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1
]
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
]
1
1
]
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
]
1
1
]
1
x Q
Q
x P
x P
x Q
x P
x f
Q
Q
P
P
Q
P
y
V
V V
x
N
N
N
N
N
N
.
.
.
.
;
.
.
.
.
;
.
.
.
.
2
2
2
2
2
2
Eq. [2.1]
where V (voltage), P (real power) and Q (reactive
power) terms are given in per unit and (phase
angle) terms are in radians. The swing bus variables
1
and V
1
are omitted from Equation [2.1] because
they are already known. This equation shows that the
real and reactive powers at every bus except the slack
bus can be expressed as a function of voltage
magnitude and phase angles.
The outputs of Newton-Raphson load flow algorithm
which give the voltage levels at each bus, power flow
in the line connecting two buses in either direction
and line losses can be controlled by applying the
modified algorithm to the original Newton-Raphson
algorithm by means of the followings:
1. Changing transformer tap changers
2. Additional of switched capacitor bank
3. Application of B-losses formula
These three methods will be outlined on the following
sections and implemented in the program developed.
3. APPLICATION OF TAP
CHANGERS OF TRANSFORMER
Tap changing can control the reactive var flow so
optimum bus voltages can be determined and reduce
line losses. A method of controlling the voltages in a
network makes the use of transformers, the turns ratio
of which may be changed. A schematic diagram of
an off-load tap changer is shown in Figure 1 (a)
which requires disconnection of the transformer when
the tap setting is to be changed. Many transformers
now have on-load tap changers as can be shown in
Figure 1 (b).
Figure 1. (a) Off-load Tap changing transformer. (b)
On-load tap-changing transformer with S
1
and S
2
transfer switches, T centre-tapped reactor [4]
The presence of a tap changer allows manual or automatic
change of the turn ratio, and hence of the output voltage.
Because of the impedance of the lines, the voltage at the
receiving end is slightly lower than the voltage at the
sending end for most loads. In order to get a constant and
rated voltage at the secondary of a normally step-down
transformer automatically, an on load tap changer with
additional S
1
and S
2
transfer switches and R centre-tapped
reactor is mounted at the primary side of it as shown in
Figure 1 (b).
Assume that an automatic load tap changing transformer
(OLTC) is connected to a particular bus to keep load
voltage constant. It is possible to run the load flow
program employing one tap setting and without mentioning
the magnitude of load voltage. If the voltage magnitude
determined by the load flow program run exceeds the given
limits, a new tap setting is then selected for the next run.
In general, when the automatic tap-changing feature is
employed to represent a manual tap-changing transformer,
the output of the load flow program will specify the tap
setting that gives the required bus voltage. The change of
tap setting or turn ratio will change the system impedance
matrix. Therefore, after each tap ratio adjustment, the Y
bus
admittance matrix has to be adjusted.
Another means of taking into account the LTC transformer
is to represent it by its impedance, or admittance,
connected in series with an ideal autotransformer, as shown
in Figure 2 (a). A model of a load tap changer needs to be
developed. An equivalent circuit, as shown in Figure 2
(b) [12], can be developed in load flow studies. The
presence of the tap changing transformer causes necessary
3/7
modifications to the Newton-Raphson power flow
technique. The elements of the equivalent circuit,
can then be treated in the same manner as line
elements.
(b)
Figure 2. LTC transformer representations:
(a) equivalent circuit; (b) equivalent circuit [12]
The following parameters of the equivalent circuit
(Figure 2 (b)) in terms of admittances and off-
nominal turns ratio T can be derived:[3]
T
y
A
ij
;
ij
y
T
B
,
_
1
1 ;
ij
y
T T
C
,
_
1
1 1
T = per unit turns ratio (i.e tap setting is +1.25% then
T = 1.0125) [10].
B and C can either be an inductor or capacitor. If we
want to increase the voltage of the transformer output,
normally by taking positive tap, B is chosen as
inductor and C is a capacitor and vice versa. The
presence of a tap changing transformer changes the
elements of both diagonal and off-diagonal of bus
admittance matrix where the transformer is connected
between two buses. The Newton Raphson load flow
simulation is then rerun to obtain the required output.
4. APPLICATION OF SWITCHED
CAPACITOR BANKS
Capacitors are used in the transmission/distribution
line to increase line loadability (maximum power
transfer) and to adjust the system voltage.[1,2] Shunt
capacitors are used to deliver reactive power and increase
the voltage magnitudes during heavy load conditions.
Figure 3 shows the effect of adding a shunt capacitor bank
to a power system bus. The system is represented by its
Thevenin Equivalent at the node, where the capacitor will
be applied by closing the switch. With the switch open, the
node voltage V
t
is equal to the Thevenin voltage E
th
.
Figure 3. Effect of adding a shunt capacitor to a power
system bus
From the power flow standpoint, the addition of a shunt
capacitor bank to a load bus corresponds to the addition of
a negative reactive load. The power flow program
computes the increase in bus voltage magnitude along with
the small change in phase angle.
The additional capacitor is modeled with the susceptance
B. Given a required reactive power injection of Q, the
susceptance B can be calculated from Q = V
2
B. V is the
initial voltage of the bus where the shunt capacitor needs to
be installed.
The addition of capacitor bank changes the bus admittance
matrix similar to the change of tap setting of transfomer.
However, it will only affect the element of the diagonal
admittance matrix of the bus where the capacitor is added.
5. B-LOSSES CALCULATION
The B matrix loss formula was originally introduced in the
early 1950s as a practical method for loss and incremental
loss calculations[7]. In this method, the results of power
flow is used to account for power transmission losses in the
power system. It is important in terms of the economic
dispatch problem[11] to express the system losses in terms
of active power generations only. This is commonly
referred to as the loss formula or B-coefficient method.
4/7
The simplest form of loss equation is Georges
formula[2], which is:
k
m
k
n
n mn m L
P B P P
1 1
Eq. [5.1]
where P
L
is the power losses
P
m
, P
n
is the power generation from all
generator sources
The coefficients B
mn
are commonly referred as the
loss coefficients with the units of reciprocal
Watt/MWatt. The B coefficients are not truly constant
but vary with unit loadings. A more general formula
(Krons loss formula) is given by:
+ +
k
m
k
n
n mn m
k
m
m m L L
P B P P B K P
1 1 1
0 0
Eq. [5.2]
A linear term B
m0
P
m
and a constant K
L0
have been
added to the original quadratic equation. This shows
that losses depend on the active power generations P
only. B
mn
is called the loss coefficient and is given by
a general expression:
( )
( )( )
k
k kn km
n m n m
n m
mn
R N N
pf pf V V
B
cos
Eq. [5.3]
where
m
,
n
are phase angles of currents I
m
,I
n
V
m
, V
n
are voltages at bus m and n
N
km
, N
kn
are current distribution factors
pf
m
, pf
n
are power factors
For a simple system consisting of two generating
plants and one load as shown in Figure 4, losses P
L
in
terms of power output of the plants and B-losses
coefficient can be derived as[5]:
P
L
= P
1
2
B
11
+ 2P
1
P
2
B
12
+ P
2
2
B
22
Eq. [5.4]
where
( )
2
1
2
1
11
pf V
R R
B
c a
+
( )( )
2 1 2 1
12
pf pf V V
R
B
c
( )
2
2
2
2
22
pf V
R R
B
c b
+
N
n
kn n k n kn k k k k
V Y V x P P y
1
cos
Eq.[A.1]
( ) ( )
+
N
n
kn n k n kn k k k N k
V Y V x Q Q y
1
sin
Eq.[A.2]
where k = 2, 3, , N
Y
kn
is the element of the bus admittance
matrix between buses k and n
Hence, there are two non-linear simultaneous
equations for each node. The real and reactive
powers depend on the product of the sum of the
voltages connected between two buses and the
admittance between the buses. The bus admittance
matrix can be first formed from the impedances
connected to a bus or between two buses.
Changes in P and Q are related to changes in V and
by Equations [A.1] and [A.2], e.g.
N
N
P P P
P
+ +
2
3
3
2
2
2
2
2
... Eq.[A.3]
Similar equations hold in terms of P and V, and Q in
terms of and V.
Hence, the Newton-Raphson method requires that a set of
linear equations be formed expressing the relationship
between the changes in real and reactive powers and the
components of bus voltages and phase angles. The
Jacobian matrix can be partitioned into four blocks J
1
, J
2
,
J
3
and J
4
.
1
]
1
1
]
1
1
]
1
V J J
J J
Q
P
4 3
2 1
Eq. [A.4]
The partial derivatives in each block can be derived from
Equations [A.1] and [A.2]. The unknown quantities in
Equation [A.4] are the elements of the column matrix of
the changes in the phase angle and voltage of each bus.
Convergence criteria are often based on y(i) or power
mismatches rather than x(i) or phase angle and voltage
magnitude mismatches.
Once the voltage at each bus is computed, line flows can be
calculated. The current at bus k in the line connecting k
and n is given by:
( )
2
'
kn
k kn n k kn
y
V y V V i + Eq. [A.5]
where y
kn
= line admittance, y
kn
= total line charging
admittance and (V
k
y
kn
)/2 = current contribution at bus k
due to line charging. The real and reactive power flow
from k to n is found to be:
( )
2
'
* * *
kn
k k kn n k k kn k kn kn
y
V V y V V V i V jQ P + Eq. [A.6]
The power loss in line k-n is the algebraic sum of the
power flows in either direction.