Food Bioprocess Technol (2011) 4:12371244 DOI 10.

1007/s11947-009-0210-2

ORIGINAL PAPER

A Study on Degree of Starch Gelatinization in Cakes Baked in Three Different Ovens

Ozge Sakiyan & Gulum Sumnu & Serpil Sahin & Venkatesh Meda & Hamit Koksel & Peter Chang

Received: 10 February 2009 / Accepted: 19 April 2009 / Published online: 12 May 2009 # Springer Science + Business Media, LLC 2009

Abstract The main objective of the study was to determine the effects of different baking ovens and different cake formulations on the degree of starch gelatinization during cake baking. Baking was performed in microwave, infraredmicrowave combination, and conventional ovens. Starch gelatinization levels of fat free, 25% fat, and 25% Simplesse-containing cake samples were examined using differential scanning calorimeter (DSC) and rapid visco analyzer (RV A). Both DSC and RV results showed that A increasing baking time increased gelatinization level for all baking types significantly. It was also found that the effect of fat content on starch gelatinization was different depending on the type of baking. Addition of fat reduced the degree of starch gelatinization in conventional baking.

However, fat enhanced the gelatinization in microwave and infraredmicrowave combination ovens. Usage of Simplesse as a fat replacer decreased the starch gelatinization in all types of baking significantly. There was insufficient starch gelatinization in microwave-baked cakes in which the degree of gelatinization ranged from 55% to 78% depending on formulation. On the other hand, it ranged from 85% to 93% in conventionally baked cakes. Combining infrared with microwaves increased degree of starch gelatinization (7090%). Keywords Microwave baking . Gelatinization . Cake . DSC . RV A

Introduction
O. Sakiyan Department of Food Engineering, Selcuk University, Konya 42075, Turkey G. Sumnu (*) : S. Sahin Department of Food Engineering, Middle East Technical University, METU Campus, Ankara 06531, Turkey e-mail: gulum@metu.edu.tr V Meda . Agricultural and Bioresource Engineering, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5A9, Canada H. Koksel Department of Food Engineering, Hacettepe University, Ankara 06532, Turkey P Chang . Saskatoon Research Center, Saskatoon, SK S7N 0X2, Canada

Gelatinization can be described as a sequence of changes in starch granules upon heating: starch granules first absorb large amounts of water, then swell many times their original size, and finally, their starch components are leached (Lund 1984; Mc Williams 1989; Zallie 1988). Thermal properties are important in starch and have been a primary area of starch research for many years (Roos 1995; Whistler et al. 1984). Study of thermal properties can provide guidelines for processing and utilization of starch and also information for understanding the structure of starch. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) is a powerful tool used to investigate thermal properties and phase transition of starch (Roos 1995). Endo- and exothermal changes in a DSC thermograph reveal transitions or reactions occurring during DSC testing, such as glass transition, gelatinization, and melting. Analysis of DSC data can provide additional information about starch, such

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as its structure and composition, its interaction with other components, the effects of water, and related properties. The rapid visco analyzer (RV is a computer-integrated A) instrument developed to determine the viscous properties of cooked starch, grain, batter, and other foods. This instrument continuously measures apparent viscosity under variable conditions of shear and temperature. The recent studies about RV are on determination of viscosity profile of pasta A enriched with resistant starch (Gelencsr et al. 2008) and maize-based gluten-free bread (Brites et al. 2009). Guler et al. (2002) investigated the effects of industrial pasta drying temperatures on various properties of starch and the quality of pasta. Starch properties were examined by rapid visco analyzer, differential scanning calorimeter, X-ray diffractometer, and polarized light microscope. Pasta dried at a higher temperature (maximum 94 C) had greater RV peak viscosity and breakdown viscosity than the one A dried at a lower temperature (maximum 67 C). Both gelatinization enthalpy and peak temperature of hightemperature-dried pasta were significantly lower than those of very high-temperature-dried pasta. Sciarini et al. (2009) investigated the effects of different flours on thermal and pasting properties of gluten-free batters and found that gelatinization temperature and enthalpies depended on batter compositions. Keskin et al. (2005) investigated the gelatinization of cookies baked in microwave and infraredmicrowave combination ovens by RV The halogen lamp powers of A. 60%, 70%, and 80% and the microwave power of 20% and 30% were used in the study. It was found that combining microwaves with infrared resulted in comparable gelatinization levels with those of conventional baking. Bilbao-Sinz et al. (2007) compared wheat starch gelatinization under microwave irradiation and conduction heating. The microwave power was adjusted to 2,000 W. Different techniques were employed for the evaluation of the effects of microwaves and conduction heating on starch gelatinization. DSC experiments revealed an increase in the enthalpy for short times of microwave-heated samples. Heating method caused no differences in the mechanism of gelatinization Snchez-Pardo et al. (2007) investigated the effects of microwave and conventional oven on starch characteristics of pound cake. The microwave oven with a power of 240 W was employed, and conventional baking was performed at 180 C for 40 min. They employed proximal chemical analysis, total resistant starch, retrograded resistant starch, differential scanning calorimetry, and X-ray diffraction methods for the analysis and reported less starch gelatinization in microwaved pound cake. They attributed this to the limited water availability during microwave heating. The control of starch gelatinization in cake systems has been emphasized as important in obtaining a noncollapsing,

porous cake structure (Kim and Walker 1992). One of the most important drawbacks of microwave baking is the insufficient starch gelatinization in microwave baked products. This is because of the short baking period of microwave system. However, there is limited study in the literature about this subject. In order to avoid insufficient starch gelatinization and improve the quality of baked products, combining infrared with microwave may be an alternative. There are studies in literature investigating the effects of infraredmicrowave combination baking on quality of wheat cakes (Sumnu et al. 2005) and rice cakes (Turabi et al. 2008). In these researches, starch gelatinization was not studied. Therefore, in our study, it was aimed to determine the degree of starch gelatinization in the cakes baked in infraredmicrowave combination oven and to compare this with that in cakes baked in microwave and conventional ovens. In addition, the effects of fat and fat replacer on starch gelatinization during baking in different ovens were studied. Gelatinization degree was determined by using differential scanning calorimetry and rapid visco analyzer.

Materials and Methods Materials Commercial cake flour containing 27% wet gluten, 0.65% ash, and 13.5 moisture/100 g flour (American Association of Cereal Chemists 1990) was obtained from Ankara Un A.., (Ankara, Turkey). Sugar, non-fat dry milk, cake shortening, salt, and baking powder were bought from a local market. Egg white powder was procured from Kitchen Crafts, Inc. (Missouri, USA). The fat replacer, Simplesse, was provided by Cp Kelco (Atlanta, USA). Simplesse behaves almost identically to fat globules due to its particle size. It is mostly whey protein. Methods Preparation of Cake Batter A standard white layer cake batter recipe containing 100 g sugar, 12 g non-fat dry milk, 9 g egg white powder, 3 g salt, 5 g baking powder, and 90 g water were used per 100 g cake flour. Addition of fat (25%) or Simplesse (25%) as a fat replacer was employed for obtaining different formulations. All dry ingredients were mixed as the first step in preparation of the cake batter. Then, melted fat was added to the previously mixed sugar and egg white and mixed with a laboratory mixer/blender for 1 min at low speed (85 rpm; Toastmaster, 1776CAN, China). All other dry ingredients and water were added and mixed for 1 min at

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Fig. 1 Gelatinization degree of cakes with different formulations baked in microwave oven for different baking times: (diamonds)a fat free, (squares)b 25% fat, and (triangles)c 25% Simplesse. Formulations with different letters (a, b, c) are significantly different (p0.05)

Fig. 3 Gelatinization degree of cakes with different formulations baked in conventional oven for different baking times: (diamonds)a fat free, (squares)b 25% fat, and (triangles)c 25% Simplesse. Formulations with different letters (a, b, c) are significantly different (p0.05)

low speed (85 rpm), 1 min at medium speed (140 rpm), and two additional minutes at low speed (85 rpm). Baking Both microwave baking and infraredmicrowave combination baking was performed by using Advantium oven (General Electric Company, Louisville, KY USA). The , cavity size of Advantium oven was 21 cm in height, 48 cm in length, and 33 cm in width. For microwave baking, only microwave power was operated. The microwave power of microwave oven has been determined as 706 W by using IMPI 2-l test (Buffler 1993). For

microwave baking, the microwave power was adjusted to 50%, and the cakes were baked for 120, 150, and 180 s. The center of the cake samples reached to 103105 C during microwave baking. For the infraredmicrowave combination baking, the power levels of the upper (1,500 W) and lower (1,500 W) halogen lamps (IR source) were adjusted to 60%, and the microwave power of 50% was used. Cakes were baked for 210, 270, and 330 s. The center of the cake samples reached to 113115 C during combination baking. In order to provide the required humidity during baking in combination oven, two 600-ml beakers containing 400 ml of water were placed at the back corners of the oven. For conventional baking, a conventional oven (Arcelik, Istanbul, Turkey) was used. The cakes were baked for 22 and 28 min at 175 C. One cake batter (100 g) was placed at a time in the oven during baking process. The best baking conditions were determined by preliminary experiments. According to the results obtained from these experiments, the optimum baking period and power or temperature combinations were determined. Determination of Starch Gelatinization Degree The baked samples were frozen immediately after baking. They were freeze-dried at 40 C for 48 h by using Labconco freeze dry system/freezone 4.5 (Kansas City, MA, USA). They were ground and sieved by 212-m sieves. For gelatinization measurements, DSC Refrigerated Cooling System TA instruments 2010 (Chicago, USA) and rapid visco analyzer, model RV A-4 (Newport Scientific, Warriewood, Australia), were used. For DSC analysis, samples (10 0.1 mg), with 1:1 solid/ water proportion, were weighed in aluminum DSC pans

Fig. 2 Gelatinization degree of cakes with different formulations baked in infraredmicrowave oven for different baking times: (diamonds)a fat free, (squares)b 25% fat, and (triangles)c 25% Simplesse. Formulations with different letters (a, b, c) are significantly different (p0.05)

1240 Table 1 RV characteristics of non-fat cake samples baked in different ovens A Baking type Baking time (min) Peak viscosity (cp) 190.00 92.00 74.00 176.00 163.50 127.50 149.00 123.33 97.33 Trough (cp) 162.00 71.00 60.00 161.00 130.00 110.50 116.00 99.67 81.00 Break down (cp) 28.00 21.00 14.00 15.00 33.50 17.00 33.00 23.67 16.33

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Final viscosity (cp) 376.00 135.00 124.00 233.50 232.50 199.00 208.00 171.67 123.00

Setback

Peak time (s) 6.20 6.80 6.87 6.17 5.97 6.43 6.40 6.80 6.93

Batter Conventional Conventional Microwave Microwave Microwave IRMW Comb IRMW Comb IRMW Comb

22 28 2 2.5 3 3.5 4.5 5.5

b b a a a ab ab ab

b b a a a ab ab ab

a a a a a a a a

b b a a a ab ab ab

214.00 64.00 64.00 72.50 102.50 88.50 85.00 72.00 42.00

a a a a a a a a

a a a a a a a a

Baking types with different letters (a, b) are significantly different (p 0.05) IRMW Comb infraredmicrowave combination

and hermetically sealed. Before analysis, each pan was kept in room conditions minimum for 2 h for standard water absorption of sample. The samples were heated from 30 to 100 C with a heating rate of 10 C/min. For data analysis, the software called Thermal Advantage V ersion 1.1 A was used. Endothermic peak area was recorded. The endothermic peak obtained by heating cake batter in DSC was considered as the enthalpy required for complete gelatinization of the starch in the sample (Ndife et al. 1998). Degree of gelatinization on the baked samples was calculated by using the following equation (Ndife et al. 1998): Gelatinization degree%   HBS 1 100 HCB

For RV analysis, the freeze-dried and ground samples A were used. By taking the moisture content of the sample into consideration, the amount of water to be added to the sample was calculated. The total amount of the samples with water was 29 g. The heating and cooling cycles were programmed in the following manner: The sample was held at 50 C for 1 min, heated to 95 C within 3.5 min, and then held at 95 C for 2.5 min. It was subsequently cooled to 50 C within 3.5 min and then held at 50 C for 2 min. For data analysis, the software called Termocline for Windows, version 2.0, was used. Data Analysis Two-way analysis of variance was applied to determine whether there was significant difference between different formulations, different baking times, and different baking types (p0.05). When significant difference was found,

where HBS is the enthalpy of baked sample, and HCB is the enthalpy of cake batter.

Table 2 RV characteristics of cake samples containing 25 g fat/100 g flour baked in different ovens A Baking type Baking time (min) Peak viscosity (cp) 198.00 94.00 b 80.00 b 175.00 a 172.00 a 147.33 a 136.00 b 116.00 b 96.50 b Trough (cp) 183.00 78.00 b 57.00 b 158.00 a 127.00 a 117.33 a 117.00 ab 81.50 ab 73.00 ab Break down (cp) 15.00 16.00 23.00 17.00 45.00 30.00 19.00 34.50 23.50 Final viscosity (cp) 356.00 124.00 129.00 264.00 236.50 212.00 210.00 143.00 132.50 Set back Peak time (s) 6.57 6.93 6.53 6.00 5.93 6.04 6.60 6.93 6.63

Batter Conventional Conventional Microwave Microwave Microwave IRMW Comb IRMW Comb IRMW Comb

22 28 2 2.5 3 3.5 4.5 5.5

a a a a a a a a

b b a a a ab ab ab

173.00 46.00 72.00 106.00 109.50 94.67 93.00 61.50 59.50

a a a a a a a a

a a b b b a a a

Baking types with different letters (a, b) are significantly different (p0.05) IRMW Comb infraredmicrowave combination

Food Bioprocess Technol (2011) 4:12371244 Table 3 RV characteristics of cake samples containing 25 g Simplesse/100 g flour baked in different ovens A Baking type Baking time (min) Peak viscosity (cp) 168.00 83.00 71.00 120.00 119.00 115.00 110.00 106.00 91.00 Trough (cp) 138.00 75.00 59.00 101.00 101.00 91.00 99.00 91.00 80.00 Break down (cp) 30.00 8.00 12.00 19.00 18.00 24.00 11.00 15.00 11.00 Final viscosity (cp) 334.00 140.00 120.00 194.00 193.00 199.00 210.00 198.00 155.00 Set back

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Peak time (s) 5.87 7.00 6.73 6.53 5.93 5.87 6.80 5.93 6.73

Batter Conventional Conventional Microwave Microwave Microwave IRMW Comb IRMW Comb IRMW Comb

22 28 2 2.5 3 3.5 4.5 5.5

b b a a a a a a

b b a a a ab ab ab

b b a a a b b b

b b a a a ab ab ab

196.00 65.00 61.00 93.00 92.00 108.00 111.00 107.00 75.00

a a a a a a a a

a a a a a a a a

Baking types with different letters (a, b) are significantly different (p 0.05) IR-MW Comb infraredmicrowave combination

Tukeys test was used for comparison by using software MINITAB for Windows (V ersion 14; Minitab Inc., USA). The data were the average of two replicates.

Results and Discussion When the degree of starch gelatinization of cake samples was investigated, it was found that an increase in baking time resulted in a significant increase in the gelatinization degree for all types of baking (Figs 1, 2, and 3). This may be due to the higher temperatures reached during longer processing time. In the case of microwave and infrared microwave combination baking, addition of fat to the formulation caused higher gelatinization degree (Figs. 1 and 2), which can be explained by the higher dielectric properties of the samples with higher fat content than the dielectric properties of other formulations (Sakiyan et al.
Fig. 4 Variation of viscosity with time for fat-free cakes baked in different ovens and for different baking times ( batter, 22-min conventional baking, 28-min conventional baking, 2-min microwave bak2.5-min microing, 3-min wave baking, microwave baking, 3.5-min infraredmicrowave combination baking, 4.5-min infraredmicrowave combination baking, 5.5-min infraredmicrowave combination baking, temperature)

2007). Although fat is known to have lower dielectric properties, fat-containing cakes were shown to have higher dielectric properties than fat-free cakes since fat-containing cakes had lower porosity (Sakiyan et al. 2007). Higher temperature achieved in these samples ended up with higher gelatinization degree. On the other hand, for conventional baking, since the dielectric properties did not affect the heating mechanism, the non-fat samples experienced higher gelatinization degree (Fig. 3). This may be because of the fact that fats are known to delay starch gelatinization by delaying heat transport and the transport of water into the starch granule due to the formation of complexes between the lipid and amylose during baking (Elliasson 1985; Ghiasi et al. 1982; Larsson 1980). It was found that for all types of baking, addition of Simplesse decreased gelatinization degrees significantly. This result can again be explained by low dielectric properties of Simplesse in the case of microwave and infrared

1242 Fig. 5 Variation of viscosity with time for cakes with 25 g fat/100 g flour content baked in different ovens and for different batter, baking times ( 22-min conventional 28 min conbaking, 2-min ventional baking, microwave baking, 2.5-min microwave baking, 3-min microwave 3.5-min infrabaking, redmicrowave combination 4.5-min infrabaking, redmicrowave combination 5.5-min infrared baking, microwave combination baking, temperature)

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microwave combination baking and competition with starch for water in the case of conventional baking (Sakiyan et al. 2007). When the gelatinization degree of cakes baked in microwave oven and combination oven were compared, it can be observed that degree of gelatinization for microwave baking was lower than the ones for conventional baking (Figs. 1 and 3). The time of heating is very fast in microwave oven due to the rapid heat generation inside the food. For this reason, there may not be enough time for completion of baking reactions such as starch gelatinization (Sumnu and Sahin 2005). Since gelatinization is responsible for high quality of cakes, insufficient gelatinization in case of microwave baking may result in unacceptable cake quality. Assisting microwaves with infrared seemed to solve the insufficient gelatinization problem of microwave baking by surface heating of the product (Fig. 2). The gelatinization degree of microwave baked cakes ranged from 55% to 78%. However, combining infrared with
Fig. 6 Variation of viscosity with time for cakes with 25 g Simplesse/100 g flour content baked in different ovens and for different baking times ( batter, 22-min conventional baking, 28-min conventional baking, 2-min microwave baking, 2.5-min microwave 3-min microbaking, 3.5-min wave baking, infraredmicrowave combina4.5-min tion baking, infraredmicrowave combina5.5-min tion baking, infraredmicrowave combination baking, temperature)

microwaves increased gelatinization degree of products (7090%). Generally, when the data obtained from RV measureA ments was examined, it was seen that the same discussion with DSC data was valid for RV data. For all formulaA tions, it was observed that an increase in baking time caused a decrease in peak viscosity, indicating that more gelatinization occurred during longer baking time (Tables 1, 2, and 3 and Figs. 4, 5, and 6). Similarly, Keskin et al. (2005) found that increasing baking time caused a reduction in peak viscosities and resulted in higher gelatinization degrees for cookies. When the RV profiles and peak viscosity values for fatA free and 25% fat-added cakes were investigated, similar to DSC, it can be concluded that fat-added samples had lower peak viscosities as compared to non-fat samples for combination baking (Table 2, Fig. 5). This means that fatcontaining samples experienced higher gelatinization during combination baking due to their higher dielectric

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properties. On the other hand, Simplesse-added batter and cakes had the lowest viscosity values, although in the presence of Simplesse, gelatinization degree of cakes was significantly reduced according to DSC results. The lowest viscosity of Simplesse-containing formulation may not be related to gelatinization but it may be due to its lower water binding capacity than other formulations. If microwave and infraredmicrowave combination baking were compared, higher RV values (peak viscosity, A trough, and final viscosity values) were observed for microwave baked cakes than the infraredmicrowave combination baked ones (Tables 1, 2, and 3). This indicates that a higher level of gelatinization occurred during baking of infraredmicrowave combination baked cakes. The RV A values for cookies baked in microwave oven were also found to be higher than those of conventional and combination baked ones (Keskin et al. 2005). Similar to peak viscosity, trough, and final viscosity values of the cake, samples baked in combination oven were lower. Both trough and final viscosity values of infraredmicrowave combination baked cakes were comparable with those of conventionally baked ones. The peak viscosity values for infraredmicrowave combination baking were almost equal to the ones for conventional baking, which means combination baking solved the insufficient gelatinization problem of microwave baking.

References
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Conclusions The experiments, performed for the investigation of gelatinization of fat-free, 25% fat, and 25% Simplesse-containing cake samples baked in different ovens showed that increasing baking time increased gelatinization level. It was found that addition of fat to the formulation resulted in an increase in gelatinization level for microwave and infraredmicrowave combination baking, whereas for conventional baking, addition of fat reduced the degree of gelatinization. The difference in heating mechanisms of different ovens was responsible for this result. On the other hand, fat replacer, Simplesse, addition was found to result in lower gelatinization degrees for all baking types. This study showed that gelatinization was not complete in microwave-baked cakes. When different baking methods were compared in terms of the degree of starch gelatinization, assisting microwaves with infrared seemed to solve the insufficient starch gelatinization problem observed in microwave baking.

Acknowledgment This research was supported by the Middle East Technical University (BAP-08-11-DPT2002K120510-GT-3).

1244 Sumnu, G., Sahin, S., & Sevimli, M. (2005). Microwave, infrared, infrared-microwave combination baking of cakes. Journal of Food Engineering, 71, 150155. doi:10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2004.10.027. Turabi, E., Sumnu, S. G., & Sahin, S. (2008). Optimization of baking of rice cakes in infraredmicrowave combination oven by

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