1

CLASS 2
(Sections 1.3)
Exponential and Sinusoidal Signals
They arise frequently in applications, and many other signals can be constructed from them.
Continuous-time complex exponential and sinusoidal signals:
r(t) = Cc
o|
where C and c are in general complex numbers.
Real exponential signals: C and c are reals.
0
0
C
t
C
e
a
t
C>0 and a>0.
0
0
C
t
C
e
a
t
C>0 and a<0.
The case c 0 represents exponential growth. Some signals in unstable systems exhibit exponential
growth.
The case c < 0 represents exponential decay. Some signals in stable systems exhibit exponential
decay.
2
Periodic complex exponential:
c
)&
0
|
where , =

1, u
0
= 0 is real, and t is the time.
Eulers formula: c
)&
0
|
= cos(u
0
t)

Re{c

}
+, sin(u
0
t)

Im{c

}
. Note that
1 0 1
1
0
1
e
jw
0
t
cos(w
0
t)
sin(w
0
t)
Re
I
m
c
)&
0
|
= 1 and c
)&
0
|
= u
0
t.
c
)2I
= 1, for / = 0. 1. 2. . . . .
Since
c
)&
0
(
|+
2

)
= c
)&
0
|
c
)2

0

= c
)&
0
|
c
)2sign(&
0
)

=1
= c
)&
0
|
we have
c
)&
0
|
is periodic with fundamental period
2
u
0

.
Note that
c
)&
0
|
and c
)&
0
|
have the same fundamental period.
Energy in c
)&
0
|
:

c
)&
0
|
dt =

1.dt =
Average Power in c
)&
0
|
: lim
T
1
2T

T
T
c
)&
0
|
dt = lim
T
1
2T

T
T
1.dt = 1.
{c
)I&
0
|
}
I=0,1,...
, are all periodic with period
2
&
0

. They are called a harmonically related set of

complex exponentials with c
)I&
0
|
being the /th harmonic.
3
Sinusoidal signals:
cos(u
0
t + o) and sin(u
0
t + o).
where is real, u
0
is real, o is real, and t is the time. (Graph one of the signals!)
They arise in systems that conserve energy such as an ideal LC circuit or an ideal mass-spring system.
Periodic with the same fundamental period 1
0
= 2,u
0

u
0
is the fundamental frequency
)
0
:= 1,1
0
= u
0
,(2) is the number of cycles per unit time (large )
0
means more oscillatory)
is the amplitude
o is the size of the phase shift.
Since
c
)(&
0
|+c)
= cos(u
0
t + o) + , sin(u
0
t + o)
we can write
cos(u
0
t + o) = Re(c
)(&
0
|+c)
)
sin(u
0
t + o) = Im(c
)(&
0
|+c)
).
Recall, for any complex number .,
. = Re(.) + ,Im(.) .

= Re(.) ,Im(.)
therefore
Re(.) =
. + .

2
Im(.) =
. .

2,
.
Hence, we can also write
cos(u
0
t + o) =

2
(
c
)(&
0
|+c)
+
(
c
)(&
0
|+c)
)

)
=

2
(
c
)(&
0
|+c)
+ c
)(&
0
|+c)
)
=

2
c
)c
c
)&
0
|
+

2
c
)c
c
)&
0
|
sin(u
0
t + o) =

2,
(
c
)(&
0
|+c)

(
c
)(&
0
|+c)
)

)
=

2
c
)2
(
c
)(&
0
|+c)
c
)(&
0
|+c)
)
=

2
c
)(c2)
c
)&
0
|

2
c
)(c+2)
c
)&
0
|
.
4
General complex exponential signals:
Cc
o|
where C and c are complex numbers.
If
C = Cc
)0
and c = : + ,u
0
then
Cc
o|
= Cc
)0
c
(+)&
0
)|
= Cc
|
c
)(&
0
|+0)
= Cc
|
cos(u
0
t + o)

Re(Cc

)
+, Cc
|
sin(u
0
t + o)

Im(Cc

)
.
0
0
|C|e
rt
|C|e
rt
t
R
e
(
C
e
a
t
)
r>0.
0
0
|C|e
rt
|C|e
rt
t
R
e
(
C
e
a
t
)
r<0.
If : = 0, the real and imaginary part are sinusoidals.
If : 0, the real and imaginary part are sinusoidals multiplied by a growing exponential.
Such signals arise in unstable systems.
If : < 0, the real and imaginary part are sinusoidals multiplied by a decaying exponential.
Such signals arise in stable systems, for example, in RLC circuits, or in mass-spring-friction system,
where the energy is dissipated due to the resistors, friction, etc.
5
Discrete-time complex exponential and sinusoidal signals:
r[:] = Cc
oa
where C and are complex numbers.
Analogous to the continuous-time case with the following differences: (u
0
is real below)
c
)&
0
|
= c
)&
1
|
are different signals if u
0
= u
1
, whereas
c
)&
0
a
= c
)&
1
a
if u
0
u
1
= 2/. for some / {0. 1. . . . }.
(Explain this on the unit circle!)
Therefore, it is sufcient to consider only the case u
0
[0. 2) or u
0
[. ).
As u
0
increases c
)&
0
a
oscillates at higher frequencies, whereas this is not the case for c
)&
0
a
.
In the gure below, the frequency of oscillations increases as u
0
changes from 0 to then it decreases
as u
0
changes from to 2.
c
)&
0
|
is periodic with fundamental period 2,u
0
, whereas
c
)&
0
a
is periodic c
)&
0
a
= c
)&
0
(a+A)
for some integer ` 0. for all :
c
)&
0
A
= 1 for some integer ` 0
u
0
` = 2: for some integers :. ` 0

u
0
2
is rational.
If
&
0
2
=
n
A
for some integers : and ` which have no common factors, then the fundamental period
is ` =
2n
&
0
because
c
)&
0
(a+.)
= c
)&
0
a
c
)
2

.
.
The same observations hold for discrete-time sinusoids.
6
n=0
Re
I
m
w
0
=0/8
n=0
n=1
n=2
n=3
n=4
n=5
n=6
n=7
n=8
n=9
n=10
n=11
n=12
n=13
n=14
n=15
Re
I
m
w
0
=1/8
n=0
n=1
n=2
n=3
n=4
n=5
n=6
n=7
Re
I
m
w
0
=2/8
n=0
n=1
n=2
n=3
Re
I
m
w
0
=4/8
n=0 n=1
Re
I
m
w
0
=8/8
n=0
n=1
n=2
n=3
Re
I
m
w
0
=12/8
n=0
n=1
n=2
n=3
n=4
n=5
n=6
n=7
Re
I
m
w
0
=14/8
n=0
n=1
n=2
n=3
n=4
n=5
n=6
n=7
n=8
n=9
n=10
n=11
n=12
n=13
n=14
n=15
Re
I
m
w
0
=15/8
n=0
Re
I
m
w
0
=16/8
Fig. 1. To determine the fundamental period, count the number of steps to get back to 1!
7
Examples:
1) Is r[:] = c
)a23
+ c
)a34
periodic? If it is periodic, whats its fundamental period?
For c
)a23
, u
0
,(2) = 1,3, so c
)a23
is periodic with fundamental period 3.
For c
)a34
, u
0
,(2) = 3,8, so c
)a34
is periodic with fundamental period 8.
r[:] is periodic with fundamental period 24 = |c:(3. 8).
2) Is r[:] = sin(3:,4) periodic? If it is periodic, whats its fundamental period?
Since
&
0
2
=
3
8
is irrational, r[:] is not periodic; see the gure where r[:] = 0 only at : = 0.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
1
0
1
t
sin(3t/4) and sin(3n/4)
3) Is r[:] = sin(8:,31) periodic? If it is periodic, whats its fundamental period?
Since u
0
,(2) = 4,31, r[:] is periodic with fundamental period 31; see the gure where r[0] =
r[31] = 0. Note that the continuous-time signal sin(8t,31) has fundamental period 31,4, hence it
is 0 at t = 31,4. But r[:] has no 31,4th sample and it misses 0 between r[7] and r[8].
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011121314151617181920212223242526272829303132333435
1
0
1
t
sin(8 t/31) and sin(8 n/31)
8
Harmonically related discrete-time periodic exponentials:
o
I
[:] = {c
)I(2.)a
}
I=0,1,...
, are all periodic with period `.
However, unlike the continuous-time signals, these signals are not all distinct because
o
I+.
[:] = c
)(I+.)(2.)a
= c
)I(2.)a
c
)2a
= o
I
[:].
This implies that there are only ` distinct signals in this set, for example,
o
0
[:] = 1
o
1
[:] = c
)2a.
o
2
[:] = c
)4a.
.
.
.
o
1
[:] = c
)2(.1).
.