Laser Paper

J. Instrum. Soc.
India 33 (4) 229-233
STUDY OF LASER BASED TRANSMISSION/ RECEPTION PARAMETERS UNDER FADING MEDIUMS

Sameer Lakhra, Davinder Pal Sharma and Dr. Jasvir Singh
Dept. of Electronics Technology, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar-143005 ABSTRACT
Laser as a communication medium can provide a good substitute for the present day communication systems as the problem of interference faced in case of electromagnetic waves is not there and high deal of secrecy is available. The present paper involves the study of wireless, open channel communication system using laser a carrier for voice signals. Different fading materials with different transmission co-efficients and different thickness are used as mediums for the transmission of coded laser light signals. Results obtained can be used for the fabrication of high speed, interference free optical communication and perhaps in fabrication of optical fibers of presented materials also.
1. INTRODUCTION Use of laser in communication systems is the future because of the advantages of the full channel speeds, no communication licenses required at present [1], compatibility with copper or fiber interfaces and no bridge or router requirements [2]. Besides this there are no recurring line costs, portability, transparency to networks or protocols, although range is limited to a few hundred meters. Also the laser transmission is very secure because it has a narrow beam (any potential evesdropping will result in an interruption which will alert the personnel. Also it cannot be detected with use of spectrum analyzers and RF meters and hence can be used for diverse applications including financial, medical and military. Lasers can also transmit through glass, however the physical properties of the glass have to be considered. Laser transmitter and receiver units ensure easy, straightforward systems alignment and long-term stable, servicefree operation, especially in inaccessible environments, optical wireless systems offer ideal, economical alternative to expensive leased lines for buildings.
The laser can also be commissioned in satellites for communication, as laser radar requires small aperture as compared to microwave radar [3]. Also there is high secrecy and no interference like in EM waves[4]. Further, potential bandwidth of radar using lasers can translate to very precision range measurement. For these reasons, they can be used as an alternative to present modes of communication. Fig (1) below shows future information network using laser communication, which is both wide-band and high-speed [5].
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Fig-1 : Future information network using laser communication
2. EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP This paper deals with study of wireless open channel communication using laser as a carrier for speech message (modulating signal). For the purpose of transmitter circuit, a condenser mike, an IC-UA741-OP-AMP (whose gain is controlled by 1M potentiometer) and a laser torch (wavelength 630nm) are used as main components[6]. The Receiver circuit uses a phototransistor L14F1, a 2-stage preamplifier prior to IC-LM386 audio power amplifier and then a loudspeaker. The laser-coded signal when positioned on the phototransistor (selected because its high absorption coefficient and excellent responsivity) [7], if followed by tuned amplifier, responds only to frequency of operation. The volume is controlled by a 10 K potentiometer. To avoid a 50Hz, hum noise, phototransistor is kept away from a.c. sources. It is also shielded from direct sunlight. The outputs of transmitter and receiver are then given to dual channel digital CRO (Cathode Ray Oscilloscope) and the 2.5 Mb (Megabyte) line Webcam captures the pictures, which are analyzed. In CRO, 1s is taken as the unit on time axis. Fig (2) shows CRO and its waveforms being captured by the Webcam basic experimental set-up for the study purpose.
Variation is studied on following parameters : A. B. Distance between Transmitter and Receiver. Medium between transmitter and receiver (depending upon transmission coefficient and thickness of various media used for the 630nm laser waves used).
Study of Laser Based Transmission/Reception Parameters under fading mediums
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Fig-2 : Schematic diagram of study of parameters under fading medium
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

1) Firstly, the transmitter and receiver waveform variation was observed on digital CRO by changing the distance between the laser torch in transmitter and phototransistor in the receiver using air as medium. Upto 4.5 feet, there is no variation observed in the output waveforms. But with increase in the distance there is waveform variation due to noise. 2) The medium between the transmitter and receiver is then changed to transparent plastic (2 fold), thicker version of same plastic (4 fold) and blue coloured polythene, sequentially. These have 10, 10.18 and 49 as values of absorption coefficients respectively as calculated by their percentage transmission found using Ultra-Violet Spectrophotometer (in visible range) and by their respective thickness, which are 0.07mm, 0.15mm and 0.02mm (measured using a screw gauge). Absorption coefficient is given by : = (1/t) loge [100 / % T] Where t = thickness & % T = Percentage transmission (of each medium) Pictures of waveforms on CRO are captured using 2.5 MB data line Webcam. Study of waveform results shows that attenuation increases as the distance is increased between the transmitter and receiver (in all three media) and harmonics gets introduced. Also the pulses in the receiver output waveform decrease in time duration. Graphs are plotted on interpretation of waveforms and the analysis is shown in Fig (3), Fig (4) and Fig (5). The graphs show that the pulses in the receiver output waveform decrease in time duration. While the pulse decrease in case of blue polythene is very sharp, it is less sharp in case of 4 fold transparent plastic and least in 2 fold transparent plastic (as distance foot between the transmitter and the receiver is increased from 1 foot to 2 and to 3 foot). Graphs also show that there is frequency deviation in all three cases. This shown in Table 1
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Fig-3 : Variation of pulse duration with distance in case of blue polythene
Fig (4) Variation of pulse duration with distance in case of 2 fold transparent plastic
Fig-5 : Variation of pulse duration with distance in case of 4 fold transparent plastic.
Table 1 : Frequency Deviation in various media: Sl.No. 1. 2. 3. Medium Blue polythene 4 fold transparent plastic 2 fold transparent plastic Frequency Deviation of (in kHz) From 1 to 2 foot 0.375 0.175 0.075 From 2 to 3 foot 0.67 0.45 0.09
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4. CONCLUSION The study reveals that there is attenuation in the various media depending on the absorption coefficient. As the observation table shows that there is high frequency deviation in case of blue polythene, less in 4 fold transparent plastic, and least in 2 fold transparent plastic. This study is useful as an application in field of optical telecommunication and even in defence applications such as wireless communication.
5. REFERENCES
1) John Gower, Optical Communication Systems, 2nd Edition, PHI, New Delhi (1996). 2) http://laserinfrared wireless.com/faq.htm 3) Christopher Allen ET. Al. Development of a 1310nm, Coherent Laser Radar with R.F. Pulse Compression, Proceeding of IEEE IGARSS Conference (2000). 4) A.K. Sawhney & Puneet Sawhney, A Course on Electrical & Electronics Measurements and Instrumentation, 17th Reprint, Dhanpat Rai, Delhi (2000). 5) http://jem.tksc.nasda.go.jp/kibo/kibomefc/lcde_e.html 6) http://efylinux.electronicsforu.com/circuit/jan2002/cirl.htm 7) Senior, John. A, Optical Fiber Communication, Principles & Practice, 2nd Ed., New Delhi (1996).
234 J. Instrum. Soc. India 33 (4) 234-239
DESIGN OF A LONG RANGE LOW LIGHT LEVEL CATADIOPTRIC SYSTEM

Ranabir Mandal and Ikbal Singh
Instruments Research & Development Establishment, Raipur Road, Dehradun, India ABSTRACT
For surveillances purpose in nighttime, the cost effective solution is passive Night Sight using photo multiplier tube or ICCD. Due to photon limiting low light level condition and it limits the range of the system. In the paper, new catadioptric objective designed is described and tested for a long-range surveillance system. The advantage of the proposed system with conventional system is also described.
INTRODUCTION Image intensifier based night vision systems are passive devices used for night driving of tanks, armoured cars and for short-medium range observations through night vision goggles and medium long-range observations on gun-mounted sighting systems. These devices enhance vision in low-light level conditions by using image intensifier tubes (II-tubes) that electrically intensify the available ambient light, They usually contain a high speed (low f/number) objective that transfers a high-resolution image on to the photocathode of II-tube that amplifies the image, which is observed by means of an eyepiece. Much of the performance of such a device depends on throughput of the high aperture and high-speed objective lens. Short-medium range application for tank drivers and aircraft pilots desire short focal length (~50mm) objectives in conjunction with biocular eyepieces of the same focal length to give unit magnifications. Derivatives of Double-Gauss configuration are best suited for such applications. On the other hand, gun-mounted medium-long range application use long focal length (~100mm-150mm) objective along with monocular eyepieces to achieve long ranges under high magnification. Main design requirements of these objectives are high aperture, high speed, minimum vignetting, wide spectral band correction, uniform performance throughout the image field. Petzval type of configurations is typically used to meet this requirement because of its ability to provide relatively simpler construction, long focal lengths and reasonable field of view.
Low light level-imaging system is basically consists of fast objective lens followed by image intensifier tube. The objective lens makes the image on the photocathode of image intensifier tube. The image from the phosphor screen of image intensifier tube can be viewed either by an eyepiece or by a CCD camera. As the system works in photon limited condition; design of the objective becomes important. Brightness as well as resolution of the image are
Design of a long range low light level Catadioptric System
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to be considered simultaneously in the design of these objectives. As resolution increases in the focal length, brightness decreases, hence a compromise has to be made depending upon range requirements and constrains.
LOW LIGHT LEVEL OBJECTIVE There are typical characteristics of Low Light Level Imaging System. Following points are the guiding factors to design objective for such objective lens.
l l l l l l
One of the most important requirements of a Low-Light level Lens system is a fast (low f-number) lens that will provide maximum brightness in the image plane. A relatively large field of view is also an important requirement with its inherently photon limiting resolution. Uniform brightness across the image plane is required. In low light level imaging with its inherently photon limiting resolution, a much higher rating has to be given to high image sharpness. The depth of focus that produces really sharp image is extremely small for a low f-number lens system, so fine adjustment is required. The range of the system increases to a maximum as the f-number decreases and then remains constant for such faster lens systems, all other parameter including the focal length are constant (1). The resolution limits of the intensifier, limits the instrument range and faster lens does not improve the situation (1). There is a large increase in image recognition range as the focal length increases.
l l
DIFFERENT FAST LENS SYSTEM It is a difficult task for optical designer to design and built fast lens system with large entrance pupil size and wide angular field of view. For designing ultra high-speed optical system the optical designer must consider following three systems.
1. Refractive system, consist of only refracting element 2. Catoprtic system, consist of only mirrors, with aspheric corrector. 3. Catadioptric system, consist of both refracting and reflecting elements. Almost all refractive high-speed objective have been developed from one of the three basic lens configuration, Petzval configuration, Cook triplet or Double-Gauss type configuration. Petzval objective has excellent correction capability over a small field. Low F number Double-Gauss objective, covering moderate field, have the defect of oblique spherical aberration and higher order astigmatism. Both these kinds of system become heavy as the aperture increases. Though the cataoptric system having conic surfaces is completely free from chromatic aberration and forms a perfect image of a distant point on the optical axis but produces a large amount of coma in images formed for off axis objects.
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System with reflector suffers from central obscuration, which is either due to the secondary mirror, or due to the detector, which blocks light in the central zone of objective. This light is responsible for much of the sharpness of an objective, while the outer zone contributes most of the aberration of any system forming an image and must be highly corrected. One of the inconveniences of using an optical system with mirror is the reversal in direction of the ray, which cause a loss of light. Both the finite reflectivity of the surface and the interruption of part of the useful light by the recording unit reduce the image intensity. Stray light is one of the main drawback in conventional catadioptric system. Stray light can be completely removed in the conventional system by using primary and secondary baffles, but usually fixing of secondary baffle is mechanically critical. A ray shade can also be used to reduce the stray light.
SIGHT SPECIFICATIONS AND LAYOUT We have considered a F/1.5 catadioptric objectives of focal lengths 445 mm with 2.3 field of view. The detector is Supergen 18mm tube coupled with Sony ICX039BLACCD (ICCD) from Philips Photonics. The spectral range of the system is from 486 to 856 nm. The system is designed to provide range upto 4 km under starlight conditions.
The objective consists of a front plano-convex lens, a Mangine mirror and a field flattener as shown in Fig. l. ICCD is placed in the central hole of the first lens and final image is to be viewed on the monitor. In this configuration, no light except rays for image formation will fall on the image plane, hence stray light problem is completely absent in the system, so there is no need to design secondary baffles and ray shades.
Figure-1
Figure-2
ANALYSIS OF THE OPTICAL SYSTEM The optical system is designed and analysed by CODE V(4), optical design software. During the optimisation process the system was constantly monitored for performance by means of various evaluation options like spot size, ray aberration curves, modulation transfer function and the field aberration. The RMS polychromatic spot size for zero, half and full fields are 6.36m, 6.38m and 7.60m respectively (Fig.4). The relative illumination for zero,
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half and full fields are 100%, 99.9% and 99.6% respectively, which means uniform illumination over the whole field is achieved. Fig.5 shows RIM ray aberrations of the system. Finally fig. 7 shows the polychromatic MTF curve of the objective.
FOCUS ADJUSTMENT Depth of focus is a critical parameter for any fast objective lens. The shift of back focal length (BFL), with respect to different object distance is analysed and the result is shown in the fig. 7. It is found that if the system is focused at infinity, the shift of BFL due to the
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object at 3 km, 4 km and 5 km are 66, 50, 39 micron respectively. The through focus spot of the system with object distance 4 km is shown in fig. 8. and through focus MTF is shown in fig. 9. The evaluation curves shows system will maintain diffraction limiting performance with tolerable focal shift. Hence system focused for 4 km, can be operated for the range from 3 to 5 km, without any defocusing problem.
Figure-8
Figure-9
CONCLUSIONS In this paper, we have reported a new design configuration of a high aperture, long focal length catadioptric objective for Long range passive night vision. It is to be pointed out that the conventional two-fold objective is compact but has a higher central obscuration, requires baffles and ray shade to avoid stray light. Though the designed system is not so compact in comparison to the conventional catadioptric objective, there is no need to use baffle to stop stray light. It has a relatively higher transmission as it uses only one primary mirror. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors are grateful to Mr. J.A.R. Krishna Moorty, Director, IRDE for his able guidance and giving permission to publish this work.
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REFERENCES
1. Electro Optical Photograph of Low Illumination Level, Soule H.V., NY, John Wiley & Sons, 1968. 2. Scoping out Night Vision; NLECTC Bulletin, National Law Enforcement and Corrections Technology Center, March 1996. 3. Long Range Night Vision system AN/PVS-8, Litton Electro-Optical Systems. 4. CODEV is a registered trademark of Optical Research Associates, California. 5. Night Vision Technology, DRDO Monographs, R. Hradaynath, 1999.
A SIX WATT SINGLE STAGE PULSE TUBE REFRIGERATOR OPERATING AT 77K

S. Kasthurirengan, S. Jacob, R. Karunanithi, D.S. Nadig, Upendra Behera and M. Kiran Kumar
Centre for Cryogenic Technology, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560 012, India ABSTRACT
Cryocoolers have found a variety of applications in different areas such as, cooling of Infrared detectors, Charge-Coupled Devices, SQUID magnetometers, Cryopumping etc. In particular, in the last two decades there has been significant technological development in the area of the Pulse Tube Refrigerators (PTRs), due to the absence of moving parts at cryogenic temperature leading to reduced mechanical vibrations and increased reliability. Also, Pulse Tube refrigerators have achieved efficiencies quite comparable to the other Cryocoolers such as Stirling, Gifford McMahon etc, and hence they are considered even for space applications.
Pulse Tube Refrigerators works on the principle that when a gas in the tube is compressed and expanded alternately, heat is transported from one end to the other in the direction of compression, due to the interaction of gas with the wall. The addition of regenerator and heat exchangers at the cold and warm ends of the Pulse Tube produces the refrigeration at the cold end. The Pulse Tube can either be directly coupled to the compressor, (this configuration is know as Stirling type PTR) or a pressure wave generator such as Rotary valve can be used between the compressor and the Pulse Tube, (this configuration is known as GM type PTR). The paper presents the design, performance characteristics and operational experiences of a single stage Pulse Tube Refrigerator of GM type, which produces 6W of refrigeration power at 77K. All the components of this system are indigenous except for the helium compressor of 3 kW capacity. The experimental results are discussed in the light of applications, where the temperature of the cold end needs to be maintained constant at different orientations of the Pulse Tube.
1. INTRODUCTION Cryo-refrigerators operate at low temperature to produce the required refrigeration power. Several types of cryocoolers based on different cycles such as GM, Stirling and Pulse Tube have been used for a variety of applications. Some of the important applications are Sensor cooling, radiation shield cooling, cooling of superconducting magnets, cryopumping etc. In these systems, the high and low pressures (the discharge and suction pressures) from the
A six watt single stage pulse tube refrigerator operating at 77k
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helium compressor is alternately connected at a specific frequency to the cold head by a rotary valve. Of the different cryocoolers, Pulse Tube have been preferred due to the absence of moving parts at cryogenic temperatures, leading to their increased reliability and long term performance. In a typical pulse tube cooler, the high and low pressures of the working gas are alternately applied to the empty Pulse Tube through a Regenerator. Due to the heat pumping effect from the open end to the closed end of the Pulse Tube, refrigeration is produced. In this paper, we discuss the development of a single stage Pulse Tube system which produces refrigeration of 6 Watts at 77 K.
2. EXPERIMENTAL SETUP The schematic of experimental set up is shown in Figure 1. The pulse Tube and the Regenerator housings are made up of AISI 304 stainless steel. The dimensions of the Pulse
Fig. 1 : Schematic of single stage pulse tube cryocooler
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Tube are 14mm o.d., 13.3 mm i.d. and 250 mm length, while those of the Regenerator are 19mm o.d., 18.3 mm i.d. and 210 mm length. The heat exchangers and the flow straightners are made of copper of electrolytic grade. The Regenerator matrix is made of stainless steel wire meshes of size 200 and contains approximately 2000 meshes. The warm end of the Pulse Tube is connected to a heat exchanger through which cold water is circulated to maintain it at ambient temperature. Both the Pulse Tube and the Regenerator are mounted to the top flange of the vacuum jacket by O-Ring seals. The cold ends of the Pulse Tube and Regenerator ends in a copper heat exchanger with indium seals. The Helium compressor serves as the source for high and low pressure gas supply to the Pulse Tube. The pressure oscillations are generated by a Rotary Valve, which periodically connects the high and low Pressure of the Helium compressor to the Pulse Tube. The rotary valve has been indigenously deveolped. The design of the setup was such that the Pulse Tube can be operated either in basic, or orifice or double inlet mode with the help of needle valves (Swagelok make) along with a stainless steel buffer volume of 0.5 litres. PT100 sensors are mounted along the Pulse Tube and the regenerator to measure the temperature at different locations as shown in figure 1. Four wire method of measurement has been employed. Piezo electric pressure transducers (KPY47R, Siemens) are used to measure the dynamic pressures at different locations. The sensor outputs are monitored using a scanner and a DMM, which are interfaced to the computer using IEEE 488 interface. Special software in C language enables online monitoring of the data. The Pulse Tube and Regenerator are mounted inside a cylindrical vacuum jacket. The vacuum jacket is fixed to a rotatable horizontal axle, by which the orientation of the Pulse Tube with respect to gravity can be varied from 0to 180. At the cold end of the Pulse Tube, a manganin heater of 62.5 is fixed using GE varnish. Copper leads are used for current flow, while manganin wires are used for voltage measurements. The heater can be energized by using a power supply at constant current mode of operation. The vacuum jacket is evacuated using a vacuum pumping system consisting of a combination of rotary and diffusion pumps.
3. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 3.1. Cooldown behaviour The typical cool-down behaviour in the double inlet mode for the 14mm Pulse Tube operating at 2.3 Hz is shown in Figure 2. The lowest temperature obtained is 43.8 K, with DC flow correction a temperature of 38.3K is reached. Here S1 to S7 represent the sensors positioned on the pulse tube and regenerator as shown in figure 1. Of the above, S5 is the coldest, which is mounted on the regenerator bottom most position.
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Fig. 2 : Cooldown behaviour of Pulse Tube Refrigerator
3.2. Refrigeration Power of the Pulse Tube The cooling power characteristics of the Pulse Tube can be estimated as follows. For a given heat load applied through the heater at the end of the Pulse Tube, the steady temperature reached at the cold end is monitored. The heat load is raised in known steps from 0 to 7W. The typical experimental results for the 14mm Pulse Tube is shown in Figure 3.
Fig. 3 : Cooling Power characteristics of single stage PTR
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The system leads to a refrigeration power of 6Watts at 77K and nearly 8Watts at 100K. In general, DC flow correction leads to lower cold end temperatures and also increased refrigeration power at a given temperature. By using an improved heat exchanger at the cold end, a refrigeration power of 7W at 77K and 9.2W at 100K has been achieved recently.
3.3. Angular variation of cold end temperature of the Pulse Tube Due to the convection effects occurring in the Pulse Tube, the cold end temperature is dependent on the orientation of the Pulse Tube with respect to the gravity. To study this effect, the Pulse Tube is positioned at different orientations and the cold end temperatures are measured. The typical angular variation is shown in Figure 4.
Fig. 4 : Angular variation of Cold End Temperature of PTR
The lowest temperature is observed at the zero degree angle (i.e. the cold end is at the lowermost position). On gradually increasing this angle, the cold end temperature rises slowly up to the angle of 70. Further increase in the angle leads to larger increase in the cold end temperature. It reaches a maximum value at around 120. Beyond this angle, the cold end temperature decreases. At 180( i.e. when the cold end is at the top most position) the cold end temperature is less but not as low as that of zero degree orientation.
4. CONVECTION IN PULSE TUBES The above behaviour is attributed to the convection phenomena occurring in the pulse tubes. Thummes et al. [1,2] have shown that these convection effects can be reduced to some extent either by increasing the frequency of pressure wave oscillations or by using suitable inserts (internal structure) within the pulse tube. Although the latter procedure decreased to
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some extent the orientation dependence, the minimum attainable cold end temperature increases considerably, simultaneously impairing the cooling power characteristics. Hence the present experimental studies have been directed towards a better understanding of convection in Pulse Tubes. The natural convection in fluid layer results from a temperature induced density gradient and the correlated buoyant forces due to gravity. The heat transfer by natural convection is characterized by Nusselt number defined by Nu = (Qcon+Qm)/Qm (1)
Where Qm is the molecular conduction, Nu is a function of Raleigh number Ra and Prandtl number Pr. Qcon refers to the heat flow due to gas conduction. Ra is given as, Ra(x) = g(Th-Tc)x3 Pr/ (2 <T>) (2)
Here g is the acceleration due to gravity, Th and Tc are the high and low temepratures at the ends of the tube, x is the distance parameter and is the kinematic viscosity. <T> is the average temperature across the Pulse Tube. Defining the angle between the gravity vector and the Pulse Tube as , Nu( = 0) is 1. For small angles of convection below 90 i.e. 2 < < 90 Nu = 0.58[Ra(d)sin]1/5 Nu = 1.44 + [Ra(L) cos(l80-) / 5830]1/3 (3)
With d as the diameter of the Pulse Tube. For angles between 100 to 180 (4)
In the above equation L refers to the length of the Pulse Tube. Using these expressions, one can arrive at theoretical Nu and compare them with the experimental data. Such a comparison shows the deviation of the theory from experimental results. It is observed that theoretical Nu is smaller compared to the experimental Nu. The theoretical Nu does not show a maximum with respect to the angle of orientation (as indicated by experiment). Towards the better understanding of convection effects, experiments have been carried out with Pulse Tubes of different lengths and at different operating frequencies. Detailed analysis is underway.
5. CONCLUSION
In this paper, the development of single stage Pulse Tube refrigerator which is capable of producing 6W to 7W refrigeration at 77K is discussed. This system is entirely indigenous except for the Helium Compressor. Currently, work towards the indigenisation of the helium compressor is in progress. The present system will be extremely useful towards many applications such as sensor cooling as well as studies of experimental samples at cryogenic temperatures in many laboratories.
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REFERENCES
1. G. Thummes, M. Schreiber, R. Landgraf and C. Heiden Convective heat losses in Pulse Tube Coolers: Effect of Pulse Tube inclination. Cryocoolers I, Editor R. G. Ross Jr. Plenum Press New York (1997). S. Kasthurirengan, G. Thummes and C. Heiden, Reduction of Convectional Heat Losses in low frequency Pulse Tube coolers with mesh insert Adv. In Cryogenic Engg., 45 (2000). S. Kasthurirengan, G. Thummes and C. Heiden, Elliptical and Circular Pulse Tubes: A Comparative Experimental Study Proceedings of ICEC 18, Mumbai, India (2000) p.547 R. Karunanithi, S. Jacob, and S. Kasthurirengan, Design and development of a Single Stage Double Inlet Pulse Tube Refrigerator, Proceedings of ICEC 18, Mumbai, India (2000) p.539.
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J. Instrum. Soc. India 33 (4) 247-251
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PROGRAMMED MICRO-INCREMENTAL HEIGHT POSITIONING FOR SAMPLE CELL OF PARTICLE SIZE ANALYZER
A.K. Pansare1 and A.M. Narsale2
Western Regional Instrumentation Centre, Mumbai - 400098 Dept. of Physics, University of Mumbai, Mumbai - 400098 ABSTRACT
In photo-sedimentation method of particle size measurement of powdered material, sample cell scanning technique is normally used to reduce the measurement time. It is therefore, necessary to accurately position and move the cell in the optical system. A preprogrammed micro-incremental drive system has been designed which meet these requirements. The micro-step drive mechanism for the flow-through cell consists of a micrometer screwhead mechanically coupled to a high resolution stepper motor. The sample cell is moved by this system in vertical direction so that the cell traverses through the optical scanning system from bottom upwards. The cell holder assembly moves linearly through optical system; the rotational component of the movement being eliminated by the grooved guides of the cell drive assembly. The limit switches at both ends prevent the system from being overdriven. They also provide appropriate signals such as stop, ready, direction change, etc., for the electronic circuitry for the next sequential action to be initiated. The total movement of the sample cell is 30 mm and is accomplished in 12,000 increments, each micro-increment being 0.0025 mm. The sample cell is moved in preprogrammed steps by the main control and driver circuitry. The paper discusses the design features and construction of the assembly. It also discusses the driver and control circuitry used for the micro-incremental height positioning of the sample cell of the particle size analyzer.
1. INTRODUCTION Knowledge of the size characteristics of particulate matter is generally of little value in itself; but particle size measurements are often made to control the quality of the final product, because certain sizes may be correlated with certain desirable properties of the product.
Particle size distribution results are generally obtained in practice by counting and measuring particles directly with a microscope or indirectly from the particle images on photographs, by electronic counting and sizing as with the Coulter Counter, and by measuring sedimentation
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rates. The sedimentation technique of particle size measurement is very often used, as it offers several advantages. It measures a rigorously defined dimension Stokes diameter (or equivalent spherical diameter). Sedimentation size analysis depends on the measured equilibrium velocity of a particle through a viscous medium due to gravitational force being related to the particle by Stokes law. The technique as normally practiced, is slow and the results are easily invalidated by temperature fluctuations and procedural disturbances. To minimize analysis time the position of the sedimentation cell is continuously changed so that the effective sedimentation depth is decreased with time. It is therefore, necessary to accurately position and move the cell in the optical system. In this photo-sedimentation method of particle size measurement of powdered material, the acquired data is presented as cumulative projected area versus Stokesian or equivalent spherical diameter, such that the equivalent spherical diameter indicated at any instant corresponds to the maximum equivalent spherical diameter at the depth where the beam is making the photoextinction measurement. To meet these requirements of accurately scanning and positioning the sample cell, a pre-programmed micro-incremental drive system has been designed.
2. BASIC PRINCIPLE OF THE DESIGNED INSTRUMENT: The photo sedimentation particle size analyzer designed for measurement of particle size distribution of powder samples uses the gravitational sedimentation method together with photoextinction method.
Sedimentation size analysis1 depends on the fact that the measured equilibrium velocity of a particle through a viscous medium, resulting from the action of the gravitational force, can be related to the size of the particles by Stokes law. For spherical particles, Stokes law for sedimentation is expressed as: D= 18 h -------------- x ---- , where ( - o)g t
D is the diameter of the particle, v is the sedimentation velocity of the particle, given by h / t, h is the sedimentation height, t is the sedimentation time, is the sample density, O is the density of the fluid, is the viscosity of the fluid, g is the acceleration due to gravity. From the above Stokes law of sedimentation, for a sample of known density and a liquid of known density and viscosity, the Stokes diameter can be easily obtained if the sedimentation height and the time required to travel that height are accurately measured. The time required to measure fine diameter particles in normal sedimentation process is inherently very large. Hence, to reduce the measurement time and to cover a wide range of particle size distribution, scanning of the sedimentation cell is necessary. In this technique, the sedimentation height is continuously reduced in a programmed manner, such that at any time the sedimentation height is accurately known. The measurement time is thus, drastically reduced from hours to about 20 minutes, for a typical sample. The need for accurate micro-positioning of the sample cell, therefore is highly essential if the results obtained from the instrument are to be accurate, and reliable and the measurement time is to be drastically reduced. The designed micropositioning system for the sedimentation cell meets these requirements.
Programmed micro-incremental height positioning for sample cell of particle size analyzer
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3. DESIGN FEATURES The mechanical assembly of the sample cell drive system is shown in figure 1. The drive mechanism for the flow-through cell consists of a micrometer screw-head driven by a high
Fig. 1 : Mechanical assembly of the sample cell drive system resolution stepper motor requiring 200 pulses for one revolution with a rotational angle of 1.8 degrees per step. The total linear displacement of the sample cell is 30 mm. This distance is covered through the drive mechanism of the system in 12,000 increments, each increment therefore, being 0.0025 mm. The control and the timing section of the instrument, as shown in figure 2, decide the programmed pulsing rate for the stepper motor. Since the incremental step size is known, the sedimentation height that relates to the position of the cell, can be easily determined from which the Stokes diameter (equivalent spherical diameter), can be accurately calculated. Using the scanning technique, the measurement time is drastically reduced from hours to minutes. The micropositioning system is highly accurate. There is minimal backlash thereby ensuring that the positioning of the cell is highly accurate and reproducible. The unislide guides on the sides of the cell holder ensure that the cell moves only in the vertical direction and the ducking and wobbling of the cell is kept to the minimum. To ensure that the sedimentation process is
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Fig. 2 : Block schematic diagram of the sample cell drive system taking place undisturbed, the vibrations due to the stepper motor are minimized by having anti- vibration cushioning for the cell mounting. Further, the vibrations, due to the peristaltic pump used for circulation of the sample through the cell, are minimized by having the pump assembly mounted on a specially designed anti-vibration mounting. Mounted on the drive is the sample cell holder. The cell holder has a unique locking feature that locks the cell in the holder so that every time the position of the cell is reproducible. The micro-limit switches at the top and the bottom ensure that the cell movement is restricted to within the limits. The bottom switch is activated at the end of the scan, the direction of the stepper motor is reversed and the motor reset at a higher pulse rate. When the cell reaches the top i.e. home position, the top limit switch is activated, the motor is stopped and the direction of the motor again reversed. The system is now ready for the starting of the next analysis. For accurate calibration of the position of the cell at the beginning of the analysis and at the end of the scan, there is a provision for fine adjustment of the positions of both the limit switches that ensures correct starting and stopping of the stepper motor.
4. DESIGN OF THE CONTROL CIRCUITRY : The control circuitry of the driver section generates the appropriate code sequence required for the stepper motor2,3,4. This section also sets the correct direction of rotation of the motor as decided by the program during the normal analysis and during resetting of the stepper motor at the end of the analysis. Higher stepping rate is used during the reset operation to return the sample cell to its home position at the fastest permissible speed. The electronic driver circuitry for the stepper motor consists of power transistor stages for driving the high current motor windings. Pre-amplifier driver stages are used to the meet the power requirements. A separate
Programmed micro-incremental height positioning for sample cell of particle size analyzer
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printed circuit board has been designed for the stepper motor driver circuitry. It has been connected to other circuits; through appropriate connectors. The layout of the system has been designed in such a manner that it enables easy hardware debugging by having test points and signal injection points. These features considerably aid during fault diagnosis. Figure 2 shows the block schematic diagram of the sample cell drive system. Across each motor winding protection diodes are used to suppress the EMI likely to generated by the back-emf during the switching of the high currents in the motor windings. Separate high current/high voltage power supply has been designed for the stepper motor so as to reduce interference with the low current/low voltage power supply used for sensitive digital and analog circuitry.
5. CONCLUSIONS The described system is a subsystem of particle size analyzer used for measuring particle size distribution of powdered samples. The design of the system enables the accurate position of the sample cell, so that the sedimentation height can be easily determined. From the sedimentation height the Stokes diameter is obtained. The accuracy of the positioning of the sample cell is evident from the high reproducibility of particle size distribution results of the same sample repeated at different times. The blank sample cell scan (base line check) also yields a straight line and is highly reproducible. The measurement time for a typical sample is drastically reduced from hours to about 20 minutes. The design enables reproducible and repeatable positioning of the sedimentation cell. The cell loading and cleaning process is also greatly simplified. The measure of the performance of the designed system is the high accuracy and reproducibility of the results obtained from the instrument. REFERENCES
1. Particle Size Measurement, Vol. I, Terence Allen, Fifth Edition, Chapman & Hall, London, 1997. 2. A Microprocessor stepping-motor controller B. G. Strait, M. E. Thout, Microcomputer design & applications, Edited by S. C. Lee, Academic Press, London 1977. 3. Stepper motor drive, and (ii) State generator for stepper, John Markus, Charles Weston, Essential Circuit Reference Guide, McGraw - Hill Book Co., 1988. 4. Microprocessors & Interfacing - Programming & Hardware, V. Hall, 2nd Edition, Macmillan / McGraw-Hill School Publishing Co. 1992.
ON-LINE PROCESS CONTROL UNIT FOR JAGGERY MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY

S.T. Pawar and M.B. Dongare
Department of physics, Shivaji University, Kolhapur-416004 ABSTRACT
Agriculture and agro-based industries form the backbone of Indian economy but they are still adopting traditional methods. Jaggery industry is an important agroprocessing industry in rural lndia. The major constraint in this industry is lack of standardisation in processing. In traditional method of jaggery manufacturing a so-called skilled person known as Gulvaya plays a deciding role in clarification of sugarcane juice and in confirming formation of Kakavi (liquid jaggery) and jaggery. The presently developed microcontroller based on-line process control unit is field usable and can give audio indication of important parameters (pH and temperature) and display the parameters in decimal form on the LED numeric display. It has resulted in giving us a precise results, in order to produce a superior quality jaggery. Key words:-Development of process control device in jaggery industry.
1. INTRODUCTION India is the largest producer of sugarcane in the world occupying about 4.0 million-hectare of land. The area in which sugarcane is grown in Maharashtra is 601 thousand hectares and is 11.1% of the total area in which sugarcanes grow in India. The yield is 82394 kg/ha1. In India total sugarcane production is of 227.06 lak tonnes. Out of total sugarcane production 43.5% is used for jaggery and khandari2. About 10.3 million tonnes of jaggery is produced annually in India7. The major constraint in jaggery industry is lack of standardisation in processing. In addition an unhygienic surrounding during manufacturing, packaging and storage are major problems. 2. EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS The field experiment was conducted from Nov 2000 to March 2001. From our study and field survey of 25 jaggery-manufacturing units in western part of Maharashtra, it has been noted that, temperature and pH plays an important role in manufacturing process of jaggery. Whatever may be the initial Brix of the cane juice the two important striking points are appearing at a fixed temperatures only. viz. Liquid jaggery (Kakavi) at 105C and final striking stage (Golli stage) at 118C Also it has been noted that initial pH of juice varies from 5.1 to 5.7. For clarification it is raised by the use of lime water to 5.9-7.00. The neutrilisation
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is achieved by use of chemical clarificants. The observed range of pH after neutrilisation is 4.8 to 5.4. These are the variations due to manual and approximate use of clarificants. These leads to variation in quality of jaggery. It is also found that for extra-special (Extra) and grade no.l jaggery the corresponding increased and decreased pH values are to be 6.3 and 5.3 respectively. Thus quality of jaggery is influenced by physical parameters like pH and temperature3. Hence there is a need of on-line field usable process control unit to be developed to meet the requirement of farmers to get superior quality jaggery. Some of the novel features of the developed system are set point facility to meet region-wise variation in parameters and churner control.
3. ON-LINE PROCESS CONTROL UNIT FOR JAGGERY MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY The developed microcontroller based on-line process control unit is designed specially to meet the needs of farmers. The system incorporates pH electrode and temperature sensor to display and give the audio indication of important stages in jaggery manufacturing process, The system is user friendly and does non-destructive measurement. 3.1 Hardware of the System The developed system consists of (H2C12) Calomel electrode, an instrumentation amplifier (LM 321), temperature transducer (pt 100), constant current source formed by LM 324 and BC 557, ADC 0809 Board and microcontroller 89C51. The system can measure pH value with an accuracy of 0.1 of the reading, The system is energized by a highly regulated power supply. The block diagram of the system is shown in Figure. l.
Fig.1 : Block diagram of microcontroller based on-line process control unit
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3.2 pH Electrode To obtain an accurate measurement of the emf. developed at the electrode, the electronic measuring circuit must have a high input impedance. The developed emf, is suitably amplified by the instrumentation amplifier before applying it to the ADC. When the combined electrode is immersed in a solution, a potential is developed. This potential is actually very small of the order of few millivolts. 3.3 PT-100 RTD Sensor As compared to Nickel and Copper, platinum has been found to be relatively linear within the specified range. The platinum further has additional merits, which make it suitable for the present application. These merits are 1) high precision and accuracy 2) Ease of calibration 3) high responsibility 4) fast response 5) Interchangability with other resistance without any compensation 6) Good performance in desired temperature range and 7) limited susceptibility to contamination etc. Pt-100 is two terminal passive sensors. It has wide measuring range 100OC to 600OC. 3.4 Instrumentation Amplifier (LM 321) Op-amp LM321 and opamp LM324 ICs are connected in the non-inverting mode and are used to amplify the millivolt signal generated by the pH electrode. 3.5 A/D Converter Interfacing ADC 0809 is a monolithic CMOS device with 8-bit ADC. It uses successive approximation as the conversion technique. ADC 0809 is a 8 channel ADC for unipolar analog signals6. 3.6 Microcontroller Microcontroller 89C51 is used to process the input data with setpoint values of temperature and pH. The 89C51 have the following features :
l. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. Eight bit CPU with accumulater A and B registers. 16 bit program counter and data pointer. 8 bit stack pointer. Internal E2PROM of 4K. Internal RAM of 128 bytes. 32 I/O pins arranged as four 8-bit ports. Two 16 bit timer/counter. Full duplex serial data transmitter / receiver. Control registers TCON, TMOD, SCON, PCON, IP and IE. 2 External and 3 Internal interrupt sources Oscillator and clock circuits.
According to the selected data, the appropriate control signals are generated and are applied to the buzzer and motor drive unit.4
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3.7. 7447 display drives / decoder and key board

7447 is display driver for common anode type seven segment displays. Keyboard is used to set the initial and final set points related to desired pH and temperature values.
4. SOFTWARE OF THE SYSTEM

In microcontroller based system, software design is a more demanding task than hardware design. The software is written in assembly language of microcontroller 89C51 to perform the following : l. 2. 3. 4. Analog to digital conversion program Display program for pH and Temperature Data byte of pH and Temperature Delay program
5. CALIBRATION AND WORKING

Using standard laboratory pH meter and thermometer carries out the calibration of the unit. The pH electrode and temperature sensors are placed in the sugarcane juice- boiling pan. The power is supplied to the system by means of the stabilized IC regulated dc power supplies. The analog outputs from the transducers, after suitable signal conditioning, amplification and conversion are applied to the channels of the ADC 0809. Here channel 0 is used. ADC 0809 converts analog inputs into digital outputs in hex from by executing the main program. The digital values arc processed by microcontroller 89C51 and pH and temperature values for cane juice under process are displayed. The unit gives audio indication in accordance with preset values of pH and temperature. It also controls the churner action in jaggery manufacturing process.
6. TESTING OF PROCESS CONTROL SYSTEM

The performance of the unit has been successfully tested at 10 jaggery- manufacturing units in Kolhapur region. During test we have carried out the jaggery preparation by making use of process control device. Irrespective of soil type and sugarcane genotype we have recorded the recovery and grade of the jaggery. System Setting I) pH was set at 6.3 for lime defection and at 5.3 for neutralization. II) Temperature was set at 105OC. for liquid jaggery (Kakavi) stage and at 118 C. for jaggery (Golli) stage. Table-1 gives the result of 10 jaggery- manufacturing units in Kolhpur region.
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Table 1 : Results of 10 Jaggery manufacturing units in Kolhapur region Jaggery Unit No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 * Jaggery Recovery 10 11 12 11 10 12 11 10 11 11 Jaggery Grade* Extra 1 Extra 1 Extra 1 1 Extra 1 Extra
Grade of jaggery is recovered as per present jaggery grading method adopted in jaggery market. Any market does not follow scientific grading method. In market grading is done by physical appearance of jaggery i.e. by checking test, color and hardness by knife (Granular size). The grade numbers given by jaggery market are : 1. Extra special grade (extra) 2. Grade no-1 3. Grade no-2 4. Grade no-3 5. Grade no-4 6. Grade no-5 The jaggery of the grade i.e. Extra and grade no-1 fetches maximum price in market.
7. CONCLUSION The observed results reveal that the microcontroller based on-line process control unit for jaggery industry is sufficiently accurate in monitoring physical parameters of sugarcane juice. The unit gives better result as compared to manual judgement by a person known as Gulvaya in jaggery manufacturing process. This unit is highly beneficial to the farmers in deciding the two important striking stages and it helps in optimum clarification so that a good quality jaggery can be produced. From Table-1 we found that the jaggery recovery ranges from 10-12 and grade of product is maintained between extra-special (extra) and grade-1. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT One of authors (STP) is thankful to University Grants Commission, New Delhi for award of teacher fellowship under FIP.
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REFERENCES :
1. Damahe, B.A. 14(2000). Application of I.T. in area of Agri. And Agrobased industry. Proc. Seminar on INFOTECH. 2. Patil, J.P. et. al. 1-3 (1996). Research bulletin on liquid jaggary MPKV. RES. PUB. NO. 17. 3. Pawar, S.T. et. al., 369-374 (2001) Scientific studies on Jaggery Manufacturing process. Cooperative Sugar Vol-32, No. 5. 4. Kenneth J. Ayala. 54-60 (1996). The 8051 microcontroller Architecture, programming and application. Second edition. Penram International publishing (India). 5. Raman K. Attri et. al., 275-283 (2000) Design Approach to use Pt RTD sensor. J. Instrum. Soc. India 30(4). 6. B. Ram. (1995). Fundamentals of microprocessor and microcomputers. 4th edition. Dhanapat Rai Pub. Nai Sarak, Delhi. 7. Dorge, S.K. I-II (1994). Proc. of National consultation meeting feb. 27-28 : RS and JRS, Kolhapur.
DEVELOPMENT OF AUTOMATIC AIR SAMPLER

S. Chellammal, G. Surya Prakash, R. Mathiyarasu and K. M. Somayaji
Atmospheric Studies and Radiation Instrumentation Section Health And Safety Division, SHINE Group Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research, Kalpakkam, 603 102 ABSTRACT
In a nuclear facility, it is essential to assess and predict the radiological consequences to public during routine operations. Atmospheric dispersion models are used for the study of dispersion of radioactive releases to the atmosphere, which requires validation for operational use. The ambient concentrations of a pollutant can be measured at different distances from source in the downwind sectors, which requires a large number of air samplers to be deployed. To achieve this, a portable, programmable air sampler was designed and developed for simultaneous and automatic sampling. The system description and function are discussed in this paper.
1. INTRODUCTION In a nuclear facility, dispersion calculations are needed in order to determine the impact of radioactive releases, normally released from stack, to the environment. Atmospheric dispersion models, considering parameters over Kalpakkam coastal terrain due to land-see breeze effects have been developed. Validation of the models requires data sets including experimental results of dispersion experiments and simultaneous meteorological measurements of the wind and turbulence field. Dispersion experiments can be performed with sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) as tracer. The ambient concentrations of the tracer should be measured at different distances from source in the downwind sectors, which requires a large number of air samplers to be deployed.
The conventional air samplers used in pollution control studies sample only the pollutants on filters, which is used for further analysis. Whereas air samplers used in tracer experiments collect and bottle up known volume of air along with unknown quantity of tracer in tetler bags of known capacity with known flow rate. A tracer release experiment was conducted by Forschungszentrum Julich GmbH (KFA) group for assessing dispersion characteristics around their nuclear facility using similar air samplers. The tracer sampling units built by KFA group are based on sampling of air in plastic bags. Each unit can collect 3 samples, starting from a prefixed time and running for fixed selectable consecutive time intervals. Air sampling units constructed by another Danish tracergroup are also based on sampling air with flow rate of 200 ml/min in three plastic bags attached to the outlets of a box.
Development of automatic air sampler
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These air samplers are electro-mechanical in nature and huge manpower was used during experiments. Further, synchronization of different sampling units was difficult. So, to meet the operational logistics with reduced manpower, portable, battery operable and programmable air sampler was designed and developed at Health and Safety Division, SHINE Group, IGCAR. The sampled air will be analyzed for concentration measurement of the tracer using gas chromatograph technique.
2. SYSTEM DESCRIPTION The block diagram of the system is as shown in Figure l. It consists of a l Sampling unit l Microcontroller based control unit. The system is preprogrammed with PC before its deployment in the field.
Fig. 1 : Block Diagram of Automatic Air Sampler
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2.1. Sampling Unit It consists of a miniature pump along with three pulse operable latching type solenoid valves. The pump has a delivery capacity of 0.85 litres/minute. The pump outlets are connected in parallel to three solenoid valves. The atmospheric air drawn through the pump is sequentially switched through solenoid valves to three sampling bags. The flow rate of the system has been adjusted such that a typical sampling bag of 10 litres capacity gets filled upto 8 litres in about 30 minutes. These are typical values in atmospheric air sampling during tracer release experiments. 2.2. Microcontroller based control unit The control unit is based on an industry standard microcontroller (Intel 80C31), an EPROM (32k, Intel 27512), a Real Time Clock (RTC MC 146818) and electronics to control valves and pumps. The necessary control/system program is written using assembly language of 80C31 instructions, assembled, linked and stored in Intel-hex format in EPROM. The control unit is connected to PC through RS 232 port. 2.3. User Interface User interface program is written in both QBASIC (DOS based) and Visual Basic (Windows based) and it is PC resident. It provides the user a menu with options to 1. select communication port 2. enter initialization time of RTC 3. enter preset time of sampling 3. SYSTEM FUNCTION System function is shown as a flow chart in Figure 2. As soon as the instrument is made operative, control program ensures that, the condition of solenoid valves are normally closed and performs a system check of microcontroller. Normal functioning of the system is indicated by a slow flashing of LED of about 5 times and LED goes OFF. Then the system program waits for user command from PC. A user can enter the initialization time for RTC and on receiving initialization time, control program will initialize RTC and makes LED ON. Now the user can enter the preset time of sampling and on receiving the preset time, it is written into RTC alarm locations. The RTC has a feature of comparing the real time with set alarm time every second and sets interrupt if both are equal. Using this feature, once the set alarm time is reached, microcontroller sends control signals to microsolenoid valves and pumps as per program sequence. The waiting mode for the alarm is indicated by LED flash at 1Hz rate. After the sequential switching is over, pump is made OFF and system LED returns to slow flashing.
It may be noted that single LED indicates the various states of the system as follows. Initial system check by slow flashing, Waiting for initialization of RTC time by LED off, Waiting for initialization of preset time by LED on and Waiting for alarm signal by LED flashing at 1Hz rate.
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Fig. 2 : Flow Chart of System Function
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4. GENERAL FEATURES The system operates on 12 volts maintenance free rechargeable battery. Use of low power ICs has enabled the current consumption of the system to a mere 90mA when the pump is running. The complete system is housed in an IP 64 instrument box, which does not allow interference from ambient conditions during field deployment. 5. CONCLUSION A programmable air sampler was designed for collection of air samples in Tracer experiments being conducted for atmospheric dispersion studies. The instrument is tested successfully for intensive field-sampling, system performance under battery operations. After several trials, the flow rate of the system has been adjusted such that a typical sampling bag of 10 litres capacity gets filled up to 8 litres in about 30 minutes. The unit is now ready in large numbers to be deployed during tracer release experiments. SF6 will be used as the tracer, which is a chemically inert and non-toxic gas. There are no natural and only few man-made sources of SF6. Not only air, these samplers can also be used to collect any other gas. The air sampler designed here is quite different from other conventional electro-mechanical air samplers and it collects a specific volume of air along with tracer at different locations simultaneously by PC software before deployment. Further, synchronization of different sampling units has been made easier with programmable capability of the system. The air or gas samples are analyzed for tracer concentrations using gas chromatograph technique. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors wish to thank Dr. S. M. Lee, Director, SHINE Group and Dr. A. Natarajan, Head, HASD for their encouragement and interest in this project. REFERENCES
1. Vob.W, 1993 SF6-Tracer measurements by KFA-Group in Fourth Field experiment on atmospheric dispersion around the isolated hill sophienhoe in September 1989 MethodsExperiments-Data bank edited by G.Zeuner and K.Heinemann, p25-28 2. Lyck. E, 1993 SF6-Tracer measurements by NERI-Group in Fourth Field experiment on atmospheric dispersion around the isolated hill sophienhoe in September 1989 MethodsExperiments-Data bank edited by G.Zeuner and K.Heinemann, p29-38 3. Mortensen, N.G. and Gryning, S.E.: The Oresund Experiment: Databank Report, Dept. Meteorology and Wind Energy, RISO, Denmark, ISBN 87-550-1592-1, (1989). 4. Somayaji K.M, Mathiyarasu.R, Chellammal.S and Surya Prakash.G, Design and Development of a programmable Air Sampler IGC Report-215, published by Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research, DAE, Kalpakkam, p 1-8, (1999) 5. Vob.W, Zeuner.G Tracer release and sampling network in Fourth Field experiment on atmospheric dispersion around the isolated hill sophienhoe in September 1989 MethodsExperiments-Data bank edited by G.Zeuner and K.Heinemann, p21-24.
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THE EFFECT OF SWIRL ON A TURBINE METER IN AIR FLOW AND THE EFFECTIVENESS OF A FLOW STRAIGHTENER IN REMOVING THE SWIRL
Mohd Islama, M.M. Hasanaa, S.N. Singhb and V. Seshadrib
aMechanical
Engineering Department, Jamia Millia Islamia,New Delhi-25 b Applied Mechanics Department, IIT, Delhi-16 ABSTRACT
Turbine Flowmeter (TFM) is being used extensively in various industries to measure the flow rate of wide variety of fluids due to its excellent repeatability, higher accuracy compared to other mechanical flow meters, wide operating range, higher shock capability compared with electro-mechanical flowmeter, low pressure loss and can operate under adverse conditions of temperature and pressure. Turbine Flow Meter performance is dependent on upstream flow conditions, fluid properties and geometrical parameters of rotor. In this study, the turbine flow meter performance has been evaluated for co and contra direction upstream swirl flow. Swirl magnitude in both directions has been varied from 0- 50 and it is seen that linear range of the meter factor is not significantly affected for co-swirl where the stopping flow decreases. For contra-swirl the trends for linear range show similar behavior till 30 swirl flow but stopping flow increases. It is also observed that meter factor is high for co-swirl and low for contra-swirl in comparison to zero swirl meter factor. Notation: K - Meter factor, Pulse/m TTS - Tube type straightener WS - Without straightener Y - Distance from the wall of pipe in radial direction, mm - Vane angle of swirler, degrees
1. INTRODUCTION Turbine Flow Meters (TFM) today have been accepted as a highly accurate instrument of flow rate measurement in various industries. The reason for their wider acceptance in the industry is the accuracy, repeatability, wide operating range, ease of installation and electrical output.
The present day Turbine Flowmeter was developed by Lee and Karlby1 after 7 year of extensive research in 1960. Since then researchers have been extensively trying to improve performance. Other important studies on TFMs are those of Lee and Evens2 and Thompson and Grey3. They have tried to analyse the effect of geometrical and dynamical parameters on
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the performance of TFM theoretically. Shafer 4 described the general performance characteristics of TFM for liquid hydrocarbon in the range of 0.5 to 250 gpm. Salami5 has conducted experiments on commercially available TFM having large tip clearance at rotor . Lee, Blakeslee and White have reported accurate measurement of flow rate by developing a new metering concept of self correcting and self checking TFM. Satyanarayana 7 has experimentally investigated the effect of fluid properties on the TFM performance using water and oil. Islam, Seshadri and Singh8-10 have investigated the effect of upstream skewed velocity profile on the performance of a small gas TFM and found that only highly skewed upstream velocity profile changes the usable range and meter factor. Same authors have also investigated the effect of geometrical parameters of the rotor for improving the linear range of the Turbine Flow meter. Salami has clearly identified different parameters which are responsible in affecting the meter performance and one of them is swirl, which is induced from normal pipe fittings in an industrial pipe line. Investigation of swirl flow have in general been done with flow straighteners and no one would sensibly use a turbine flow meter in a flow which is known to be highly swirling and the requirement is to know the effectiveness of flow straighteners and the required dimensions upstream spacing, length of straightener, distance from straightener to turbine meter to ensure that the meter performs within specification. In the present investigation an effort has been made to quantify the effect of swirl on the meter performance in the absence of any flow straighteners and with tube type straightener. Upstream swirl has been imposed in both co and contra direction of the rotor rotation of the TFM.
2. EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP : Fig 1. Gives the schematic layout of the experimental set-up consisting of air supply unit, straight pipe length, swirler, turbine flow meter and instrumeniation. Details of experimental setup and method of measuring the flow rate by single point velocity measurement has been explained by Islam et.al. Hubless swirler with eight vanes designed and fabricated as per Mathur were installed 6D upstream of the turbine meter.
Fig. 1 : Schematic lay out of the experimental set-up for air flow
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Fig. 2 : Turbine flow meter with tube type straightener (Design 1)
TFM as shown Fig. 2 supplied by Rockwin Flow Meter (India) Pvt.Ltd., was fitted in the setup at the distance of 10 D down stream from reducer. TFM used in the present investigation is the same as used by Islam et.al. and the details of which are given below. a) Rotor diameter - 44.3 mm b) Casing inner diameter at rotor - 44.8 mm c) No. of blades - 6 d) Rotor shaft diameter - 4mm e) Weight of rotor - 27.7358x10-3 kg. f) Blade thickness - 1.3 mm g) Blade angle from axis of meter - 30 degree h) Span length of blade 15 mm The extent of swirl which could be generated by the swirlers was 10 to 50 on the average in both co and contra direction. Range of parameters investigated is given in Table 1. Table 1: Range of parameters investigated Parameters Upstream swirl Range 0, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50 Configuration Without straightener, with tube type straightener Remarks Angle referred are the vane angle of swirler with axial flow direction
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS The velocity profile ID upstream of the meter was measured by a pre calibrated three hole probe (THP) in null mode and results are depicted in fig-3. Fig 3(a) depicts that the
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Fig. 3(b) : Variation in angle for swirler for co-swirlers up stream of TFM
Fig. 3(a) : Velocity distribution upstream of TFM for different swirlers Fig. 3(c) : Variation in angle of swirler for contra-swirlers upstream of TFM
velocity distribution is symmetric about the center-line for all swirlers. It is clear from fig 3(b) and (c) that for low vane angle swirlers, the swirl angle is almost constant across the pipe cross section and is equal to the angle of the vane except at center where there is an inflexion point. In the present investigation for each combination the meter factor and pressure drop across meter have been measured for co and contra swirl with tube type straightener and without straightener. Figure 4(a) shows the variation of meter factor for undisturbed flow. It is seen that meter factor remains constant as long as the flow rate is above 45.0 m3/hr for TTS allowing tolerance level of t 1% for usable range. This limit of usable range for without straightener is higher because of the hump formation at low flow rate, which exceeds the linearity band of 1% of the average meter factor. The hump formation can only be explained in terms of resonance between rotor frequency and shedding frequency of the rotor wake. Hump is generally formed but its magnitude appears to be higher in the absence of straightener. Fig 4 (b) depicts the pressure drop across the TFM for undisturbed flow conditions. It is seen from the plot that the variation is similar but for without straightener it is lower because of the reduced blockage (approximately by 10%) within the meter.
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Fig. 4(a) : Characteristics of TFM for undisturbed flow conditions.
Fig. 4(b) : Pressure drop across TFM for underdistrurbed flow conditions.
Fig. 5 (a), (b), (c), (d), (e) show the variation of meter factor for co-and contra-swirl, with tube type straightener and without straightener with flow rate. It is seen that meter factor for co-swirl is higher and for contra-swirl is lower than that for standard flow conditions (undisturbed flow condition). It is also seen that the shift in the meter factor for without straightener is more than that for TTS. The shift in the meter factor can be attributed to the relative change in the driving and retarding torque due to increase of flow incidence angle for co-swirl and reduced incidence angle for contra-swirl. The increase in the driving torque for co- swirl is quite rapid which causes the rotor to rotate at higher speed to achieve equilibrium condition. The same equilibrium condition is reached earlier for contra swirl and hence the meter factor is lower. It is quite evident from the graphs that as angle of swirler increases in
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co-direction, the magnitude of hump formed increases for without straightener, but it remains within the 1% linearity band of the average meter factor till 30 degrees. For 40 vane angle swirler, the hump formed is quite significant and does not lie in the 1% linearity band and hence the usable range decreases. Fig. 6 & 7 show the variation of pressure drop across the meter for all swirlers as a function of flow rate for TTS and without straightener respectively. It is seen from the figure that variations in pressure drop with different swirlers are similar in nature with and without the straightener. Further it is also clear that the pressure drop increases with increase in the angle of swirler irrespective of direction of swirl. The extent of pressure drop is only marginally affected by the presence of straightener. Fig. 8 (a), (b), (c) and (d) present the cross plots to clearly bring out the effect of swirl on the basic performance parameters. Fig 8 (a) shows that the average meter factor varies at a rate of about 0.086% per degree of swirler for TTS and 2.25% per degree of swirler for WS. This value is higher than the value quoted by Salami (5) and lower than the value quoted by shafer (4). Fig. 8(b) shows that in the presence of TTS lower limit of the linear range is always lower than that WS. Similar observations were made by Salami (5), for lower values of swirl. Fig. 8 (c) shows that stopping flow for TTS remains within 1.7% of standard result. In the case of without straightener, there is large variation for co and contra mode of swirl. It is seen from the Fig. 8 (d) that average pressure drop coefficient is almost linearly increasing with the vane angle of swirler (for both modes) till 40 but it increases more rapidly beyond 40. It is also seen that in the case of the TTS pressure drop coefficient is always higher than that of WS. This is expected because in presence of flow straightener there is higher-pressure drop.
4. CONCLUSION From the present investigation it has been found that meter factor increases for co-swirl and decreases for contra swirl flow. Pressure drop across the meter increases in both cases of swirl. The usable range remains approximately constant till 20 for without straightener and till 30 with the use of tube type straightener. The lower limit of the linear range for tube type straightener is always lower than that without straightener. REFERENCES
1. Lee, W.F.Z. and Karbly, H.A, 1960. A study of viscosity effect and its compensation on turbine type flow meter. Trans. ASME, 82, 717-728. 2. Lee, W.F.Z. and Evan, H.J., 1970. A field method of determining gas turbine meter performance. Trans. ASME 92, 724-731. 3. Thomson R.E., Grey J., 1970. Turbine flow meter performance model. Trans. ASME, vol. 92, 712-722. 4. Shafer M.R., 1962. Performance characteristics of turbine flow meter. Trans. ASME, vol., 84, 741-749. 5. Salami L.A., 1972. Effect of a velocity profile just upstream of a turbine flowmeter on its characteristics. University of southampton, Mech., Engg., Report No. ME/72/22.
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6. Lee W.E.Z., Balkslee D.C. and white R.V., 1980. A self correcting and self checking gas turbine flow meter. ASME, 143-148. 7. Satyanarayana K., 1983. Prediction of performance characteristics of turbine flowmeter for metering liquids., M. Tech Thesis, Applied, Mechanics Department IIT, Delhi. 8. Islam Mohd., Seshadri V. and Singh S. N, 1991. Effect of Distortion in the upstream velocity profile on the performance of small turbine flow meter . 18th FMFP conference, Indore, . 9. Islam Mohd., Seshadri V., and Singh S.N. 1991.Effect of geometrical parameters on the performance of a small gas turbine flow meter. Indian J, of Tech. Vol 29. 10. Islam Mohd., Seshadri V. and Singh S. N., 1990. Parametric Study for increasing the linear range of small gas turbine flow meter. 17th National Conference on FMFP, R.E.C. Warangal. 11. Salami L.A, 1972. Swirl Effect on the turbine flow meter and effectiveness of different types of flow straighteners. Dept. of Mech. Engg. University of Southampton. 12. Mathur M. L., 1974. A new design of vanes for swirl generation. I.E. (I) Journal M.E, vol 55.
TEC TEMPERATURE CONTROLLER FOR LASER DIODE ARRAYS

Aman Preet Kaur and N.S. Vasan
Instruments Research & Development Establishment, Dehradun - 248 008 ABSTRACT
Semiconductor laser diode arrays are now being increasingly used to pump solid-state lasers resulting in compact, highly efficient laser systems. The arrays, however, require operation at a constant, predetermined temperature at which they emit radiation at the proper wavelength matching with the absorption band of the laser material. Thermoelectric coolers (TEC), also known as Peltier coolers can be easily optimized for heat pumping. TECs are completely solid-state devices offering active cooling and precise temperature controllability. Besides they are available in small, light weight packages which make them highly suitable for use with laser diode arrays. This paper describes a simple temperature controller using TEC for maintaining a precise operating temperature for laser diode arrays. The circuit elements comprise of the temperature sensor, signal conditioning and the TEC current control sections.
1. INTRODUCTION In recent years, diode-pumped lasers have revolutionized the field of laser applications. Diode-pumped solid-state lasers (DPSSL) use high power IR laser diode arrays to provide the excitation of the laser medium instead of flashlamps or other intense light sources. These lasers offer significantly higher efficiencies, typically 10-15% for the Nd: YAG laser as compared to 1-2% for the lamp-pumped equivalent. This makes thermal management of the laser much easier and enhances laser performance. The small size of the diode arrays, their high electrical efficiency and low voltage operation allow for more compact, light weight, noise free and high PRF laser systems to be built.
For pumping the lasers with maximum efficiency, the output wavelength of the laser diode array has to be matched well with the absorption band of the lasing material. The output wavelength of the LD array, however, exhibits a positive temperature dependence, changing at a rate of about 0.3nm/C. This, if not controlled within limits, can considerably lower the efficiency of the laser device. Fig. 1 shows the output spectrum of a two dimensional Al-Ga-As laser diode array emitting at 808 nm matched to the absorption peak of Nd: YAG at room temperature (curve A). The spectral width of the array output is about 5-10 nm. The figure also shows the shift in laser
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Fig. 1 : Relative shift of laser diode array wavelength visavis Nd-YAG absorption profile at different temperatures (see text).
diode array output wavelength caused by variations in temperature at -30C (curve B) and +55C (curve C) which are typical operational limits for military equipments. It is clear that the performance of the LD-pumped Nd- YAG laser will be far less efficient at temperatures at which spectral mismatch leads to poor absorption of the LD output in the laser medium. Therefore, it becomes necessary to maintain the operating temperature of the laser diode arrays within close limits. It is possible to reduce the temperature dependence by using a thicker laser medium for better pump absorption or by choosing a medium with broader absorption features, however at the expense of reduced performance. Thermo-electric coolers (TECs), which are solid-state heat pumps, are the most preferred devices for LD-array cooling. TEC devices are based on the Peltier effect which occurs whenever electrical current flows through the junction of two dissimilar conductors. Depending upon the direction of current flow, the junction of the two conductors will either absorb or release heat. Commercial TEC modules are fabricated with n-type and p-type bismuth telluride elements. Thus, TEC is a semiconductor based electronic component that functions as a small heat pump. The heat actively pumped through the thermoelectric module is proportional to the magnitude of the applied dc electric current. The laser diode array is generally mounted on a copper plate which is in direct contact with the cold surface of the TEC module as shown in Fig. 2. The hot
Fig. 2 : Arrangement for cooling laser diode array.
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surface of the TEC module is placed in contact with a metal heat sink, which may be the body of the equipment, and force- cooled if necessary. A thin layer of thermal grease is usually applied over the contact surfaces of the TEC prior to its clamping between the metal plates in order to improve the heat transfer rate. It is important to have adequate thermal capacity for the heat sink over its operating temperature range in order to prevent thermal runaway problems.
2. TEMPERATURE CONTROLLER CIRCUIT The total heat load consists of an active part, which is the heat generated by the LD array and the TEC module, as well as a passive part which is the heat load due to conductive, convective and radiative heat transfer. The four main factors for selecting an appropriate TEC module for an application and which affect the overall performance of the cooling arrangement are the TEC cold surface temperature, amount of heat to be removed by the cold surface, TEC hot surface temperature and the ambient temperature. In good designs, the TEC cold surface temperature will be nearly the same as the device temperature and the TEC hot surface temperature will be 10-15C above ambient during operation. If all the parameters remain constant, the magnitude of current passing through the TEC module will determine the temperature of cold surface. In order to maintain the temperature of the cold surface, it has to be continuously monitored. Depending upon the difference between the desired and monitored temperature, the magnitude of the current flowing through the TEC module is adjusted so as to bring the temperature to its desired value. Figure 3 shows a proportional uni-polar TEC
COMPONENT LIST : TS : OA1-OA3 : Resistances :
Q1 TEC
: :
AD 590 Temperature Sensor LM324 R1 = 2k, R2 = 3.3 (pot), R3 = 680K, R4 = 10k (pot) R5 = R6 = 47K, R7 = R8 = 560k, R9 = 1.5k, R10 = 3.3k, R11 = R12 = R13 = R14 = 2.2k, R15 = 3, IRF 840 MOSFET 40mm x 40mm, 52W module
Fig. 3 : Schematic of TEC temperature control circuit.
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temperature control circuit which will be useful in controlled environments where the operating temperature of the device under control is sufficiently above or below the ambient temperature. The circuit comprises of the temperature sensing, signal conditioning and current controlling sections. The main elements of the sensing and signal conditioning sections are the AD590 IC temperature sensor and its associated bridge network. The AD590 IC is basically a current regulator whose output current is proportional to a scale factor of its sensitivity (1A/OC) multiplied by the sensor temperature. The sensor is placed in close contact with the surface whose temperature is to be controlled. The use of AD590 in this application provides a large measurements range and eliminates the need for linearization circuitry, precision voltage amplifiers, resistance measuring circuitry and cold junction compensation. The cold surface temperature of the TEC module is determined initially by the setting of potentiometer R4. Whenever there is a change in the temperature of the cold surface, the output of AD590 changes, resulting in a differential voltage at the input of the differential amplifier OA1. The error voltage, after amplification in OA1 and OA2, is applied to the gate terminal of the MOSFET through the differential amplifier OA3 to which a DC bias of approximately 2V is added to bring the MOSFET into conduction. When the temperature of the cold surface increases, a positive error voltage is generated at the gate terminal of the MOSFET. This results in an increase of the current flowing through the TEC module, bringing down the temperature of the cold surface. The main element in the TEC current control section is the power MOSFET IRF840 which can handle load currents up to 8A. The current through the TEC module is controlled by the gate to source voltage of the MOSFET. The maximum current through the TEC module can be limited to safe values by the resistance R15. For best results, the compliance voltage of the TEC controller which is its output voltage at the peak output current, should match the voltage rating of the TEC module. In military applications, the operating temperature range of the equipment is much wider, covering both minus and plus temperatures from -30C to +55C. This will require careful design of the cooling arrangement as well as bi-polar current control for the TEC module for automatic correction of temperature. For this purpose, the current control part of the circuit (shown in dotted box in Fig. 3) can be modified as shown in Fig. 4. Depending on whether the set temperature is above or below the ambient temperature, one of the pair of MOSFETS conducts forcing the current to flow in the appropriate direction.
3. CONCLUSION The circuit performs satisfactorily over a broad temperature range providing a linear response and a temperature stability of 1C. This is adequate for temperature control of LD arrays in military laser equipments such as laser range finders and target designators. The simple proportional circuit described here exibits a characteristic residual error which is proportional to the difference between the set temperature and ambient temperature. This can be eliminated by the addition of an integrator-differentiator circuit with properly adjusted
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D1
D2
Fig. 3 : Schematic of TEC temperature control circuit.
time constants, in the well known P-I-D configuration, in more critical applications like frequency stabilized lasers.
REFERENCES :
1. Walter Koechner, Solid-State Laser Engineering, 3rd Edition, Springer-Verlag, (1992). 2. Robert Otey and Barry Moskonitz, oe magazine, SPIE publications. 3. Ramakant A. Gayakwad, Op-amps and Linear Integrated circuits, 3rd Edition, Prentice Hall of India Private Ltd., New Delhi (1997). 4. Temperature Measurement Handbook, Omega Engg. Inc., Stanford, Connecticut.
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PERFORMANCE COMPARISON BETWEEN SINGLE LOOP CONTROL AND CASCADE CONTROL OF SUPERHEATED STEAM TEMPERATURE SYSTEM USING ANALOG CONTROLLERS
G. Sreenivasulu and S.N. Reddy
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, S.V.University, Tirupati - 517 502 ABSTRACT
This paper explains the method of obtaining the best mode of control out of single loop control and cascade control of a superheated steam temperature system using analog controllers, based on the least value of integral time weighted absolute error. The superheated steam temperature system is of fifth order model. This higher order model is converted into delay plus first order model by minimum area method, since all tuning methods of analog controllers are designed for delay plus first order model. Single loop control (PI), and cascade control (P, PI) are designed for superheated steam temperature system by applying different tuning methods. Simulations are performed by using fifth order mathematical model of a superheated steam temperature system. The least value of integral time weighted absolute error decides the best mode of control.
1. INTRODUCTION The selection of analog controller (P, PI, PID) and its parameters (KC, 1, ti) is intimately related to the model of process to be controlled. The adjustment of the controller parameters to achieve a satisfactory control is called tuning. The selection of the controller parameters is essentially an optimization problem in which the designer of the control system attempts to satisfy some criterion of optimality, the result of which is often referred to as good control. The process of tuning can vary from a trial and error attempt to find suitable control parameters for good control to an elaborate optimization calculation based on a model of the process and a specific criterion of optimal control. A typical criterion for good control is that the response of the system to a step change in set point or load should have minimum overshoot and one quarter-decay ratio. Other criteria may include minimum rise time and minimum settling time [1,2].
Most operators of processes know that they want in the form of a response to achieve a change in set point or load. In order to compare different responses that use different sets
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of controller parameters, a criterion that reduces the entire response to a single number, or a figure of merit is desirable. There are three such criteria. They are integral absolute error (IAE), integral square error (ISE) and integral time weighted absolute error (ITAE). Each of the three figures of merit has different purposes. The ISE will penalize the response that has large errors because the error is squared. The IAE will penalize the response for small errors. The ITAE will penalize the response which has errors that persist for long time. The ITAE criterion will tune the controllers better because the presence of time (t) amplifies the effect of even small errors in the value of integral. In applying the tuning rules, figures of merit can be used in comparing responses that are obtained [3,4]. Superheated steam temperature is one of the important variables in boilers to be controlled precisely for efficiency and safety. Hence the control of this parameter has assumed paramount importance in boiler controls. Fifth order transfer function model of superheated steam temperature system [Fig. 1] is used for this study and is given below. The transfer function of superheated temperature system[8] Gp = 1.3882/(19S+1)5 ......................................... (1)
Fig.1. : Block diagram of SHS temperature control system
2. IDENTIFICATION OF DELAY PLUS FIRST ORDER SYSTEM FOR SUPERHEATED STEAM (SHS) TEMPERATURE SYSTEM All tuning methods of analog controllers are designed for the delay plus first order transfer function model [1, 2]. SHS temperature system is of fifth order model. Therefore, it to be reduced from fifth order to first order plus delay model. Basically, there are two methods to reduce the higher-order model into delay plus first-order model. They are process reaction curve method and minimum area method and these are used to reduce the model of SHS temperature system [6]. 2.1. Process reaction curve mcthod: To design analog controller the combined transfer function of the final control element, process and measuring element is required. To obtain this, control system shown in Fig. 1
Performance comparison between single loop control and cascade control
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has been opened by disconnecting the controller from final control element. Introduce a step input of known magnitude at the input signal of control valve and record the response of measuring element. The response Y(t) is shown in Fig. 2 (a) and is called a process reaction curve. From the final value of the response and the given magnitude of the input signal at the control valve, the steady-state gain of the combined system is calculated. Then, the slope at the inflection point is drawn as shown in Fig. 2 (a). Since for first order system the maximum slope line starts at its origin, the delay is identified as the time at which the maximum slope line meets the time axis (x-axis) . The time constant of the first order system is calculated for the slope (slope=Ka/). Once the gain (K), the time constant() and time delay (L) are known, the step response of the identified model is calculated and compared with the actual response of the system. Thus, the delay plus first order system approximates the fifth order system since both of them have the same maximum slope line. Locating the inflection point and drawing the slope at this point may be time consuming and may not be accurate. Hence minimum area method is used for identifying more accurate delay plus first order transfer function model [4,6,12].
Fig. 2(a) : process reaction curve
Fig. 2(b) : Step response of actual system y(t) and that of delay plus first order system y(t)
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2.2. Minimum Area method : Process reaction curve Y(t) (normalized) and that of a first order plus time delay model Y(t) are shown in Fig. 2 (b). The two curves are allowed to meet at two points (t1, y1) & (t2, y2,). While intersection at more than two points would mean greater accuracy, a minimum of two as shown in Fig. 2 (b) is sufficient to describe the two parameters and L of the SHS first order plus delay model.
The values are given by[6]. L = 1.3 t1 - 0.29 t2 C = 0.67 (t2 - t1) . .......................................... (2) .......................................... (3)
Where t1 = time taken to reach 0.353 times of final response in sec. t2 = time taken to reach 0.853 times of final response in sec. From the normalised step response [Fig. 2 (b)] of the SI-IS Temperature system, t1 and t2 are taken at 0.353 and 0.853 of the final response and are given by t1 = 74.12 sec and t2 = 138.2 sec. Therefore, time delay, L = 1.3 t1 - 0.29 t2 = 1.3 (74.12)-0.29(138.2) L = 56.278 sec. Time constant, = 0.67 (t2-t1) = 0.67 (138.2-74.12) = 42.93 sec. From the process reaction curve shown in Fig 2 (a) the gain k=0.7717. Therefore, the identified delay plus first order system Ke-LS S+1 = (42.934S+1) 0.7717e-56.278S .......................................... (4)
3. SINGLE LOOP CONTROL OF SHS TEMPERATURE SYSTEM Single loop control of SHS temperature system with Pl controller is shown in Fig.l. The parameters of the PI controller are obtained by using Chien, Hrones and Reswiclc (CHR) tuning method with 20% overshoot. The formulae for parameters of Pl controller, in terms of K, L, of first order plus delay system based on CHR (20% overshoot) tuning method are [1, 2, 13]
Kc = 0.6/KL 1= .......................................... (5) .......................................... (6)
K, L, T values are obtained from the equation(4). Parameters of Pl controller are computed and are shown in Table l.
4. CASCADE CONTROL OF SHS TEMPERATURE SYSTEM Cascade control of SHS temperature system with PI controller in primary loop and P controller in secondary loop is shown in Fig. 3. The parameters of PI controller KC1, 1 are
Performance comparison between single loop control and cascade control
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Fig. 3 : Cascade control of SHS Temperature System
Fig. 4 : Comparison between step responses of single loop and cascade control
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identical to parameters of Pl controller in single loop control. The parameter of P controller KC2 is obtained by using Ziegler - Nichols (closed loop) tuning method. The formula for KC2 based on Ziegler - Nichols (closed loop) tuning method is [5,10,11] KC2 = 0.5 KCmax .......................................... (7) In simulation study, the proportional controller is cascaded with process and feedback path is closed. By changing the gain of proportional controller it is observed that sustained oscillations occur at gain (Kcmax) of 3.739. The parameter KC2, is computed using equation (7) and parameters KC1, 1, KC2 are shown in Table 1. [7,9,13].
RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS Using the mathematical model of SHS temperature system [Equation (1)] and parameters of analog Controllers given in Table 1, responses are simulated for single loop control and cascade control in simulink of MATLAB. The responses of the SI-IS temperature system for single loop control and cascade control are shown in Fig. 4. l he performance of the SFIS temperature system for single loop control and cascade control are given in Table l.
Table 1. shows the performance of SHS temperature system for single loop control and cascade control to step change in set point. Cascade control of SHS temperature system having least value of ITAF, compared to single loop control. Hence out of single loop control and cascade control, cascade control is the best mode of control for SHS temperature system.
REFERENCES
l. Astron. K.J. and T. Eiagglund, PID controllers theory design and tuning, Instrument Society of America, 1995. 2. Astrom K.J. and T.Hagglund, Automatic tuning of PID controllers, Instrument Society of America, 1998. 3. Donald R.Coughanowr, Process systems analysis and control, 2nd edition, Mc Graw-Hill, 1991. 4. George Stephanopolous, Chemical process control: An introduction to theory and practice, PHI, New Delhi, 1999 5. I.J. Nagarth and M.Gopal Control system engineering. 2nd edition, New Age International, India, 2000. 6. M. Chidambaram, Applied process control, Allied publishers limited, India, 1998. 7. F.J. Shinskey, process control systems: Application, design & adjustment, MC Graw-Hill, 1988 8. The Bharath Heavy Electricals Limited, Hyderabad: Transfer function of a superheated steam temperature system of 500MW boiler, R&D technical information sheet. 9. Astrom, K.J and T. Hagglund (1984c) A frequency domain approach to analysis and design of simple feedback loops, proceedings of the 23rd IEEE conference on decision and control, Las Vegas, U.S.A. 10. Gawthrop P.J. (1982), Self Tuning PI and PID controllers, IEEE conference on applications of Adoptive and Multivariable control, l-Iull. 11. Tyreus, B.D. and W.l. Luyben, Tuning of Pl controllers for integrator/dead time processes, Ind.eng.chem. Res., 31, 2625-2628 (1992). 12. Sunderesan, K.R. and P.R. Krishnaswamy, Estimation of time delay, time constant parameters in time, frequency and laplace domains, Can.J.chem.Engg., 56, 257-262 (1978). 13. B.S. Reddy, Design of Analog controllers for superheated steam temperature system, M. Tech thesis, S.V.University, Tirupati, India, 2002.
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ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF NaNbO3 THIN FILMS

Vijendra Lingwal, N.S. Panwar*, B.S. Semwal and G. Mohan Rao**
Department of Physics, HNB Garhwal University, Srinagar (Garhwal) - 246174, India *University Science Instrumentation Centre, HNB Garhwal University, Srinagar (Garhwal) - 246174, India **Department of Instrumentation, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore - 560012, India ABSTRACT
Sodium niobate (NaNbO 3) ceramic targets were prepared using solid state reaction method. The targets were rf sputtered on silicon substrate (p-<100>, 1 cm resistivity). Films were deposited at different temperatures and the room temperature deposited films were post annealed at different temperatures. Current-Voltage (I-V) characteristics were measured in the metal-insulator-semiconductor (MIS) configuration. Leakage current, breakdown voltage and conduction mechanism of the films have been determined from the observed I-V characteristics of the configuration. It has been observed that films annealed at 400C and the films deposited at 300C show best results required for semiconductor memory devices.
1. INTRODUCTION In the last couple of decades, interest in the electrical properties of ferroelectric and antiferroelectric thin films lay centered around their applications in high value capacitors, high frequency transducers, solid-state displays, etc. In recent years the field has been rejuvenated by the additional possibility of using thin films of these materials as electro-optics devices, pyroelectric detectors and most exciting of all as nonvolatile random access memory elements. Interesting applications are also envisaged in the area of micro displacement transducers and actuators. Naturally, this has led to a rapid development in the synthesis of high quality epitaxial as well as polycrystalline films through new growth techniques coupled with an enhanced control over the growth parameters. In the last decade, there have also been a few reports on thin films of antiferroelectric materials, such as PbZrO 3, and SrTiO3 [1-5], having potential applications in phase switching, charge storage, current sources, linear capacitors, memory devices, etc.
In view of the potentiality in the above applications electrical properties of antiferroelectric NaNbO3 thin films have been studied. In the characterization of electrical properties of NaNbO3 films studies have been conducted on the measurement of leakage current, conduction mechanism and breakdown voltage. A rich array of electrical conduction phenomena is displayed by insulating films when sandwiched between a combination of metal and semiconductor electrodes (MIS configuration). Under the influence of an applied electric field, electrons, holes
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Vijendra Lingwal, N.S. Panwar, B.S. Semwal and G. Mohan Rao
and ions may migrate, giving rise to measurable currents. The identification of the dominant transport mechanism- the, one that is rate limiting- is the key to understand the relationships between the material parameters of the insulator and contacts, and the resulting current-voltage characteristics. Two broad categories of rate-limiting transport mechanisms are barrier limited and bulk limited [6].
2. EXPERIMENTAL Films of NaNbO3 were rf sputtered on silicon (Si) substrates (P- <100>, 1 -cm resistivity) to carry out measurements in metal-insulator-semiconductor (MIS) configuration. XRD of the deposited NaNbO3 films was carried out by Philips Analytical X-ray Diffractometer (PW 3710), using CuK1 radiation of wavelength 1.54056. Aluminium electrodes (2.8xl0-3 cm2 area) were deposited on NaNbO3 using a shadowing mask. Also, aluminium was deposited on the backside of silicon substrate to provide ohmic contact for the MIS configuration. Current-voltage (I-V) measurements were carried out using a Keithley Electrometer (model 614) with a separate voltage source. 3. CURRENT-VOLTAGE (I-V) CHARACTERISTICS In order to understand the conduction mechanism, in the MIS structure of NaNbO3 insulating films, I-V measurements have been carried out in the present study. The observations have been given in Figs. 1-11. The I-V characteristics of MIS capacitors; employing NaNbO3 films, annealed and deposited at different temperatures, are shown in Figs. 1-2. At low voltages, an exponential increase of current with voltage is observed, which is followed by a saturation region at higher voltages. Typical nonlinear I-V characteristics observed in other oxide systems (e.g., SiO2, GeO2) and ferroelectric materials (e.g., BaTiO3, Pb5Ge3O11) have attributed the sudden initial increase to the electrode-limited current and the saturation region to the bulklimited current [7-11]. In the present study the transition voltage from electrode-limited to bulk-limited current has been observed decreasing in the samples annealed at higher temperatures, where crystallinity decreases. Samples deposited at different substrate temperatures were observed showing no any significant variation in the transition voltage. Leakage current was observed lower in the samples annealed at 400OC than that in the samples deposited at RT. With increasing annealing temperature, leakage current was found increasing, for the films annealed at higher temperatures (at 500 and 600C). Similar effect on leakage current was observed in the films deposited at higher substrate temperatures, where films become amorphous. The observed I-V behavior, Figs. 1 2, suggests several conduction mechanisms in this system. At low voltages linear variation of I with V indicates ohmic conduction. Above a critical field, the current was found increasing monotonically, indicating the involvement of several conduction mechanisms, such as Schottky barrier controlled conduction, Poole-Frenkel hopping conduction and bulklimited space charge conduction. For space charge conduction current should be linear with the square of the applied voltage [6]; but Figs. 3 and 4 show that this linearity is not uniform within whole voltage range, indicating that space charge conduction occurs only within a certain voltage range. This is confirmed in Figs. 5 and 6, which show linearity between current and square of the applied voltage, in the electric field ranging between 5.8 x l06 V/m to 1.2 x 107 V/m, for the films deposited at different temperatures; and between 9.6 x 106 V/m to 1.9 x 107 V/m, for the films annealed at different temperature, indicating that space charge conduction mechanism
Electrical properties of NaNbo3 thin films
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Fig.1. I-V characteristics of NaNbO3 films, annealed at different temperatures
Fig.1. I-V characteristics of NaNbO3 films, deposited at different temperatures
Fig.3. Leakage current vs square of applied voltage, in NaNbO3 films, annealed at different temperatures
Fig.4. Leakage current vs square of applied voltage, in NaNbO3 films, deposited at different temperatures
dominates in these voltage ranges, in the present system, prepared under different conditions. The conduction occurs dominantly due to space charge limited conduction and this conduction ceases quickly for the films annealed or deposited at higher temperatures. Besides, according to Lampert and Mark [12], the space charge limited conduction process may further be confirmed, if the I-V behavior observed for different conditions satisfies a general law of the type, I/d = f (V/d2), where d is the film thickness, which was determined from the transmission spectra of the films [13]. Figs. 7 (a), (b) and (c) shows that this law holds good, both in the ohmic and below the electric field of 1.2 x 107 V/m regimes, and suggests the dominance of the space charge conduction below 1.2 x 107 V/m. Possibility of Poole-Frenkel conduction in the above voltage range (< 6V) seems quite meager. For Poole-Frankel mechanism, the I-V characteristics should show linearity between log I and square root of voltage [6]. It is clear, from the Figs. 8 and 9, that there is no linear relationship between current (log I) and square root of voltage, in this range (<1.2 x 107 V/m, for the films deposited at different temperature and, < 1.9 x 107 V/m, for the films annealed at different temperature). But above this voltage
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Fig. 5. Leakage current vs square of applied voltage, in NaNbO3 films, deposited at different temperatures
Fig. 6. Leakage current vs square of applied voltage, in NaNbO3 films, annealed at different temperatures
Fig. 7 (a), (b) and (c). V/d2 vs I/d curves showing the confirmation of space charge conduction mechanism.
Fig. 8. Log of leakage current vs square root of applied voltage, in NaNbO3 films, annealed at different temperatures
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range ( 6 V), it shows linearity between log I and square root of voltage, as shown in Figs. 10 and I I. The current for Poole-Frenkel emission and Schottky emission mechanism can be expressed as [14], i = io exp (qE1/2/kT), where = (q/K), and K is high frequency dielectric constant and its value was 146.8 obtained from the C-V measurement. * = q/kT can be calculated by the slope of log I vs. E1/2 plot. Here q is the electron charge, k is Boltzmann constant, T is the absolute room temperature, and E the electric field strength. For both the cases, current increases exponentially with the square root of the applied field. Schottky effect currents are significant especially for lower barrier heights and higher temperatures. It is experimentally difficult to separate the Schottky effect current from that resulting from the Poole-Frenkel effect. The difference between these two mechanisms is only in the constant *, which is twice, in the Poole-Frenkel emission, of that for the Schottky effect, due to image charge formation in the latter ( = 4 for Schottky, and 1 for Poole- Frankel effect). However, when the constant is inferred from the slopes of lines in the plot of log I ~ f (V1/2), the resulting values approach the Schottky value even when the process involved is, with a great probability, bulk-dependent and thus determined by the Poole-Frenkel effect. Various explanations have been proposed for this discrepancy. The most plausible is that which takes into account that the potential representing the trap is deformed by the field so that the escape of electrons is made easier in one direction and more difficult in the opposite one. When the probability of electron transfer through such an asymmetrical barrier is then calculated, the resultant dependence may, in effect, approach Schottkys function. To distinguish these effects unambiguously is difficult, and physical considerations rather than the observed quantitative differences are used for that purpose. The value of *, estimated from the log I vs V1/2 plot of Fig. 8, was found 3.27 x l0-4 for the electric field greater than 1.9 x 107 V/m, which is approximately equal to that needed for Poole-Frenkel emission (2.42 x 10-4) and is quite away for to that needed for Schottky emission (1.21 x 10-4). At low electric fields (1.9 x 10 7 V/m), where we believe space charge conduction mechanism, the value of * was found high enough (1.286 > l0-3) and neglect any possibility of Poole-Frenkel or Schottky emission, in the present system. Similarly, for the samples deposited at 300OC, from the log I vs V1/2 plot, Fig. 9, in the electric field greater than 1.2 x 107 V/m, the estimated value of * was found 2.41 x 10-4. Value of * needed for Poole-Frenkel emission is 2.06 x 10-4, which is nearly equal to the estimated value, suggesting that, in the electric field greater than 1.2 x 107 V/m, Poole-Frenkel mechanism dominates in the present system. At low voltages, for these samples, * was found high enough (9.65 x 10-4) and thus neglects any possibility of Poole-Frenkel conduction. From these observations it seems that conduction mechanism in NaNbO3 assisted MIS structure involves ohmic, space charge limited and Poole-Frenkel conduction dominating at different increasing applied voltage regimes. At low voltage, sufficient numbers of charge carriers are injected into the insulator conduction band dominatingly by tunneling (because for the Schottky emission high field is required). However, reaching in the insulator they face difficulty due to bulk transport limit. So, current increases according to Ohms law with increasing voltage. Again at higher voltage now rate of carrier injection from the contact
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Fig. 9. Log of leakage current vs square root of applied voltage, in NaNbO3 films, deposited at different temperatures
Fig. 10. Log of leakage current vs square root of applied voltage, in NaNbO3 films, annealed at different temperatures
Fig. 11. Log of leakage current vs square root of applied voltage, in NaNbO3 films, deposited at different temperatures
Fig. 12. X-ray diffraction patterns of NaNbO3 films, deposited at different temperatures
Fig. 13. X-ray diffraction patterns of NaNbO3 films, deposited at room temperature (RT) and annealed at different substrate temperatures
289
(tunneling and Schottky effects) exceeds the rate at which charge can transport through the film. A space-charge cloud develops, that discourages further charge injection and leads to nonlinear conduction effect. At higher electric fields ( 1.2 x 107 V/m, for the films deposited at different temperatures; and 1.9 x 107 V/m, for the films annealed at different temperatures), the trapped charge carriers jump to the conduction band leading to high current, which is Poole-Frenkel emission. In between there are indications of overlapping of both the conduction mechanisms. Leakage current in the present samples was observed higher than the desired value for memory devices because the trends of replacing the trench and stack capacitors in DRAMs (dynamic random accessory memory) with a planar capacitor configuration prompted the need for the development of high dielectric constant materials with low leakage current and high breakdown strength [15, 16]. Leakage current density for the samples, deposited at room temperature, was calculated and was found 6.43 x 10-6 A/cm2, at 14.47 kV/cm. In the annealed samples leakage current was found minimum (4.64 x 10-6 A/cm2, at 14.47 kV/cm) for the samples annealed at 400C, and it was found increasing with increasing annealing temperature. Also the leakage current was found minimum (2.5 x 10-5 A/cm2, at 14.47 kV/cm) for the samples deposited at 270C, and was found increasing with increasing deposition temperature. The leakage current in the present samples was found higher than that for the materials investigated by others, e.g., leakage current density has been reported 2.8 x 10-6 A/cm2, at 100 kV/cm, for (Ba, Sr)TiO3, 9 x 10-8 A/cm2, at 100 kV/cm, for tantalum penta oxide (Ta2O5), etc. [17, 18]. Since all the films were deposited in the argon atmosphere only, there may exist oxygen vacancies, which may be the source of high conduction through insulating NaNbO3 films. With annealing, oxygen vacancies decrease and thereby conduction decreases, in the samples annealed at 400OC. At higher annealing temperatures (at 500 and 600OC), sodium ions might have escaped from the lattice due to their volatile nature and hence increasing conduction, in these samples. Non-stoichiometric proportion of sodium leads amorphous material formation, which has also been observed in their XRD patterns, Figs.12 and 13. In the films, deposited at low temperatures (e.g., at RT and 270OC); conduction is not comfortably facilitated due to the lack of sodium vacancies. In the films deposited at higher substrate temperatures (300 and 340OC) sodium ions escape, which results high conduction and poor crystallinity, in these films, i.e., films deposited at higher temperatures are amorphous in nature. Thus for semiconductor memory applications, where low leakage current is required, films annealed at 400OC give the best results among the present samples. However, for all the present samples, breakdown was not observed in the measured applied field range, i.e., up to 4.34 x 105 V/cm. This value has been reported of the order of 105-106 V/cm, for BaTiO3 [I l]. The transport phenomena in dielectrics are not yet completely understood, that the theory rests on models, that are too simple and that experimental results are often of dubious significance owing to uncertainty as to the actual conditions in the system examined. Since these phenomena are of great importance for electronic applications, a large amount of additional efforts has to be devoted to them.
REFERENCES
I. K. Yamakawa, S. Trolier-McKinstry, J.P. Dougherty and S.B. Krupanidhi, Appl. Phys. Lett., 67, 2014 (1995).
290
2. I. Kanno, S. Hayashi, M. Kitagawa, R. Takayama and T. Hirao, App/. Phys. Lett., 66, 145 (1995). 3. K.K. Li, F. Wang and G.H. Haertling, J. Mater. Res., 30, 1386 (1995). 4. G.R. Bai, H.L.M. Chang, D.J. Lam and Y. Gao, Appl. Phys. Lett., 62, 1754 (1993). 5. G. Mohan Rao and S.B. Krupanidhi, J. Appl. Phys., 75, 2604 (1994). 6. S.M. Sze, Physics of Semiconductor Devices, Wiley publication, New York, (2000). 7. R.V. Stuart and K.B. Wehner, J. Appl. Phys., 35, l819 (1964). 8. S.B. Krupanidhi, M. Sayer and A. Mansingh, Thin Solid Films, 113, 173 (1984). 9. J.K. Park and W.W. Granneman, Ferroelectrics, 10, 217 (1976). 10. S.B. Krupanidhi, A. Mansingh and M. Sayer, Ferroelectrics, 50, 443 (1983). 11. K. Sreenivas, Abhai Mansingh and M. Sayer, J. Appl. Phys., 62, 4475 (1987). l2. M. Lampert and P. Mark, Current Injection in Solids, Academic Press, New York, (1970). 13. S. Swanepoel, J. Phys. E: Sci. Inst., 16, 1214 (1983) 14. L. Ecketova, Physics of Thin Films, Plenum Press, New York (1977). 15. C.A. Araujo, L.D. McMillan, B.M. Melnick, J.D. Cuchiaro and J.F. Scott, Ferroelectrics, 104, 241 (1990). 16. R. Moazzam, C. Hu and W.H. Shepherd, IEEE Electron Device Lett., 11, 454 (1990). 17. A. Pignolet, G. Mohan Rao, S.B. Krupanidhi, Thin Solid Films, 258, 230 (1995). 18. B. Panda, A. Dhar, G.D. Nigam, D. Bhattacharya and S.K. Ray, J. Appl. Phys., 83, 1114 (1997).
291
CONDUCTIVITY BASED PROCESS MODELLING

V. Dharmalingam and S. Sundaram*
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering SASTRA (Deemed University), Thanjavur-613407 *Department of Chemical Engineering, Regional Engineering College, Trichy 620 015 ABSTRACT
Cohen and Coon method has been employed in tuning of controllers for flow through coiled pipes of varying length. The fluid was salt solution whose conductivity was monitored using an online Forbes Marshall conductivity analyzer. Based on the step response model parameters were established and compared with simulated values using MATLAB. The model and the experimental values agreed within five percent.
INTRODUCTION All physical systems cannot be represented in their full physical intricacies and therefore idealizing assumptions are always made for the purpose of analysis and synthesis of systems. A physical system can be modeled in a number of ways depending upon the specific problem to be dealt with and the desired accuracy. Depending on the choice of variables and the coordinate system, a given a greater insight into the dynamic behavior of a physical system, is selected. A commonly adopted approach for handling a new problem is to first build a simplified model, linear as for as possible, by ignoring certain nonlinearities and other physical properties, which may be present in the system and thereby get an approximate idea of the dynamic response. A more complex model is then built for detailed analysis1.
Various methods used for process modelling are based on key values, qualitative evaluation, elementary pattern recognition, curve fitting and reaction curve approach. In keyvalues approach2 qualitative information of the signals in terms of easy to handle key-values like damping, overshoot and oscillation time are used. The qualitative evaluation method on the other hand describes the signals based on qualitative terms such as too low monotone, overshoot oscillatory and small postive3. For elementary pattern recognition, it is assumed that most control response patterns can be broken down and described by a basic set of component patterns4. In curve fitting approach, the time response is transferred to semi-log scale to find the process model. The general model suggested is of the form Kpe Gp(s) = (T1S+1)(T2S+1)
-Tds
.......................... (1)
292
V. Dharmalingam and S. Sundaram
where Kp = process gain, Td=transportation delay, T1 and T2 = time constants Electrical conductivity is one of the transport properties frequently encountered by chemists and engineers, since it is widely used in water treatment plants, distilleries pharmaceutical plants and in refineries for process control applications6. It has been applied to monitor the purity of solvents, to develop high-energy batteries and also in choromatographic separation techiniques7,8. In this work process model is experimentally determined from the reaction curve obtained by monitoring online electrical conductivity.
2. EXPERIMENTAL SETUP The experimental setup for determining the process model using conductivity of the fluid is shown in Fig1. The process L1, L2 and L3 consist of coiled pipes of length 1,2 and 3 meters respectively contributing different transportation lag. These processes L1, L2 and L3 with different transportation lag was realized by operating valves V1 to V4 as shown in Fig1. At the inlet of the coiled pipe, water and two weight percent sodium chloride solution were metered through a Gallen kamp rotameter into the process. At the outlet a Forbes Marshall online conductivity cell measured the conductivity of the exist solution. The variation of conductivity with time was recorded on a Cambridge recorder.
Fig.1. : Experimental set up for determining the process model
3. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE The flow rate of water at the inlet was fixed at 1 lpm and two weight percent sodium chloride solution was injected suddenly at the rate of 100cc/m. The setp-by-step procedure is as follows:
1. Water was allowed to flow into the process at a constant flow rate of 1 lpm. The cell indicated a constant conductivity value in micromhos and this constant value was recorded.
Conductivity based process modelling

2. 3.
293
A two weight percent sodium chloride solution was injected at constant flow rate of 100cc/m in the inlet along with the water. The conductivity of the outlet water increased slowly and reached a steady value depending on the pipe length. The variation in conductivity measured by the cell was plotted by the recorded.
The variation in conductivity with respect to time for three different processes L1, L2 and L3 plotted by the recorder are shown in Fig2. It is important that no disturbances other than the step change enter the system during the test, otherwise the transients will be corrupted by these uncontrolled disturbances and will be unsuitable for deriving a process model.
Fig.2. : Variation in conductivity with time for L1, L2 and L3
4. PROCESS MODELLING For many processes in the chemical industry, the process reaction curve for step input is a sigmoidal curve. For system that produce a S shaped process reaction curve, a general model that can be fitted to the transient is the second order with transportation lag model is shown by equation 2.
Kpe Gp(s) = (T1s+1)(T2s+1)
-Tds
.......................... (2)
294
The transfer function given in the above equation can be obtained from the process reaction curve by a graphical method in which the logarithm of the incomplete response is plotted against time. The method referred to as semi-log plot method and is explained9. By applying this procedure three different semi-log plot were drawn for three processes with data obtained from the experiment. The construction detail for the process L1 is shown in Fig. 3 and the values are given in Table1.
Fig.3. : Semi-log construction for L1
Table 1 : The experimental values for semi-log plot construction of Process L1

Time seconds (t) 0 12 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 Conductivity micromho/cm (Yo) 170 170 195 228 250 261 264 268 270 270 270 270 270 Shifted Time seconds (t1) 0 3 8 13 18 23 28 33 38 43 48 53 Conductivity excluding initial value Y = (Yo-170) 0 25 58 80 91 94 98 100 100 100 100 100 I = (Bu-Y)/Bu 1.00 0.75 0.42 0.20 0.09 0.02 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
295
Fig. 4. : Comparison of simulated and calculated responses with reaction curve.
296
5. RESULT AND CONCLUSION The variation of conductivity with time obtained from experiment for the three Processes L1 L2 and L3 are given by the following models.
-12s 0.25e Gp1(S) (7s+1)(6s+1) -23s 0.25e Gp2 (S) = (19s+1)(7s+1) -32s 0.25e Gp3(S) = (19s+1)(8s+1)
Process L1
......................... (3)
Process L2
......................... (4)
Process L3
......................... (5)
The time response for the second order transfer function having constant T1 and T2 in terms of fractional incompleted I excluding transportation lag is given by T1T2 I = T1-T2 -t/T1 e T2 -t/T2 e T1
......................... (6)
From equation (6) the variation in conductivity for the three different processes L1, L2 and L3 were calculated. The transfer functions were also simulated using MATLAB simulation package. The simulated and calculated time response curves are compared with reaction curve and are shown in Fig. 4. It can be seen from that the transfer function obtained from the experiment matches with the reaction curve. Future work on pulse, impulse and sinusoidal input is in progress.
REFERENCES :
1. I.J. Nagrath and M. Gopal, Control System Engg, Third Edition, New Age International, New Delhi (2001). 2. J. Lee, W. Cho, and T.F. Edgar, An improved techniques for PID controller Tuning from closed loop test, AIChE J., vol. 36, no. 12, pp. 1891-1895, 1990. 3. N.R. Sripade, D.G. Fisher and A.J. Morris, AI application for process regulation and servo control, IEE Proc., Part D. vol. 134, no. 4, pp. 251-59, 1987. 4. K.A. Toh and R. Devanathan, Pattern-Based identification for process control applications, IEEE Trans. Cont. Sys. Tech., vol. 4, no. 6, pp. 641-648, 1996.
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5. A.G. Hill and W. Raksakij, Process and disturbance identification by curve Fitting the closed loop response, in Proc. Amer. Contr. Conf., pp. 2206-2209, 1989. 6. J. Schuppan, Possibilities for the use of conductivity measurement in process control, Wiss. Z. Technol. Leuna-merseburg Hochsch. Carl Schorlemmer, vol. 26, pp. 38-49, 1984. 7. J.S. Fritz, D.T. Gjerde and R.M. Becker, Cation chromatography with a conductivity detector, Anals. Chem. Vol. 52, pp. 1519-1522, 1980. 8. A. Usobiaga, A. de. Diego and J.M. Madariaga, Electrical conductivity of concentrated aqueous mixture of HCl and KCl in a wide range of composition and temperatures, J. Chem. Engg. Data, vol. 45, pp. 23-28, 2000. 9. Donald R. Coughanowr, Process system analysis and control, Second edition McGrew-Hill Inc, Singapore, 1991.
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INSTRUMENT SOCIETY OF INDIA - HYDERABAD CHAPTER

202, IETE Building, O.U. Campus, Hyderabad - 500 007
FOUNDATION DAY CELEBRATION ON 23rd AUGUST 2003

The Foundation Day of our Hyderabad chapter is celebrated for the first time on 23rd August 2003 and the function is quite successful. 1. About 65 persons attended the function. Of them about 35 are members and the rest are invitees. The important personalities who attended are : a. Prof. M. Ramakrishna Rao .... b. Dr. E.V.R. Rao c. Sri D.V.S. Raju d. Prof. G. Sivarama Sastry e. Sri B. Gopinath f. Sri M. Madan Mohan g. Dr. M. Krishna Murthy h. Sri Sanjar Ali Khan i. Prof. P.S. Sarma .... .... .... Former CC (R&D), DRDO Hyderabad Science Society Principal, Auroras Engg. College, Bhuvanagiri .... .... .... .... Founder Secretary of ISOI Founder President of Hyderabad Chapter Founder member of Hyderabad Chapter Founder member of Hyderabad Chapter Founder member of Hyderabad chapter
2. Prof. Asokan and Prof. S. Mohan from head quarters at Bangalore, our former treasurer Mr. G.G. Kingi (from USA) and our former secretary Prof. S.G. Satyanarayan (from USA) have sent their greetings. 3. The power point presentation of Hyderabad Chapters activities covering 29 years launched on this occasion is very much appreciated by all. 4. A few of the senior members and some invitees from academia, R&D and industry gave their suggestions for the future activities of the chapter. 5. Sri D.J. Rao informed the wish to celebrate the Chapters 30th year of existence by a series of popular lectures on Instrumentations and topics of general interest like Education, Human Resource needs, Social justice etc. 6. The function was followed by dinner at University guest house. Prepared by : D.J. Rao on 28th August 2003

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