P-570 $.

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Thermal Recording and Infrared Photography of Hot Objects

For a long time there has been considerable interest in the photography of objects by reflected infrared radiation using photographic emulsions sensitized to respond to near-infrared radiation (infrared waves that are near the red end of the visible spectrum). The source of the reflected radiation is usually the sun or some other incandescent source such as a tungsten-filament lamp. You have probably seen the unusual effect in infrared photographs taken with sunlight as the source of infrared radiation (IR). These photographs are possible because most objects reflect not only radiation in the visible spectrum but also infrared radiation, and the sun provides virtually as much near-infrared as visible radiation. These photographs do not indicate the temperature of the objects, but only their ability to reflect infrared radiation from the sun. More recently there has been increasing interest in recording infrared radiation directly emitted from objects that are hot or even incandescent. Infrared photography can be used for such recording, but it is practical over only a limited range of temperatures. Unfortunately, this range of temperatures does not include that of objects at the ambient temperatures found near the earth's surface (- 50 to 50Cor - 60 to 120F).Therefore, such applications as recording the heat loss from buildings cannot be accomplished directly with infrared photography. A method called electronic thermography detects longwave or far-infrared radiation and subsequently displays it at visible wavelengths. Sophisticated electro-optical scanning devices convert temperature differences in an object into brightness or color differences on a closedcircuit television screen. This display may then be recorded on conventional black-and-white or color film in an ordinary camera. While the electronically generated images are frequently referred to as infrared photographs, they are actually only conventional photographs of electronic displays.

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Infrared Radiation Infrared radiation differs from visible radiation mainly with regard to the length of the electromagnetic waves. Red light has a longer wavelength than blue light, and infrared radiation has a longer wavelength than either. In all other respects, these radiations behave similarly. They travel through space in the same wave-front configuration and at the same speed. Appropriate mirrors can reflect them, and the proper refractive elements or lenses can bend their paths and focus them. The efficiency with which various materials transmit or reflect visible and infrared radiations can vary considerably. At all temperatures above absolute zero (- 273Cor - 460F),every object emits energy from its surface in the form of a spectrum of differing wavelengths and intensities. The range of wavelengths emitted and the intensity of emission.depend on the absolute temperature and the emissivity of the surface.* As the object becomes hotter, the amount of energy emitted at each wavelength increases. Also, the range in which radiation occurs broadens to include shorter wavelengths. The peak moves

from the long-wavelength end of the infrared spectrum toward the short-wavelength end as the temperature increases. An object below 525 K (250Cor 480F)radiates wavelengths that lie roughly between 1400and 100,000 nanometres (nm). For example, an object whose temperature is roughly that of the earth's surface (- 50 to 50Cor - 60 to 120F)will emit radiation at peak wavelengths ranging from 9000to 13,000nm. The human body radiates infrared energy at wavelengths between 4000 and 20,000nm. These wavelengths are not "actinic"; that is, they will not expose photographic materials no matter how sensitive the materials are.

*The emissivity of an object is the ratio of the amount of radiant energy it emits to that emitted by a perfect radiator at the same temperature. A perfect radiator is known as a "blackbody" and has an emissivity of 1.0. Emissivity values for various materials appear in most physics handbooks.

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P-570

At about 525 K, enough near-infrared radiation is present to expose infrared-sensitive photographic materials. The amount of near-infrared radiation increases as the temperature rises until, at about 775 K (500 e or 930F),the object begins to glow with a dull red color, and will show up on films with full panchromatic sensitivity as well as on IR-sensitive films. With further temperature increases, the spectral shift continues and the color changes through orange and yellow to white. At this point, the object is emitting all visible wavelengths along with some shorter wavelengths (ultraviolet) and an abundance of "invisible" infrared radiation. When the temperature reaches approximately 5000 K, the emission is highest in the visible region of the spectrum.
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Most infrared films have little sensitivity beyond 900 nm, although certain specialized materials for astronomy extend to about 1250nm. For example, KODAK High Speed Infrared Film 2481is sensitive through the visible regions of the spectrum and in the infrared to approximately 900 nm, with maximum IR sensitivity from 700 to 880 nm. Infrared Photography of Hot Objects Measuring temperatures photographically is based on two premises: (1) For a given surface, radiation increases with temperature; and (2) the greater the amount of radiation striking the film, the greater the density produced. Areas that produce equal densities in the negative are at the same temperature, provided that their emissivities are equal. (The amount of IR an object emits, and therefore the amount of exposure required, is proportional to its emissivity. While a blackbody has an emissivity of 1.0, polished metal objects may have a rating as low as 0.02, which would require a 50X increase in exposure.) When an object reaches incandescent temperatures above 500 e (932F),it becomes self-luminous. It emits actinic radiation and can be photographed without any other source of illumination. Its light can be recorded on panchromatic or color film, and its infrared radiation can be recorded on infrared-sensitive film.
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Photographic Sensitivity The spectral sensitivity of an emulsion describes its photographic response to radiation of various wavelengths. Human vision has a spectral range of 400 to 700 nm. Photographic materials can be sensitized to provide spectral response from 250 to 1200nm. Photographic emulsions that contain silver halides are inherently sensitive to blue and ultraviolet wavelengths. This inherent sensitivity is usually extended to longer wavelengths in manufacturing. An emulsion that is sensitive to most visible wavelengths is called panchromatic. With further special treatment, it is possible to extend photographic sensitivity beyond the visible and into the near-infrared. Although the infrared spectrum extends from 700 nm to approximately 1,000,000nm, very little of it can be recorded photographically. Production of silver-halide films with sensitivity beyond about 1300nm is considered impossible. At longer wavelengths, the energy of a photon is insufficient to contribute to the formation of a latent image except under some extreme conditions that are not applicable here. Furthermore, films that might respond to longer radiations would present serious problems as thermal sensitivity increased. Even warmth approximating body temperature in the camera and surroundings would quickly fog the film. Such specialized film, even if it could be made, would have to be stored and used at very low temperatures.

An object at a temperature below 500 e emits no visible radiation (light), and therefore cannot be photographed with panchromatic or color film unless it is illuminated by an external source. However, at temperatures between 250 and 500 e (482 and 932F),it does emit enough actinic energy to produce an image on infrared film if the exposure time is long enough.
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Infrared-sensitive film records the tonal gradations produced by emitted infrared radiation that can't be recorded with normal panchromatic photographic emulsions. The technique of using such films to record the temperature profiles of bodies at temperatures above 250 e (482F)is much like pictorial photography. A camera with a large-aperture lens /2 or greater), a KODAK WRATTEN Gelatin Filter No. 87,a sturdy tripod, and a means of calibrating exposures will be
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P-570

adequate for most studies. Exposures may be extremely long-in some cases, hours. Since exposures of hot objects depend on the objects' temperature and emissivity (both usually unknown), experimentation is required. Try this as an example. Photograph an electric-stove heating element (approximately a blackbody) in the dark, heated to subincandescence (no visual sensation to a dark-adapted eye). Use an exposure of 1 second at fll.4 with KODAK High Speed Infrared Film. Even though you're making the exposure in the dark, use a KODAK WRATTEN Gelatin Filter No. 87C over the lens to exclude any possibility of visible-light exposure. Because you will take the exposure solely with infrared radiation, use the IR focus mark on the lens. Colder bodies near the heating element may also show up on the film if they reflect some of the infrared radiation emitted by the element. When you want to study the infrared radiation emitted by an object, you must not allow infrared radiation from other sources (e.g., the sun, lamps, or other hot objects) to fall on that object. Otherwise, the reflected radiation will combine with the emitted infrared radiation to produce a greater exposure on the film. This will indicate that the object is hotter than it actually is. Another reason for doing most heat-loss studies in the dark is that infrared films are sensitive to all wavelengths in the visible region of the spectrum as well as being sensitive to infrared radiation. A visually opaque, infrared-transmitting filter, such as the KODAK WRATTEN Gelatin Filter No. 88A or 87C, will also prevent visible radiation (400to 700 nm) from reaching the film. However, it will not prevent reflected infrared radiation from reaching the film-only

darkness or filtration of the source of radiation will do this. Unfortunately, infrared films are not sensitive enough to record sources of heat loss in buildings, or radiation from overheated machinery. Generally, this is possible only if the object is shielded from other sources of infrared radiation (usually in the dark) and is heated to a temperature greater than 250C(482F).At this temperature there is barely enough infrared radiation from the object to record on film; however, it would be hot enough for a wood-frame building to ignite! To allow quantitative interpretation of infrared exposures of hot bodies, a calibration of some sort is necessary. One way of calibrating is to include a series of exposures of a standard hot object made at progressively higher known temperatures within a particular range. You should make these exposures on the same roll of film you use to record the object under investigation. You can then make a calibration curve by plotting density versus temperature. The temperature range that can be covered by anyone exposure is about 60 to 120C(110to 220F),and the actual position of this range on the temperature scale determines the exposure required. If the temperature variations over the surface of the body are greater than 120C(220F),the density range on the film does not accurately translate into temperature measurements. In this case, two exposures are a better choice-a long exposure to record the cooler parts and a shorter exposure for the hotter areas. If the range is confined to 60C(nOF) or less, temperature differences of 15C(60F) are easily distinguishable.

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P-570

Electronic Thermography As we have indicated, objects at temperatures below 250C(482F)cannot be photographed directly by using self-emitted energy as the source of exposure. Although such bodies emit infrared radiation, the wavelength of this radiation lies well beyond the sensitivity range of photographic emulsions. This emitted radiation can only be imaged by using electronic thermographic processes. These are infrared imaging systems that employ electronic detection to translate variations in infrared radiation into a visual display that can then be photographed by conventional methods. These systems can record the images of objects with temperatures that fall well below 250Cby recording the longer-wavelength infrared that is emitted. To avoid recording reflected infrared from other sources, the operation is often carried out in complete darkness. In one type of instrument, the optics scan the object point by point. Infrared radiation from the object is directed onto a super-cooled photodetector, which converts the incoming energy into a proportionate electric signal and then amplifies it. This amplified signal is often recorded on magnetic tape for use in a variety of ways for interpretive purposes, or the signal may go directly to a cathode-ray tube (CRT).The image on the face of the CRT shows temperature variations as changes in image brightness. Usually, the brighter the image, the hotter the object. This image can be observed and interpreted directly; frequently the CRT display is recorded with conventional photographic equipment. Liquid Crystals In many applications, high instrumentation cost makes electronic thermography impractical. Under certain conditions, liquid-crystal thermography offers a relatively simple, and much less expensive, means of detecting nonactinic heat patterns. Certain optically active organic materials are capable of forming a phase that is

intermediate between the liquid and the solid state. This liquid-crystal phase is very sensitive to changes in temperature. When illuminated with white light, it shows color changes as the temperature fluctuates provided the temperature profile falls within the active range of the crystals. Color patterns formed by liquid crystals are best observed by reflection rather than by transmission. The surface on which the thermal pattern is to be observed is usually blackened before the liquid-crystal solution is applied. A black, washable, water-base paint, brushed or sprayed on, is often suitable for this purpose. The black layer absorbs the light that is not scattered by the crystals, thus enhancing the color saturation. The colors result from selective reflection of circularly polarized light; the hue is determined by the intermediate structure of the liquid crystal. Above and below the usable temperature range, the substance is colorless. At the lower end of the temperature range, the material becomes red and progresses through yellows and greens to blue at the upper limit as the temperature rises. The progressive representation of all wavelengths in the visible spectrum can result from a temperature change as small as lOC(2F)with some crystal structures, making detection of very minute temperature differences possible. Permanent records of the displayed colors can be made with ordinary color film in an ordinary camera. However, accurate temperature measurement requires careful placement of cameras and lights. The photographer must experiment with the placement of the equipment. Also, the light source and camera lens must be equipped with polarizing filters. Eastman Kodak Company manufactures liquid crystal components and intermediates. For more information on liquid crystals, write to the Liquid Crystal Institute, Kent State University, Kent, OH 44240.

P-570

Thermal Recording and Infrared Photography of Hot Objects

Some Suppliers of Thermographic Equipment and Services AGA Corporation 550 County Avenue Secaucus, New Jersey 07094 201-867-5390 Barnes Engineering Company P.O. Box 53 44 Commerce Road Stamford, Connecticut 06904 203-348-5381 Daedalus Enterprises, Inc. Box 1869 Ann Arbor, Michigan 48106 313-769-5649 Hughes Aircraft Company Probeye Marketing 6155 El Camino Real Carlsbad, California 92008 619-438-9191 ext. 624 Inframetrics, Inc. 12 Oak Park Drive Bedford, Massachusetts 01730 617-275-8990 Texas Instruments, Inc. Advanced Infrared Systems Division P.O. Box 6015 Dallas, Texas 75222 214-283-3333 UTi 325 North Mathilda Avenue Sunnyvale, California 94086 408-738-3301 Some Suppliers of Cholestric Liquid Crystal Materials EM Laboratories, Inc. 5 Skyline Drive Hawthorne, New York 10532 914-592-4660 Halcrest Products, Inc. 1820 Pickwick Lane Glenview, Illinois 60025 312-998-8580 Liquid Crystal Applications 990 Raritan Road Clark, New Jersey 07066 201-574-1496 Pressure Chemical Co. 3419 Smallman Street Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15201 412-682-5882

More Information Kodak publishes hundreds of books on photographic subjects. These are listed in the Index to KODAK Information, KODAK Publication No. L-5. To obtain a complimentary copy of the Index, write to Eastman Kodak Company, Department 412-L, Rochester, NY 14650.Ask for the Index by name and code number. You will find descriptions of several publications dealing with infrared photography in the Index. These include Applied Infrared Photography, KODAK Publication No. M-28,and KODAK Infrared Films, KODAK Publication No. N-17.

Photographic

Products Group

EASTMAN KODAK COMPANY.

Thermal Recording and Infrared Photography of Hot Objects KODAK Publication No. P-570

ROCHESTER, NEW YORK 14650

M5K006 Minor Revision 1285C Printed in the U.S.A.

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