfaces as well. It is a principal cause of variance in the statistics reported below.
I
I

0
Rill length In centimetres

Figure 3. Histograms of rillenkarren length obtained on plaster at 45" in three separate experiments

30

J. J. GLEW AND D. C. FORD

In all experiments, rills closest to the sides (lateral edges) of the working surfaces were much longer than the others. This is an edge effect attributable to loss of water over the sides of the models and identical in its consequences to the rim effect discussed below. To reduce it, no rillenkarren within 10 cm of either edge were included in the statistical analyses. Extended rillenkarren at edges are common on natural exposures. It is most probable that failure to discount these adequately explains the absence of a significant relationship between gradient and rill length at the Surprise Valley field site described above.
Slope gradient and rillenkarren length The experiments indicate that there is a stropg log linear relationship between the gradient of a surface and the length of rills developed upon it, after due allowance is made for edge effects. The relationship is illustrated in Table I and Figure 4B.The measure of separation of the three different histograms in Figure 4A is comparatively poor because of inclusion of partly consumed initial rills and because, despite the 10 cm exclusion bands, it is suspected that minor edge effects remain. We believe that if the experiments were repeated with wider models run for more than 1,000 hours each to eliminate these effects, much sharper separation would be obtained. Such experiments would be less realistic because in natural cases local variations of gradient and surface roughness will always cause some dispersion o rill iength. f The equation of the line of Figure 4B is

E=

1.27 exp [Om52 S]

(3)

where S = gradient in degrees. The lower limiting gradient for rillenkarren development, indicated by extrapolation, is 8but it will be noted that this has not been tested experimentally. The Surprise Valley data indicated a higher value for limestone under natural conditions, which may be a consequence of greater variation of all variables in the field. The upper limiting gradient for rillenkarren could not be specifically investigated because of height limitations in the simulator. But rills propagated from the working crests down the reverse slopes of the plaster models suggest that reduction of length may commence around 70. For natural rillenkarren on soluble rocks, Equation 3 may be generalized

L = T u ( I , U,)exp [ b S ]

(4)

where T = temperature, u = u ( T , Ir, Ut)= Tu(I,, Ut), Ir = intensity and /or droplet size of rain fall and U,= a term for the textural homogeneity of the rock. The temperature term remains to be evaluated but, following authors cited above, is believed to be significant. The term for rainfall intensity and droplet size is included for the sake of theoretical completeness but, given

Table I. Rillenkarren lengths for eight principal experiments with plaster of paris blocks
No. of No.

measured Gradient (degrees) rillenkarren

45 35 55 30 224 45 50 60 56 56 45 51 50 57 48 24t

ff rill length
(cm)
12.5 7.4 23.4 6.1 4.1 12.5 22.3 25.0

(+

rill length

(4
4.5 242 4.5 1.7 1.1
4.9

3.8 2.6

t Because of the anticipated length of rills, the 60 X 36 cm block was reoriented for experiment number 8. Rills developed from a 36 cm crest width instead of 60 cm as in previous experiments. This explains the smaller number of rills created.

DEVELOPMENT OF RILLENKARREN
20

31

- 35 Degrees
i-'
I

15

145 Degrees

1 0

r--1

I I

7-1
1 1

L
I
I

55 Degrees

0 0

I
1 5

I
30
35

1 0

20

25

LENGTH OF RlLL IN CENTIMETRfS

B
SLOPE DEG
22.5

LENGTH
CM

4.1 6 .? 7.4

30

35
45 50 55

1 25
23.3 23.4 250

60
20 30
SURFACE

40

50

60

SLOPE IN DEGREES

Figure 4A. Histograms of rillenkarren length obtained on plaster in experiments at 35", 45" and 55". B. The relationship between surface slope and rillenkarren length obtained in the principal experiments with plaster

the extreme variability of these quantites in and between storms at any natural site, it is probably intractable. The term may not be significant except at a lower limit where light rains of small droplet size will not produce rillenkaren, or at the very initiation of the rill patterns. In Equation 4 it may appear that a term for the solubility of a principal mineral is desirable but because the dominant solution process is effectively instantaneous the absolute mineral solubility is unlikely to be important as a determinant of length. Textural homogeneity or inhomogeneity of the host rock (size and roughness of soluble grains, size and frequency of insolubles and voids, etc) certainly is an important determinant. It may not be easily quantified for, in our field experience, most soluble rocks fall into one of two extreme categories: either they are sufficiently homogeneous to permit rillenkarren extension without impediment or they are so inhomogeneous that rillenkarren are precluded. Intermediate cases are to be found, particularly on dolomites, but

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J. J. GLEW AND D. C. FORD

Table II. Mean rillenkarren width (mm) on experimental plaster of paris surfaces, measured at percentage mean length stations for each block
26 per cent from crest
43 per cent

Gradient
229 3 0"

from crest
-

87 per cent from crest

7.5 8-5

6.6 6.0 6.2 6.3 5.5

6.6
7-2

35"
45" 5 0"

8.5
8.0 8.2 7.9

6.8 6.8
7.0

60"

they are comparatively rare. Recognizing difficulties encountered with the terms for rainfall and rock homogeneity, an approximate but practical equation for rillenkarren-bearing rocks is

L = Tat exp [ b S ]

(5)

Rill width and cross-section In all experiments patterns of rills propagated to occupy all available space in the crest zone of the working surfaces, interfluves being reduced to the sharp intercepts of adjacent channels. Rill width did not vary with gradient (see Table 11) but there was a tendency for it to increase downslope as a consequence of the more complete elimination o narrow initial rills. Rill width is determined by a characteristic o the host f f material. Figure 5 compares widths from typical experimental plaster and salt blocks with natural examples on Palliser limestone (Devonian) in Surprise Valley. The controlling characteristic is probably grain size: the experimental plaster was invariably fine-grained and the salt coarse-grained. The Palliser limestone is medium-grained: qualitatively, the widths of its rillenkarren are similar to those we have observed on many other crystalline limestones. Natural salt tends to be coarse-grained like the experimental salt and in rilled examples viewed in the geological collection o the University of British Columbia, rill width appeared to be f as great as or greater than that produced in our experiments with the artificial solid. The evolution of rill cross-sections on the plaster models was monitored carefully by means of height gauges, casts, photography and line projection. Figure 6A, comparing a mature experimental cross-section

15

Simulated

plaster surface

0 I 0

One millimefre class interval

Figure 5. Histograms of rill width on typical experimental plaster and salt blocks, and upon a natural limestone block from Surprise Valley, Rocky Mountains of Canada

DEVELOPMENT OF RILLENKARREN

33

0 1 20 30 40 50 0

-mm

NATURAL

LIMESTONE

SIMULATE0

(PLASTER!

Figure 6A. Cross-sections of rillenkarren from an experimental plaster block at 60" and from a natural limestone block at 70" in Surprise Valley, Rocky Mountains of Canada. B. Evolution of plaster surface at 45", 120-500 hours after beginning the experiment. Parabolas of varying value of n are shown for comparison

at 60" with a natural cross-section at 70" on Palliser limestone, indicates the high degree of geometric similarity obtained in the experiments. Figure 6B illustrates evolution of a portion of a 45" model between 120 and 500 hours. From many profiles such as those in this figure it was determined that rillenkarren cross-sections approach a parabolic form. Because rill width is fixed by competition with neighbouring rills, deepening by solution as time progresses produces a cross-section that conforms closely to the equation
--

where d =width. For the experimental rills on plaster and salt values of n ranged fron approximately 10 in the early stages of development to 3 for rills approaching an equilibrium state. Natural rillenkarren o n the Palliser limestone sample of Figure 6A have n values within this range. Physical implications of the parabolic form are discussed in the concluding section of this paper.

34

J. J. GLEW AND D. C. FORD

Solutional reduction of the experimental surfaces As determined by 25-point micrometry on the 60 x 36 cm blocks solution reduces rill troughs and all parts of the ausgleichflache in parallel at the original gradient, implying that solution rates are constant everywhere on the surface except the tiny rill partitions. This finding is supported by the grossly planar characteristic of most simple rillenkarren surfaces in nature, although it does not apply where rillenkarren are secondary colonists on the sides of larger solutional features such as kamenitzas (solution pits). Rate of reduction of the experimental surfaces was found to depend directly on gradient and rainfall intensity, not surprisingly: these two factors determine the amount of water intercepted and its residence time on a surface, therefore regulating the amount of solution that can take place. Figure 7 depicts the graph of reduction of the surfaces (500 hours) against gradient, rainfall intensity invariate. The optimum combination of collecting area and renewal of exposure to denudation occurs at 45" for this simplest case of erosion by aqueous solution in the presence of a saturated fluid boundary layer. On natural surfaces it must be supposed that prevailing winds, etc., may cause some local distortions of the function. For comparison, the Renner (1936) and Horton (1945) graphs for mechanical erosion by sheet, rill and gully flow on larger, mantled slopes are superimposed on the graph, though it should be noted that the ordinate scales are different. Genesis of rillenkarren and ausgleichflache Maintenance of a uniform rate of solution on surfaces which develop two distinct morphological zones, rilled and planar, under sustained rainfall indicates that whilst the solvent capacity of the water is similar at all points, two unlike eroding processes are localized. It is suggested that this differentiation is a consequence of a critical change in the thickness of the film of flowing water and of the degree of turbulence propagated at the base of that film by impacting droplets. An alternative hypothesis, that the differentiation is a response to changing aggressivity of the water as it moves downslope (Lehmann (1927), Bogli (1961)) must be rejected because of the constancy of erosion rate that has been demonstrated: this suggestion is also
80

60

c
2
0

L l

a
a

u)

Z 40

a w
20

0
0
1 0

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

SLOPE ANGLE DEGREES

Figure 7. The relationshipbetween mean surface lowering of the experimental plaster blocks and their gradient. For comparison, the 'percent erosion' curves for mechanical erosion published by Renner (1936) and Horton (1945) are given. N.B. The ordinate scales are different

DEVELOPMENT OF RILLENKARREN

35

unlikely to be true because of efficient replenishment and mixing of the flowing film by raindrops striking everywhere on the surface. Any element of an inclined surface receives direct rainfall plus a volume of run-off from upslope. Under sustained rainfall impermeable surfaces have deeper water on the lower slopes because acceleration of flow is retarded by surface roughness. At 45inclination and 35 mm/hour rainfall water film thickness was found to increase from 0.15 f 0.05 mm to 0.20 f 0.05 mm down the experimental ausgleichflache. Therefore, the critical value of film thickness may be set at =z 0.15 mm. Upslope surfaces and lateral edges where this value is not attained may be described as subject to rim effect and rillenkarren as phenomena of a rim effect zone. Length of the zone (length of rillenkarren) is not simply predetermined by the combination of initial gradient and rainfall intensity. The experiments revealed that developing rillenkarren extended the zone into the ausgleichflache until equilibrium length was attained. Rim effect was first described by Smith amd Albritton (1941) and Hoffmeister and Ladd (1945) when studying the raised edges found on some weathered clints (flat, segregated limestone surfaces). It is evident from our experiments and those o Purdy (1974) that the effect is self-perpetuating, partitions and edges f increasing in relief to an equilibrium value determined by properties of the rock, probably grain size and bonding. In the case of rillenkarren, in the hydrodynamic zone of rim effect and under the random fall of raindrops, initially planar surfaces are transformed into sets of close-packed rills of straight plan form and approximately parabolic cross-section. Two factors explain the transformation. The first is the unidirectional and strong effect of gravity. On planar slopes rills and partitions are always oriented directly down the fall line because gravity is effective in directing falling droplets, splash and film flow. The second factor relates to a unique property of the parabola, that it deflects parallel forces through a focal point. In the experiments and in nature, most raindrops are falling in parallel motion as they approach the surface. The rillenkarren cross-section in the mature form ( n < 6 in Equation 6) may be regarded as a most efficient shape that minimizes droplet impact upon channel sides, thereby reducing dissipation of energy across rill partitions and allowing only a narrow central portion of the rill trough to receive impact directly. Direct and deflected droplets reduce the trough at a rate closely commensurate with that prevailing upon the ausgleichflache. Rillenkarren are therefore the expected, stable landform in zones of rim effect on soluble rocks, given that rainfall intensity, surface gradient and rock homogeneity are sufficient. The rillenkarren channel is radically different from flow-formed conventional stream channels of corrasional or other origin. First Order rills, as Horton (1945) referred to them, can only be established where the film flow of an ausgleichflache or belt of no (channelled) erosion reaches an unstable thickness and breaks down to turbulent flow. The karstic equivalent of First Order corrasional rills are rinnenkarren (Bogli (1960))which head at the base of ausgleichflache, are separated by broad interfluves and are an order of magnitude larger than rillenkarren. Occasionally rillen, ausgleichflache and rinnen occur in association in one field assemblage but this is uncommon.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are indebted to Dr. M. F. Goodchild and two anonymous referees (one of whom suggested the modification of Equation 6 adopted here) for review of this paper and to R. Bignell, R. Zablocki and J. Mayer for technical assistance in the laboratory. The National Research Council o Canada provided f financial support.
REFERENCES Bogli, A. (1960). Kalklosung und Karrenbildung, Zeirschrifr fur Geomorphologie,Supplementband 2, 4-21. BogIi, A. (1961). Karrentische, ein Beitrag tur Karstmorphologie,Zeitschrifr fiir Geomorphologie, 5, No. 3, 185-193. Blumberg, P. N., and Curl, R. L. (1974). Experimentaland theoretical studies of dissolution roughness, Journal of Fluid Mechanics, 65,735. Bryan, R. B. (1970). An improved rainfall simulator for use in erosion research, Canadian Journalof Earth Sciences, 7,1525-1531. Glew, J. R. (1976). The simulation of rillenkarren, unpublished McMaster University M.Sc. thesis, 116 p. Goodchild, M. F., and Ford, D. C. (1971). An analysis of scallop patterns, Journal of Geology, 79, No. 1, 52-62. Gum, R., and Kinzer, G . D. (1949). Terminal velocity of fall for water droplets in stagnant air, Journal ofMereorology,6,243-248.

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J. J. GLEW AND D. C. FORD

Hoffmeister, J. E., and Ladd L. S. (1945).Solution effects on elevated limestone terraces, Bulletin, Geological Society ofAmerica, 56, 809-8 18. Horton, R. E. (1945). Erosional development of streams and their drainage basins; hydrophysical approach to drainage basins and their morphology, Bulletin, Geological Society of America, 56, 275-370. Jennings, J. N. (1971). Karst, Cambridge, Mass., and London, The M.I.T., Press. Lehmann, 0. (1927). Das Tote Gebirge als Hochkarst, Mitteilungen der geographische Gesellschaft, Wien, 70, 201-242. Luckman, B. H. (1976). Rockfall and Rockfall Inventory Data: Some Observations from Surprise Valley, Jasper National Park, Canada, Earth Surface Processes, 1, No. 3, 287-298. Lundberg, J. (1977).An analysis of the form of rillenkarren from the tower karst of Chillagoe, Australia, Proceedings, 7th International Speleological Congress, Sheffield, England, pp. 294-296. Plummer, L. N., and Wigley, T. M. L., (1976). The dissolution of calcite in C02-saturated solutions at 25C and 1 atmosphere total pressure, Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acra, 40, 191-202. Purdy, E. G. (1974). Reef Configurations: Cause and Effect, in Laporte, L. F. (Ed.), Reefs in Time and Space, Society of Economic Palaeontologists and Mineralogists, Special Publication Vol. 18, pp. 9-76. Renner, F. G. (1936).Conditions influencing erosion on theBoise River Watershed, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Technical Bulletin 528. Smith, J. F., and Albritton, C. C. (194 1).Solution effects on limestone as a function of slope, Bulletin, Geological Society ofAmerica, 52,61-78. Sweeting, M. M. (1972). Karsr Landforms, London, Macmillan. Wilford, G. E., and Wall, J. R. D. (1965). Karst topography in Sarawak, Journal of Tropical Geography, 21,44-70. Yalin, M. (1971). Theory of Hydraulic Models, London, Macmillan.