CHAPTER ONE GENERAL BACKGROUND 1.

0 Introduction Development is a universally cherished goal of individuals, families, communities and nations all over the world. Development is also universal in the sense that all forms of life on planet earth have an inherent urge to survive and develop. Hence, it is not surprising that the subject of development has been studied by scholars of all faiths, ideologies and disciplines. Furthermore, development is a subjective and value loaded concept which makes it difficult to establish a consensus as to its meaning. But generally speaking, the term development implies a change that is desirable. It is in the light of this that every nation on earth seeks vigorously, national development (Pearce, 1990). In an attempt to achieve national development, that is increase in real income per capita (economic growth), improvement in distribution of income (equity), political and economic freedom and equitable access to resources, education, health care, and employment opportunities and justice, both men and women play diverse roles in achieving these objectives. Sadly, women especially those in developing countries play very limited roles in achieving national development. This indicates that there are gender imbalances when it comes to empowering women to contribute their quota to national development. The past thirty years have witnessed a steadily increasing awareness of the need to empower women through measures to increase social, economic and political equity, and broader access to fundamental human rights, improvements in nutrition,
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basic health and education. Along with awareness of the subordinate status of women has come the concept of gender as an overarching socio-cultural variable, seen in relation to other factors, such as race, class, age and ethnicity. Gender is not synonymous with women, nor is it a zero-sum game implying loss for men; rather, it refers to both men and women, and to their status, relative to each other (World Economic Forum, 2005). In recognition of the importance of establishing gender equality around the world, the United Nations Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM) was established as a separate fund within the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) in 1984. At that time, the General Assembly instructed it to ensure womens involvement with mainstream activities (Sadler, 2001). The Platform of Action resulting from the 1995 Beijing World Conference on Women expanded this concept, calling it gender mainstreaming- that is the application of gender perspectives to all legal and social norms and standards, to all policy development, research, planning, advocacy, development, implementation and monitoring- as a mandate for all member states(United Nations, 2001). In this way, the gender factor is no longer to be only a supplement to development but central to the practice of development. The gender inequality situation in Africa reflects the worldwide trend and in some countries in Africa, the situation is shocking and terrible. A pregnant woman in Africa is 180 times more likely to die of pregnancy complications than in Western Europe (Feminist Womens Health Centre, 2004). Also, women still hold only 15.6% of elected parliamentary seat globally (Inter-Parliamentary Union, 2004). Ghana has made great strides in combating gender inequalities, and the empowerment of women. Some of the actions that have been under taken to reduce
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gender inequalities include the creation of the Ministry of Women and Childrens Affairs in 2001, with a Minister of Cabinet as its head to oversee women issues, the introduction of grants to increase girls enrolment in schools, and support for womens economic activities in particular through a government and donor funded Womens Development Fund, and the ratification of the Convention on the Elimination of all forms of Discrimination against women in February 1986. Regarding poverty, the Government has adopted strategies to deal with some of the effects of poverty, in particular on women. These include exemptions from paying hospital fees for pregnant, poor and aged women; the Programme of Action to Mitigate the Social Costs of Adjustment; and the project on Enhancing Opportunities for Women in Development (United Nations, 2010). Even though Ghana is making some great improvements in reducing gender imbalances, there are still some forms of inequalities that still exist. For example, womens representation in parliament, at district level and in public life is still low compared to male participation. Other challenges include maternal mortality, the absence of a comprehensive social security protection for women in the informal sector and the issues of access to and control of productive assets in some ethnic communities by women (UN Committee on Elimination of Discrimination Against Women, 2006). Achieving development through gender equality, however, is a slow process, since it challenges one of the most deeply entrenched of all human attitudes. Despite the intense efforts of many agencies and organisations, and numerous successes, the picture is still disheartening. The focus of this study is to examine the gender inequality problem and find out how women empowerment has or can reduce the
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gender gap and contribute to development. For the purpose of this study, women empowerment is defined as educating and training women so that they can acquire the requisite knowledge and skills needed for an improved standard of living. 1.1 Problem Statement In Ghana, women are not empowered enough to contribute their quota to national development. For example, there are strong evidences of low level of female participation in the social, educational, economic and political spheres. In the political arena, the participation of women in governance and politics in Ghana needs a more definitive action. The number of women appointed as ministers falls far below the 40 per cent representation promised by the current government. Coupled with this, the number of female Metropolitan, Municipal and District Chief Executives (MMDCEs) recently appointed is low (Senyo, 2009). The situation is in no different in Tema, which is an urban area and relatively developed compared to other areas in the country. Efficient and good economic and social infrastructural facilities are in Tema. The city has heavy and light industries. There is also a huge main and fishing harbour in Tema. The citys service industry comprises banks, insurance firms, hotels, legal firms, postal and communication services and transport (Ghana districts.com, 2006). Even though Tema can boast of all the industries and good economic and social facilities, there are gender inequalities when it comes to employment in the industrial sector. Fewer women are employed compared to men. This is due to the fact that most of the women do not have the requisite skills to work in the industries. In the maritime

industry for example, the disparity is very clear as the number of females employed in the industry is very small (Ghana districts.com, 2006). In the political sphere, Tema has five parliamentary seats. Currently, one seat is occupied by a female while the remaining four are occupied by males. Also, there is a clear disparity in the number of assembly members in the Tema Metropolitan Assembly. There are more males compared to females in the Metropolitan Assembly members (Ghana districts.com, 2006). . These disparities in gender may affect local community development adversely in all its forms in the Tema Metropolis. In view of these disparities in gender, it is imperative to consider the following questions: How does empowering women lead to local community development? What roles do women play in achieving local community development? How successful have programs and policies for addressing gender imbalances been? 1.2 Objectives 1.2.1 Main Objective The main objective is to determine how empowering women leads to local community development in Tema.

1.2.2 Specific Objectives The specific objectives are: 1. To investigate how women empowerment affect womens employment opportunities. 2. To find out how women empowerment affect womens income levels. 3. To find out the effect of women empowerment on womens ability to acquire and own property. 4. To assess the effect of empowering women on their familys health. 1.3 Methodology 1.3.1 Sources of Data The sources of data include primary and secondary sources of data. 1.3.2 Primary Sources of Data Primary data sources were obtained from nurses, teachers, bankers, accountants, doctors and those in the security services. Market women, hairdressers and seamstresses were also contacted for information. 1.3.3 Secondary Sources of Data Journals, archives, newspapers and books were consulted to find out what have been written on women empowerment, gender inequalities and national development. The Social Welfare Department of the Tema Development Corporation and the Tema Metropolitan Assembly were contacted for data on women and gender issues.
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1.3.4 Methods of Data Collection Data were collected using closed-ended questionnaires and structured interviews. The structured interview was used to find out how the government is bringing awareness to the public on the issue of women empowerment and gender disparities and what are being done to solve this social problem. 1.3.5 Sampling Methods The framework of the research is a social survey. In this study, the sample size used was 120. The study employed a non-probabilistic sampling method, where purposive sampling was used. The sample was stratified into female skilled professionals, female semi-skilled professionals, female industrial workers, and market women. Questionnaires were given to about 35 female skilled professionals, 35 female semi-skilled professionals, 20 store keepers, and 20 female industrial workers. Also, 10 market women were interviewed. This quota is used because it represents a fair share of the women population and their employment. 1.3.6 Data Analysis Predictive Analytical Software (PASW) is the software that was used in analyzing the data collected. A coding book comprising of the variables, their meanings, and their respective level of measurement was generated. Then the administered questionnaires were entered in the Data view window. Visual presentations such as line graphs and bar graphs were used to describe and explore relationships of the variables used and interpreted with the objectives in view.
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1.4 Literature Review 1.4.1 Introduction The literature review considers the operational definitions and literature on gender inequalities and women empowerment. A conceptual framework to explain the work and the key issues from the reviewed literature are also included. 1.4.2 Definitions of terms and concepts Sex and Gender - Sex refers to the biological differences between men and women and is genetically determined. Gender refers to the socially determined differences between women and men, such as roles, attitudes, behaviours and values. Gender roles can vary across cultures and over time and are therefore amenable to change. Sex is therefore universal while gender is a socially defined category that can change. The concept of gender is vital because, applied to social analysis it reveals how womens subordination (or mens domination) is socially constructed. As such, the subordination can be changed or ended. It is not biologically predetermined nor is it fixed forever (UNESCO, 2003). Culture - The distinctive patterns of ideas, beliefs, and norms which characterize the way of life and relations of a society or groups within a society. These patterns also include customs and traditions. Culturally determined gender ideologies define rights and responsibilities and what is appropriate behaviour for women and men. They also influence access to and control over resources, and participation in decisionmaking. These gender ideologies often reinforce male power and the idea of womens inferiority, as for example customary laws that dictate that only men can own land.

Culture is sometimes assumed to be natural and unchangeable; however it is fluid and historically determined (WHO, 2002). Gender Discrimination - refers to the systematic, unfavourable treatment of individuals on the basis of their gender roles, which denies them enjoying their rights and accessing opportunities or resources (WHO, 2002). Gender equality - denotes women having equal access to social, economic, political and cultural opportunities as men. It does not mean that women and men are the same, but rather that their similarities and differences are recognized and equally valued (UN INSTRAW, 2003). Gender equity - is the process of being fair to both men and women. In order to be fair, measures must be taken to compensate for historical and social disadvantages that limit women and men from operating on a level playing field. This may require a redistribution of power and resources. Equity is thus a means. Equality is the result (UNESCO, 2003). Empowerment - is about people -both women and men- taking control over their lives: setting their own agendas, gaining skills, building self-confidence, solving problems and developing self-reliance, and expressing their voice. It is both a process and an outcome. No one can empower another: only the individual can empower herself or himself to make choices or to speak out. However, some institutions can support processes that can nurture self-empowerment of relegated individuals or groups (WHO, 2002).

Gender Analysis - is the systematic gathering and examination of information in order to identify, understand and redress inequities between women and men, girls and boys based on gender roles and gender relations (Reeves et al, 2000). Gender Mainstreaming - the process of assessing the implications for women and men of any planned action, including legislation, policies and programs, in all areas and at all levels. It is a strategy for making womens as well as mens concerns and experiences an integral dimension of the design, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of policies and programs in all political, economic and societal spheres so that women and men benefit equally and inequality is not perpetuated. The ultimate goal is gender equality (UN ECOSOC, 1997). Gender mainstreaming principles Gender mainstreaming means: forging and strengthening the political will to achieve gender equality and equity, at the local, national, regional and global levels; incorporating a gender perspective into the planning processes of all ministries and departments of government, particularly those concerned with macroeconomic and development planning, personnel policies and management, and legal affairs; integrating a gender perspective into all phases of sectoral planning cycles, including the analysis development, appraisal, implementation, monitoring and evaluation policies, programs and projects;

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 using sex-disaggregated data (data that is collected and presented separately on men and women) in statistical analysis to reveal how policies impact differently on women and men; increasing the numbers of women in decision-making positions in government and the private and public sectors; providing tools and training in gender awareness, gender analysis and gender planning to decision-makers, senior managers and other key personnel. Reproductive Rights - The recognition of the basic right of all couples and individuals to decide freely and responsibly the number, spacing and timing of their children and to have the information and means to do so, and the right to attain the highest standard of sexual and reproductive health. They also include the right of all to make decisions concerning reproduction free of discrimination, coercion and violence (Baden, 2002). Sexual rights - embrace human rights that are already recognized in national laws, international human rights documents and other consensus documents. These include the right of all persons, free of coercion, discrimination and violence, to: the highest attainable standard of health in relation to sexuality, including access to sexual and reproductive health care services; seek, receive and impart information in relation to sexuality; sexuality education; respect for bodily integrity; choice of partner; decide to be sexually active or not; consensual sexual relations; consensual marriage; decide whether or not, and when to have children; and pursue a satisfying, safe and pleasurable sexual life (UNESCO, 2003).

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1.4.3 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

FIGURE 1.0: CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK ON WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

EDUCATION/TRAINING

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

DEVELOPMENT

SOCIAL

ECONOMIC

POLITICAL

BETTER HEALTH

NON-VIOLENCE AND ABUSE AGAINST WOMEN

PARTICIPATION IN DECISION MAKING

HIGHER INCOME

EMPLOYMENT

PROPERTY OWNERSHIP

SOURCE: AUTHORS OWN CONSTRUCT, MARCH 2011

Figure 1.0 shows a conceptual framework on women empowerment. Women empowerment involves educating and training women so that they can obtain the necessary skills and knowledge needed for a decent living. It is also about women
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building their self-confidence, solving problems, developing self-reliance, and expressing their voice. Without doubt, education is the most fundamental prerequisite for empowering women in all spheres of life, for without education of comparable quality and content to that given to boys and men, and relevant to existing knowledge and real needs, women are unable to access well-paid formal sector jobs, advance within them, participate in, and be represented in government and gain political influence. When women empowerment is achieved, it leads to development in all its dimensions. According to World Bank (1991), development is a multi-dimensional process involving major changes in social structure, popular attitudes, national institutions as well as the acceleration of economic growth, the reduction of inequality and eradication of poverty. Development has several dimensions and these are economic, social and political dimensions. A country is economically developed when its citizens have the purchasing power or the income to obtain basic economic goods and services. According to Amartya Sen (1999), the education, employment and ownership rights of women have a powerful influence on their ability to control their environment and contribute to economic development. Social development involves the citizens of a country being educated, healthy and strong. It also includes the citizens of a country being free from violence and abuse of any sort. When women are educated, have better health and are free from violence and abuse of any sort, then socially they are developed. Politically, a country is regarded as developed when its citizens have the right and freedom to contribute to nation building through the expression of their thoughts and ideas. Political development also refers to the equitable representation of women
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in decision-making structures, both formal and informal, and their voice in the formulation of policies affecting their societies (Inter-Parliamentary Union, 2004). 1.4.4 Gender Imbalances and Women Empowerment Reviewed 1.4.5 Women Empowerment: Measuring the Global Gender Gap According to the World Economic Forums Executive Opinion Survey (2005), conducted to assess the status accorded to women in a broad range of countries, no country has yet managed to eliminate the gender gap. Those that have succeeded best in narrowing the gap are the Nordic countries, with Sweden standing out as the most advanced in the world. These are followed by New Zealand, Canada, United Kingdom, Germany and Australia, countries that have made considerable progress in recent decades in removing obstacles to the full participation of women in their respective societies. France ranked ahead of the United States among the 58 nations. Seven East European nations hold places among the top 25, with Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia the highest ranking in that group. Switzerland, Italy and Greece performed poorly, lower in rank than many of the East European group, and below Latin American nations such as Costa Rica, Colombia and Uruguay. Brazil, Mexico, India, Korea, Jordan, Pakistan, Turkey and Egypt occupy the lowest ranks. The study used five dimensions of female empowerment, namely: economic participation, economic opportunity, political empowerment, educational attainment, health and well-being (World Economic Forum, 2005). 1.4.6 Global Measures of Empowerment According to Hancock (2005), Gender Development Index (GDI) and Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM) are the two measures used for measuring women
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empowerment. While the GDI focuses on capabilities, the GEM focuses on opportunities (Klasen, 2006). The GDI is based on the HDI but is corrected for gender gaps in the three HDI dimensions of education, health and income (Dijkstra et al, 2006). The GEM is a macro-based measure of womens relative political and economic empowerment and ranks nations according to the extent to which gender equality has changed or improved over time (UNDP, 2007). However, the GDI and GEM have various downsides. According to UNDP (2007), the GDI is confused as a measure of inequality due to its complexity and presentation, and also ignores unpaid labour and assumes this has no bearing on human development. In the same report the UNDP stated that the GEM does not adequately measure the gap in earned incomes between males and females. It ignores women at the grass roots level and does not capture the overall labour force, ignoring important sectors where women work and also the GEM is based on a false assumption that women in parliament always work to empower women. 1.4.7 Progress in Africa toward women empowerment and gender equality According to the United Nations report on the progress of the millennium development goals, the year 2009 witnessed a continuing upward trend in the proportion of women in African national parliaments. Rwanda, Angola, Mozambique, and South Africa lead the continent on this indicator. Rwanda, which has been the best performer over the past couple of years, increased its share of women parliamentarians by 7.8 percent between 2008 and 2009. Angola, which held elections in September 2008, improved womens representation in its national parliament by 22.8 percent from its last election in September 1992. Similarly, between 1990 and

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2009, the share of women in Mozambiques parliament increased by 19.1 percent (MDG Report, 2010). 1.4.8 Major Obstacles to the Promotion of Gender Equality and Empowerment The United Nations report on assessing the progress on achieving gender equality and women empowerment in Africa emphasized that there are at least seventeen major obstacles to the promotion of gender equality and women empowerment. These obstacles include continued presence of strong cultural and traditional practices constraining progress in achieving gender parity, lack of ratification of the instruments that promote gender equality, ineffective institutional and policy implementation mechanisms, lack of adequate resources, lack of enforcement of laws that promote gender equality and lack of knowledge of laws. Others include continued lack of recognition of womens unpaid work, violation of womens human rights, inadequate documentation and dissemination of successful practices for replication and limited role of the media (MDG Report, 2009). 1.4.9 Gender Budgeting According to Budlender et al (2002), several countries in Africa have devised ways to introduce women-friendly national budgets. Examples of such countries include South Africa, Tanzania, Uganda, Rwanda, Mauritius, Senegal, Ghana and Morocco. South Africa, particularly, have taken a practical move to narrow the gender gap in access to and participation in economic structures and policies through its innovative Womens Budget Initiative (WBI) that was introduced in 1995. The WBI assesses the national, provincial, and local budgets from a gender perspective by tracking the impact of the budget on women. However, there are challenges with gender budgeting. According
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to APR Secretariat and Government of Uganda (2008), limited human and financial resources required to build capacity at district and sub county levels to undertake gender budgeting are among challenges encountered. 1.4.10 Gender Inequality and Demographic Behaviour in Ghana Gage critically reviewed the relationship between gender inequality and demographic behaviour in Ghana. His choice of country was particularly significant because of both matrilineal and patrilineal traditions in Ghana, the greater participation of women in Ghanas cash economy, and the opportunity for comparisons. The study examined gender inequalities in families and households, in access to education, employment, and property rights; and access to health services and family planning. It was concluded that increased educational opportunities for women and economic security would not sufficiently reduce gender inequalities or motivate couples to reduce fertility, particularly in Ghana (Gage, 1994). 1.4.11 Legal literacy: a tool for womens empowerment Kunyehia (1992) examined legal literacy as a tool for womens empowerment, and discussed the problems of legal literacy and law enforcement issues in Ghana. He presented 5 specific cases that reveal the legal problems faced by women that are linked not to the nature and content of the laws but rather to the ineffectiveness and gender insensitivity of law enforcement agencies such as the police and the courts. Kunyehia noted that the lower courts, which are often staffed by village elders and chiefs who have traditional and non progressive attitudes towards women, comprise the section of the judiciary that has the most immediate impact on womens issues. Thus, according to Kunyehia womens issues are resolved within the terms and views of the judges and not the law. Likewise, he said that the police often fail to respond to
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domestic disputes and leave women vulnerable to the oppression of their men folk. The strategy proposed by him to resolve these problems is to direct a campaign of womens rights and issues not just to women but also to the custodians and interpreters of the laws. 1.4.12 Essay on Women Empowerment According to Srivastava (2009), discrimination against women and girls include gender-based violence, economic discrimination, reproductive health inequities, and harmful traditional practices, and these remains the most pervasive and persistent form of inequality. Srivastava also highlighted that women are still much more likely than men to be poor and illiterate, have less access to medical care, property ownership, credit, training and employment. She further concluded that women are also far less likely than men to be politically active and far more likely to be victims of domestic violence. She brought it out that the ability of women to control their own fertility is absolutely fundamental to womens empowerment and equality (Srivastava, 2009). 1.4.13 Women empowerment and Development Annan (2003) concluded that study after study has shown that there is no effective development strategy in which women do not play a central role. When women are fully involved, the benefits can be seen immediately: families are healthier and better fed; their income, savings and reinvestment go up. And what is true of families is also true of communities and, in the long run, of whole countries.UN SecretaryGeneral Kofi Annan, March 8, 2003.

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1.4.14 Key Issues At the level of the State, I found out that there is often a lack of commitment to womens rights and empowerment issues. Furthermore, the policies that were adopted were incoherent. Budget allocated to support gender work were also inadequate. I found out that no one has researched on the progress of Goal 3 of the United Nations Millennium Development Goals in Tema. That is to promote gender equality and empower women.

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1.5 Justification of Study By identifying and researching on women empowerment and the gender gap, I hope to provide policy-makers with a tool, offering direction and focus for the work of significantly improving the economic, political and social potential of all citizens. This study will also provide the impetus for policy-makers to strengthen their commitment to the idea of womens empowerment, and to concentrate the political will, energy and resources, in concert with aid agencies and civil society to make gender equality a reality. Additionally, this study will serve as a framework for future researchers who will undertake research on gender and gender related issues. Moreover, this study is also in partial fulfillment of a Bachelor of Arts degree in Geography and Rural Development. 1.6 Limitations and Delimitations of the Study This study was limited in terms of time and finance. The time allocated to this study was short, that is less than six months. Also as a student, financial constraint was a barrier with respect to the scope of study and the quality of data required in examining how addressing gender imbalances by empowering women can contribute to local community development. Additionally, the fact that it was a social research involving the study and collection of data from humans who are subjective in nature shows that the information gathered may be biased. Moreover, some of the respondents were not willing to cooperate. Since development is a multi-dimensional and value-loaded concept, one should not expect that all the dimensions of development were factored into the study. This
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study did not explore into detail how reducing the gender gap contributes to the political development of women. 1.7 Organisation of the Study The introduction, problem statement, objectives of the study, methodology, literature review, justification of the study, limitations and delimitations of the study, and the outline of the study were captured in chapter one. Moreover, the study area was described into detail at the chapter two. Tema was described in terms of its size and geographical location, demographic characteristics, relief and topography, climate and weather, geology, economy and health. Additionally, the chapter three presented the analysis and presentation of data. Tables, charts and graphs were included in the data analysis. Finally, the summary, conclusion and recommendations were captured in chapter four.

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CHAPTER TWO STUDY AREA This chapter provides an overview of the study area. It considers Tema in terms of physical and cultural characteristics. 2.0 Physical and Natural Environment 2.1 Location and Size Tema Metropolitan Assembly (TMA) is a coastal district situated about 30 kilometres east of Accra, the capital city of Ghana. It shares boundaries on the North East with the Dangme West District Assembly (DWDA), Southwest by Ledzokuku Krowor Municipal Assembly, North West by Adentan Municipal Assembly and the Ga East Municipal Assembly (GEMA), North by the Akuapim South District Assembly and the South by the Gulf of Guinea. The Ashaiman Municipal Assembly is an in-lock enclave within the TMA. The Metropolis covers an area of about 396km2 and lies within the coastal savannah zone. The Greenwich Meridian (i.e. Longitude 0) passes through the Metropolis, which meets the equator or latitude 0 in the Ghanaian waters of the Gulf of Guinea. The southern tip of the Metropolis lies on latitude 541 North. The Metropolis proximity to the sea with its low lying terrain which projects into the sea makes it a natural endowment for a harbour. This evidently informed the decision of the construction of the Tema Harbour in 1957, making the metropolis the Eastern Gateway of Ghana (TMA, 2009).

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MAP OF GHANA SHOWING THE STUDY AREA

FIGURE 2.1: MAP OF GHANA SHOWING STUDY AREA

SOURCE: ADAPTED FROM OWUSU, G 2005.

STUDY AREA-TEMA

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FIGURE 2.2: MAP OF TEMA METROPOLITAN ASSEMBLY

SOURCE: TEMA METROPOLITAN ASSEMBLY, 2009

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2.2 Physical Characteristics 2.2.1 Topography and Drainage The topography of the Tema Metropolitan Assembly is generally flat and forms part of the coastal plains, ranging from 0m (South) to 35m (North) above sea level. The terrain of the district barely rises up to 65m above sea level. The almost flat nature of land has made it flood prone. The streams in the Metropolis are seasonal. Most of these streams flow through depressions into the sea during the rainy season. Notable among them is the Gynakorgyor (flows into the Gao Lagoon between Manhean and Kpone). Industrial liquid waste and water from the Eastern part of Manhean Township converge into a major drain ending up in the Chemu Lagoon located between the harbour area and Tema Manhean. These pollutants have destroyed the aquatic life of the lagoon (TMA, 2009). 2.2.2 Climate and Vegetation The Metropolis lies in the coastal savannah zone of Ghana and therefore enjoys a dry equatorial climate. Mean annual rainfall ranges between 730mm to 790mm. The rainy season is usually from April to July (major rainy season) and from September to November (minor rainy season). The highest amount of rain is experienced in May, June and early July. Temperatures are high all year round with significant daily and seasonal variations. The annual average temperatures range between 25oC and 30oC in the major rainy season while in the minor season temperatures range between 34 oC and 40oC. Humidity varies from 60% - 80% (or more) in the wet season to less than 30% in the dry season. Winds, generally of low velocity, blow over the area from the

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South during the day and evening and from the West in the night and early morning (TMA, 2009). Tema being an industrial hub, some areas are demarcated and reserved as greenbelts as a result of the absence of forest reserves to control the micro climate of Tema. The vegetation zone in the Metropolis comprises of the following; shrub land, grassland and few semi-deciduous forests (Ghana districts.com). 2.2.3 Geology and Soil The Metropolis is underlain by the Precambrian rocks of the Dahomeyan formation. The metamorphic rocks in the metropolis mainly consist of granite, gneiss and

schist. These rocky formations are weathered or decomposed at the surface with a thickness not exceeding 12m in the area. Stone quarry is therefore a major economic activity in some areas of the metropolis. Geological resources such as salt deposits also exist at Kpoi-Ete (TMA, 2009). Soils in Tema Metropolis are composed of sand, clay, humus, gravel and stone. The sandy and humus nature of the soil support the cultivation of vegetables whiles the clayey nature though support the production of brick could also have adverse effects on general construction activities. The nature of the soil also supports sand winning and stone quarry activities which have become major source of income for most youths in the peri-urban settlements of the metropolis (Ghana districts.com). 2.3 Economic Activities The industrial sector represents the most important productive sector in terms of local revenue generation. Currently, there are three steel manufacturing companies in Tema, a large aluminium smelter, and several major food and fish processing
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companies such as Nestle, Ghana Cocoa Processing Company, Pioneer Food Cannery and Ghana Agro Food Company. There are also two large textile manufacturing companies. Besides the heavy industries, there are also numerous light industries with over 250 factories engage in eight major areas: chemicals, textiles, food processing, engineering, paint, fish cold stores, printing and wood working. Tema is perfectly suited for manufacturing. The service industry comprises banks, insurance firms, hotels, legal firms, postal and communication services, and transport. Others are recreation and freight services (Ghana districts.com, 2006). 2.4 Social Services There are 220 kilometres of roads in the Tema metropolis, and over 80% of the settlements in the metropolis enjoy electricity supply, and a similar proportion have access to potable water by means of pipe-borne water system (Ghana districts.com, 2006). Sanitation facilities are adequate in the Tema city and with the privatisation of refuse collection in some parts of the metropolis, there has been a vast improvement in sanitation standards.The metropolis is serviced by a total of 158 basic schools made up of 77 public and 81 private schools. Additionally, there are 13 second cycle institutions, six of which are public, but have no public tertiary institution. Several health institutions exist in the metropolis. These range from health posts and centres, through family planning and immunisation centres, to polyclinics and a general hospital. There are quite a number of private hotels and restaurants with full range of modern facilities. Tema has a fine coastline with ideal beaches for relaxation. A lot of people patronise these beaches, especially on weekends and during public holidays (Ghana districts.com, 2006).
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2.5 Household Size Characteristics The 2000 Ghana Population and Housing Census report estimated that the Metropolis has an average household size of 4.8. This is not so different from the regional average of 4.6 but lower than the national average of 5.4. There are no specific data with regard to the composition of household heads for the Metropolis. However, the 2000 population census indicated that in the Tema Municipality 70.2% of household heads were males with females forming 29.8%. The situation was much ideal when compared with the regional figures of 68.1% and 31.9% for male and female respectively. 2.6 Demographic Characteristics The demographic characteristics of the Tema Metropolis concern the statistical analysis of its human population [especially] with reference to size and density, distribution, and vital statistics. 2.6.1 Population Size and Growth According to the 2000 Ghana Population and Housing Census and Household Survey, the total population of the Metropolis was 298,432 with males and females forming 49% and 51% of the population respectively. With a growth rate of 2.6%, the population as at the time GPRS II (2006) was prepared was estimated at 348,815; subsequently the current population size could be estimated at 387, 045 and expected to reach 418, 444 by the end of the planning period (2013).The Metropolitan population growth rate of 2.6% per annum is quite on the low side when compared with the regional and national figures of 4.4% and 2.7% respectively.

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2.6.2 Age and Sex Composition The 2000 census report estimated that out of a total population of 298,432 in the Tema Metropolis, 49% were males and 51% were females. This indicates a femalemale ratio of 1:0.98. Currently, there are no age distribution data for the Tema Metropolis. The only available data from which inferences could be made is that of the Tema Municipality which was compiled in 2000. The current metropolitan situation is expected to have reduced slightly since Ashaiman had a large population which is also quite youthful. The census report however indicated that over 40% of the population in the municipality was in the 16-35 years age group, in contrast to 32% of the nations population in the same age group. This situation which is not very different from what currently exist in the Metropolis is largely because the Metropolis hosts the industrial nerve centre of the country. It is therefore a recipient of a large number of migrants. The data also indicates that 62.6% of the population falls within the economically active group. This is an important asset to drive the economy of the metropolis, especially if they are provided with the necessary skills and employment. In the absence of these measures, however, there is the possibility that majority of the youth might resort to crime and other dubious forms of employment as a coping mechanism. Deducing from the above statistics, the age dependency ratio in the Metropolis will be around 1:1.7 indicating that the productive part of the population have more than one person as a dependent. This situation can impact negatively on savings and subsequently on investment.

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CHAPTER THREE WOMEN EMPOWERMENT AND LOCAL COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT 3.0 Introduction This chapter presents the analysis and presentation of data which was collected during the field survey. It employs graphs, charts and tables in the analysis and presentation of data that was collected using questionnaire and interviews. The order of analysis and presentation is in line with the objectives as presented in this work. 3.1 Effect of Women Empowerment on Employment Opportunities Figure 3.1 below depicts respondents educational levels and their ability to secure jobs with their level of education.
FIGURE 3.1: LEVEL OF EDUCATION AND EMPLOYMENT

SOURCE: AUTHORS FIELD SURVEY, MARCH 2011

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According to figure 3.1, of the 94 women who are currently employed, about 48 have pursued tertiary education, 24 have secondary education and 22 have acquired basic education. This trend indicates that when women are empowered through the provision of higher education, it will increase their employment prospects greatly. Ironically, of those not employed, according to the chart, most of them have tertiary education. This might be the case because; some who have tertiary education are still in school and hence, not employed. The same reason might apply to those who have secondary education and employed. The analysis confirms what Gage (1994) said that the educational opportunities for women would not sufficiently improve their economic security and reduce gender inequalities. 3.2 Women Empowerment and Income Levels Figure 3.2 presents responses on womens ability to support their husbands with their current income.
FIGURE 3.2: SUPPORT HUSBAND IN CARING FOR CHILDREN WITH CURRENT INCOME

SOURCE: AUTHORS FIELD SURVEY, MARCH 2011

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From figure 3.2, it is clear that those who reported that their current income allow them to support their husband in caring for their children (indicated by the blue line), about 35 of them, have acquired some form of tertiary education. This is followed by about 23 women whose highest educational level is the basic level. Of those who have acquired secondary education, the number is about 16. This number is lower than the basic level number. The reason for this difference might be that those surveyed who had basic level of education are many than those with secondary education. With women who said that their current income cannot support their husbands in caring for their children (indicated by the green line), those with tertiary education are leading (about 5 women), followed by secondary (about 2 women) and basic (about 1 woman).The reason for this trend might be that those women with tertiary and secondary education have higher expenses which prevent them from supporting their husbands financially, but their numbers are very small. However, there are some who do not fall within this category (indicated by the yellow line). The reason for this may be that the women are either not married or they are married but do not have children. In general, the picture the graph portrays shows that women with some form of tertiary or higher education earn incomes that allow them to support their husbands in caring for their children, and this confirms Kofi Annans conclusion that when women are involved in development strategies, the benefits accrued include higher income, savings and reinvestment (Annan, 2003). 3.3 Effects of Women Empowerment on Ability to Acquire and Own Property Figure 3.3 compares the level of education of women and their ability to acquire and own property in Tema. With the women who indicated that they are able to acquire and own property, a greater number of them (about 43) have pursued tertiary
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education. This is followed by about 20 women who have acquired secondary education and about 14 women whose highest educational level is the basic level. There is a similar trend for women who indicated that they are not able to acquire and own property. A greater number of them, about 14 women, indicated that they have some form of tertiary education. This is followed by about 10 women who have acquired secondary education and 8 women whose highest educational level is the basic level. The higher number for those who have acquired tertiary education might be attributed to the fact that some of the women are still in school and do not have the means to acquire property. It might also mean that they have completed school and are yet to find employment and hence, do not have the means to acquire property. But in general, the graph portrays that when women are empowered through higher education, they are able to acquire and own property. This analysis justifies what Amartya Sen (1999) said that the ownership rights of women contribute to their economic development.
FIGURE 3.3: ABILTY OF WOMEN TO ACQUIRE AND OWN PROPERTY

SOURCE: AUTHORS FIRLD SURVEY, MARCH 2011

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3.4 Effects of Women Empowerment on Health of Womens families Well-being of children in respondents families were sought with the aid of questionnaires. The response obtained is indicated in figure 3.4.
FIGURE 3.4: EDUCATION AND WELL BEING OF CHILDREN

SOURCE: AUTHORS FIELD SURVEY, MARCH 2011

Figure 3.4 above shows the effect of women education on the well being of their children in Tema. According to the graph, it is clear that those women who have acquired some form of tertiary education (about 29 women) indicated that they are able to take very good care of their children. This is followed by women whose highest level of education is the secondary level (about 9 women) and those whose educational level is the basic (about 6 women). Also, about 3 women whose highest
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educational level is the basic level indicated that they are not able to take very good care of their children and only one person with tertiary education reported that she is not able to take very good care of her children. None reported for secondary level of education. Furthermore, about 35 women (indicated by the violet bar), did not fall within this category. This is because they do not have children. Moreover, about 11 women with tertiary education, 5 with secondary education and 12 with basic education (indicated by the green bar), reported that they are able to take quite good care of their children. From the graph, it is clear that in Tema, women who are empowered with some form of higher education are able to take very good care of their children. This includes their childrens health, education, clothing and shelter. The analysis justifies Kofi Annans conclusion that when women are empowered it leads to their families being healthier and better fed (Annan, 2003). In terms of respondents who have registered their families with the National Health Insurance Scheme, table 3.1 and figure 3.5 provide the details.
TABLE 3.1: REGISTRATION OF FAMILY WITH NHIS

REGISTRATION OF FAMILY WITH NATIONAL HEALTH INSURANCE SCHEME YES HIGHEST LEVEL OF EDUCATION BASIC SECONDARY TERTIARY 15 22 50 87 NO 8 8 7 23 Total 23 30 57 110

Total

SOURCE: AUTHORS FIELD SURVEY, MARCH 2011

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FIGURE 3.5: REGISTRATION OF FAMILY WITH NHIS

SOURCE: AUTHORS FIELD SURVEY, MARCH 2011

Table 3.1 and figure 3.5 compare the highest level of education of women in Tema to the registration of their families with the National Health Insurance Scheme (NHIS). About 87 women showed that they have registered with the NHIS. Out of the 87 women, 50 have tertiary education, 22 have secondary education and 15 have basic education. However, with those who said that they have not registered with the NHIS, being 23 in number, 7 of them have tertiary education, 8 have secondary education and 8 have basic education. These trends indicate that when women are empowered through the provision of tertiary or higher education, they are able to take good care of their health and that of their families. The analysis from the graph confirms Kofi Annans conclusion that when women are empowered, the health of their families improve (Annan, 2003).

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In terms of how women empowerment affects women reproductive health, figure 3.6 provides the details of responses from women in Tema.
FIGURE 3.6: WOMEN EMPOWEMENT AND REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH

SOURCE: AUTHORS FIELD SURVEY, MARCH 2011

Figure 3.6 shows the effect of women education on their reproductive health. In terms of those who showed that their education enables them to take very good care of their reproductive health (indicated by the blue line), about 41 have acquired tertiary education, 25 have secondary education and about 8 have basic education. Also, some of the women showed that their education allow them to take quite good care of their reproductive health (indicated by the green line). Of those women, about 15 have tertiary education, 13 have secondary education and 12 have basic education.
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Moreover, some women reported that their education have little effect on their reproductive health (indicated by the yellow line). In terms of those women, about 2 have tertiary education, another 2 have secondary education and about 3 have basic education. From the analysis of this graph, we can conclude that when women are given higher education or training, they are able to take very good care of their reproductive health, and it also confirms Srivastavas conclusion that the ability of women to control their own fertility and reproductive health is absolutely fundamental to womens empowerment and equality (Srivastava, 2009).

In terms of the 10 women who were interviewed on what they are able to do to support their families. One indicated that she is able to support her husband with her income and she is also able to keep her home clean and tidy. Eight of the women showed that they are able to take care of their childrens education and health, and one said she provides clothing and shelter for her children. Also, with regard to what women do to help their community, two women indicated that they are able to support developmental projects and eight women showed that they always engage in communal labour. The interview which was conducted at the Social Welfare Department of the Tema Development Corporation (TDC) also provides information on women empowerment and gender equality in Tema. Mr. Assan who is the head of the Social Welfare Department said that programs to empower women are not drawn in isolation but rather integrated into national programs for women empowerment and gender equality. He cited the Ghana Poverty Reduction Strategy I (GPRS I) as a program which was implemented to empower women, and also indicated one program
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which is yet to materialize, that is the Social Investment Fund. In the GPRS I, he said that women were given micro credit to start and expand their businesses. He also noted that most programs benefit both male and female, and there is no special priority given to women. In terms of the problems which were encountered during the implementation of the GPRS I, he said that some of the women thought that the program was political and hence were not willing to cooperate and benefit from it. With regard to the progress of goal 3 of the United Nations Millennium Development Goals, that is to promote gender equality and empower women, he indicated that there has been a massive progress in Tema. According to him, there has even been a call to be cautious in the way girl child education is promoted since the number of girls in basic schools outnumbers that of boys in Tema.

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CHAPTER FOUR SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 4.0 Introduction This chapter presents the summary of findings, conclusion and recommendations. 4.1 Summary of Findings It was evident from the study that it was those women with some form of higher education who have greater employment opportunities even though some were unemployed. The study also revealed that women earn higher incomes when their educational level is high. Those women have equal opportunities at work the same as their male colleagues and they are not discriminated against at the work place. In terms of women being able to care for their children, the study revealed that women with tertiary education or some form of higher education are able to take very good care of their children. These include their childrens education, shelter, nutrition and health. It was known from the study that in Tema, women are able to acquire and own property with ease, especially those who have pursued higher education. In the area of health care, it became evident that women with higher education are able to take very good care of their childrens health, that of themselves and also of their reproductive health.

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The study also showed that women in Tema understand women empowerment to mean giving women education and training to acquire the knowledge and skills needed for a decent living. In the aspect of decision making, the study revealed that women with higher education or tertiary education are able to freely contribute to decision making in their families, and their views are taken into consideration by their husbands and children. It was also evident that although women know that nothing prevents them from standing for elections and being voted into power, most women know the laws relating to their ethnic groups and religions better than they know of the legal provisions made for them in the countrys constitution. The religious and customary laws inhibit womens participation in political and public life and make women accept minor positions. One thing the study also brought out was that women with higher education have high level of confidence to undertake whatever venture or activity they want to embark on. In the aspect of the progress of goal 3 of the United Nations Millennium Development Goals, that is to promote gender equality and empower women, the study showed that great progress has been made in achieving this goal in Tema. 4.2 Conclusion This study has confirmed the findings of many research works on women empowerment and gender equality. The study confirmed that when women are empowered, the benefits that result are tremendous and readily felt. Women are able to access well-paid jobs, advance within them and earn higher incomes. Moreover,
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women are able to take very good care of their families by providing them with the right nutrition, hence their families become healthier. Furthermore, women are able to own and acquire property when they are empowered. Additionally, women are able to have voice when they are empowered. That is, they are able to take part in decision making both in their private and public life. However, it must be admitted that the educational opportunities of women would not sufficiently improve their living standards and reduce gender inequalities. Other measures such as gender budgeting where countries introduce women-friendly national budgets and legal literacy should be promoted in order to ensure full women empowerment and gender equality. 4.3 Recommendations According to the findings of this research work, it is recommended that: Girls should be given education beyond the basic level. Basic level education is not enough to empower girls to access well-paid employment and advance within them, earn higher incomes, become healthier, take part in decision making and occupy political office. Women should upgrade themselves in order to stay competitive in the working world. Securing employment and keeping it is difficult in this competitive world. So if women do not upgrade themselves and equip themselves with current knowledge and modern technology they may find it difficult to access jobs and keep them. The government should strengthen documentation and dissemination of information on promoting gender equality and womens empowerment. There
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is a need to intensify documentation of experiences with successful and unsuccessful practices and widely disseminate this information. This will help policy makers to design policies and programs that will ensure real women empowerment and gender equality. Employers must ensure that their practices and personnel policies are in line with the principle of equitable representation of both sexes, especially at the managerial and policy-making levels. This will ensure that women are not relegated to minor positions. Boys should be taught from early childhood that girls are not inferior to them. This will go a long way to ensure a generation of men and women where both will have equal access to social, economic, political and cultural opportunities. There is a need to improve research and collection of gender responsive statistical data. It is important to systematically collect accurate sex and gender disaggregated data and conduct research that is essential for monitoring and evaluating progress towards achievement of gender equality and womens empowerment. More efforts are needed to build capacity of national experts to collect gender disaggregated data in order to enhance integration of gender perspectives in the development process. The media should play a major role in promoting gender equality by creating awareness, sensitization and educational campaigns. There is a need for measures to counter preexisting social forces that do not encourage gender equality through education and training of both men and women. The media

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can make a major contribution towards promoting these gender equality messages.

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APPENDICES APPENDIX I
PICTURES OF WOMEN EMPOWERMENT AT THE 2ND AFRICAN MANNING CONFERENCE IN ACCRA, GHANA ON 10TH 11TH MARCH, 2009.

Plate 1.1: ROUND TABLE DISCUSSION

Plate 1.2: DELEGATES DELIGHTED AFTER CONFERENCE

Plate 1.3: DELEGATES AT THE CONFERENCE

Plate 1.4: SOME WISTA NIGERIAN MEMBERS AT THE CONFERENCE

SOURCE: SAKA, 2009

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APPENDIX II QUESTIONNAIRES FOR WOMEN 1. PERSONAL DATA a. Age b. Marital status widowed other none 1-2 3-4 5+ 18-30 single 31-45 married 45+ divorced

C. Number of children

2. ECONOMIC STATUS a. b. c. Are you currently employed? Yes No Informal Partially satisfied

If yes, which sector are you currently working? Formal Are you satisfied with your work? Fully satisfied

Not satisfied d. Are you given equal opportunities at work compared with your male

colleagues? Yes e. No

If no, what do you think contribute to this? Because of being a woman Having limited skills and training

3. EMPOWERMENT a. What is your highest level of education? Basic Tertiary b. Secondary

How does your education help you to care for your reproductive health? Very well Quite well Little effect

c. How does your education help you to care for children? Very well Quite well Little effect d. Have you registered your family with the National Health Insurance Scheme (NHIS)? Yes No

e. If you are given the opportunity to receive further training or education, will you?
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Yes f.

No

How do you understand women empowerment? Giving women education to acquire knowledge and skills

Giving women jobs Giving women money

g. Have you ever benefited from any women empowerment program? Yes No

h. If yes, how did the empowerment program affect you? Positively Negatively No effect

4.

SOCIAL STATUS

a. Are you discriminated against in society? Not at all b. sometimes At all times

Are you able to acquire and own property? Yes No

c.

Are you abused by your husband? Sometimes Not at all At all times

d.

How often do you contribute to decision making in your family? Most often Prevented from contributing

Sometimes allowed to contribute e. If prevented from contributing, do you think that when you acquired more

skills and knowledge, you will be allowed to contribute? Yes f. No

Does your current income allow you to support your husband in caring for

your children? Yes g. No

How would you rank your self confidence? High Low Very low

h.

With your level of education and current income, can you take care of

yourself and your children at the death of your husband? Cannot Can, but will need support Can, by myself only

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APPENDIX III INTERVIEW SCHEDULE FOR WOMEN 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Are you prevented from having recreation? What do you think is the reason? Which areas are you discriminated against? What things are you able to do to help your community? What things are you able to do to support your family? Are you able to take care of your reproductive health? Do you know the nutritional requirements of your family? Are you able to meet them? Have you registered yourself and your children with the NHIS?

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APPENDIX IV INTERVIEW SCHEDULE FOR GOVERNMENT AGENCIES 1. Have there been attempts to empower women in Tema to address gender imbalances? 2. 3. How successful have these programs and strategies been? In your opinion, what do you think is preventing these programs from achieving their desired results? 4. Do you think Goal 3 (To promote gender equality and empower women) of the United Nations Millennium Development Goals is being achieved in Tema?

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