Introduction - Setting Final Corrected

1 Chapter 1 : Introduction
1
1.1
Introduction
Background
Constructed wetlands (CWs) have been defined as engineered systems, designed and constructed to utilize the natural functions of wetland vegetation, soils and their microbial populations to remove contaminants in surface water, groundwater or waste streams and which is to as natures kidneys (ITRC, 2003). CWs can be used as part of decentralized wastewater treatment systems, due to their characteristics as low construction cost, low-technology systems, relatively low operational & maintenance cost and requires significantly less energy. Denny et al., (1997) pointed out that CWs are particularly suitable for developing countries as well as any rural or low density area in the world, whereas conventional systems are appropriate in industrialized regions and densely populated areas with guaranteed power supplies, easily replaceable parts, and available of skilled manpower to ensure operation and maintenance requirement. Wolverton (1987) pointed out that the scientific basis for waste water treatment in a vascular aquatic plant system is the cooperative growth of both the plants and the microorganisms associated with the plants. A major part of the treatment process for degradation of organics is attributed to the microorganisms living on and around the plants roots. Once microorganisms are established on aquatic plants root, they form a symbiotic relationship in most cases with the higher plants. This relationship normally produces a synergic effects resulting in increased degradation rates and removal of organic compounds from the wastewater surrounding the plant root systems. Also, microorganisms can use some or all metabolites released through plant roots as a food source. By each using the other waste products, this allows a reaction to be sustained in favor of rapid removal of organics from wastewater. Generally, common reed (Phragmites australis) is among the most popular plants used in constructed wetlands because of high tolerance and abundance in several areas of the world (Kadlec and Knight 1996). The first experiments aimed at the possibility of wastewater treatment by wetlands plants were undertaken by Kthe Seidel in Germany in 1957 at the Max Plank Institute in Pln (Seidel, 1995). From 1995, Seidel carried out numerous experiments
Ecological and Economical efficiency of Constructed Wetlands and Transferability of Decentralized Wastewater Treatment Operation to Nepal
2 Chapter 1 : Introduction on the use of wetland plants and especially Bulrush (Schoenoplectus = Scirpus lacustris) for the treatment of various types of wastewater. In the mid-1960s, Seidel began collaboration with Reinhold Kickuth from Gttingen University, but the collaboration ended after a few years due to person reasons (Kadlec and Wallace, 2009). After then Kickuth developed a HSSF wetland process, which is also known as root zone method (RZM). Constructed wetlands with sub-surface horizontal flow drew more attention in Europe during the 1980s and 1990s with vertical flow and their combination (Cooper et al., 1996; Vymazal et al., 1998). The first European national guideline was published in Germany by ATV (Abwassertechnische Vereinigung) in 1989 (ATV H 262, 1989) followed by European Guidelines (2008). According to the inventory almost 3000 CWs existed in Lower Saxony in1994 and more than 50000 small constructed wetlands were in operation by 2003 with majority of system built to upgrade septic tank efficiency (Vymazal and Krpfelov, 2008, Vymazal 1998). Similarly, CWs with sub-surface technology was started in North America during the early 1970s. Similarly, Tanner et al. (2000) reported that many communities in New Zealand have been using constructed wetlands as a cost effective means of secondary and tertiary wastewater treatment. Since the mid 1980s, the concept of using constructed wetlands has gained increasing support in Southern Africa. At present, CWs are in operation, in Asian countries like India, China, Korea, Taiwan, Japan, Nepal, Malaysia and Thailand for various types of waste wastewater (Kadlec and Wallace, 2009). CWs can be divided into two types, first is free-water surface type (FWS) in which the water level is over the surface, and second is subsurface type (SF), in which the water level is maintained below the surface. The subsurface can be further categorized into two types based on the flow pattern, one with horizontal subsurface (HSF) and another with vertical subsurface flow (VSF) (Vymazal, et. al., 2010). The illustration of each system can be seen in the figure below. The free water surface constructed wetlands (FWS) closely resemble natural wetlands because they look like ponds containing aquatic plants that are rooted in the soil layer on the bottom. The water flows through the leaves and stems of the plants. Their design and operation is very close to pond systems.
3 Chapter 1 : Introduction
The main focus is based on the constructed wetlands with subsurface flow. This is due to several researches indicating that the pollutant removal efficiency is better than in FWS per unit of land, implying the area requirement is lower. These systems also pose no problem of mosquito or other insects breeding as well as the human, probably children, exposure to surface wastewater. Some disadvantages of this type are higher cost and have lower ecological value comparing to the FWS wetlands, which are of minor concerns. The HSF and VSF systems do not resemble natural wetlands because they have no Surface flow of water. They contain a bed of media which is typically gravel and sand, but also soil or crushed rocks can be also used. Within the media, emergent macrophytes are planted and the water is introduced beneath the surface of the media and is flowing through the roots and rhizomes of the plants. Conventionally, the flow in HSF systems is continuous, hence it creates a saturated condition within the wetland body whereas the flow in VSF systems is commonly intermittent, which results in an unsaturated and thus aerobic condition. A simple and effective operation and maintenance system is essential for operating a wastewater treatment system. Centralized wastewater management systems are
difficult to operate because of the difficulties in maintaining the long sewer networks and treatment plant. So the constructed wetland as polishing biotopes in Gadenstedt was constructed in 1998 as a part of decentralized waste water treatment system covering the area of 1.1 hectare. The project Ecotechnological treatment of waste water and sewage sludge in Lahstedt was registered and officially sponsored project at the world exhibition EXPO 2000 in Hanover. After achieving the good results, the Lahstedt Municipality has decided to expand and improvement in the sewage plants in another locality of Municipality like Oberg, Mnstedt, Adenstedt, and GroLafferde. Likewise, small community of 600 residents in Berel introduced CWs
system in 2008 to ensure environment protection and better effluent quality before discharging into the water receiving course. CWs are working as secondary treatment plant and in the combination with pond system. The overall efficiency of treatment plants achieved by removing 92% COD, 95% BOD, 96% NH4-N, 81% TN and 55% TP at Gadenstedt and similarly 86 % COD, 94% BOD, 81% NH4-N, and 52% TP at Berel.
4 Chapter 1 : Introduction Decentralized system of treating wastewater ,with constructed wetlands, can provide not only a more economical and energy efficient means of achieving treatment objective , but also a resource in the form of reclaimed water available for landscape irrigation or creation of wildlife habitats. Such an approach is more in line with the philosophy of sustainable development and suitable technology for developing countries. 1.2 Objectives
The objectives of this thesis were to evaluate the treatment efficiency of the constructed wetland built in Gadenstedt and Berel. Similarly other objectives are as follows: Visiting in the study area. Analysis of data of influent and effluent concentration of BOD, COD, NH4-N, TN, TP To study the efficiency of CWs to reduce BOD,COD,NH4-N,TN,TP To examine the hydraulic characteristics of the flow-through system. Economic analysis of power consumption and cost. Evaluate the effect of influent pH and temperature effects To focus as Constructed Wetlands are suitable technology in the context of Nepal
1.3
Methodology
Literature Reviews Literature review is one of the most important methodologies, which helps to bring clarity and focus in the research subjects. The literatures relevant to the study subject were studied from available books, journals, previous thesis, reports and internet sites to formulate the subject matter, develop conceptual study framework, select study area, and later discuss the results. Further, before visiting field various published/unpublished national and international reports and maps related to the study area were collected and studied, which attributed to understand more deeply.
5 Chapter 1 : Introduction Data collections Data collections are the secondary methodology that has been used during the research study for this thesis. Both primary and secondary data collections have been made. Primary data collection: Field visit, sample taken of wastewater, direct measurement pH and temperature in field and measurement of influent and effluent concentration of BOD, COD, NH4-N, TN, and TP in the central Laboratory were observed and data collected. Similarly discharge, power consumption were also collected directly in field. Secondary data collection (Data regarding the climate and hydrology from the relevant organizations) The existing data in relevant to this thesis writing from the different organizations can be categorized into this group. The data and information from the various meteorological departments, research organizations come under this category. An enormous number of such data and information have been used in this study. Analysis, Discussion and Interpretation of the data The primary and secondary data obtained from the field and laboratory is processed for further analysis and interpretation. Conclusions and Recommendations Depending upon the analysis and interpretations of the data conclusions and recommendations has been suggested for the future. Report Writing Finally, the report is prepared after data processing and analyzing along with evaluation and interpretation of the field data, laboratory inferences and maps. All the results and discussion will be synthesized and presented in the reports. It is obvious that all these stages will be carried out with the iterative and frequent consultative approach.
6 Chapter 1 : Introduction 1.4 Structure of Thesis
Thesis Layout This thesis, presented in ten chapters, will give more information to the reader about the constructed wetlands of Gadenstedt and Berel. This research work is basically concerned with the investigation of constructed wetlands, types of wetlands used for waste water treatment, method of reduction of organic matter (BOD, COD) and nutrients (N,P) ,types of vegetation used in the treatment plants , soil properties, and design process of subsurface vertical flow and horizontal flow CWs. Besides, the thesis is presenting the present scenario of wastewater treatment in Nepal and suitability of CWs technology transfer to Nepal.
Chapter 1 presents a general introduction about the thesis, objectives of the study, the methodology used. Chapter 2 describes an overview of Organization involvement (Ingenieurbro Blumberg, Wasserverband Peine, and Lahstedt
Municipality) and their responsibility. Chapter 3 discuss about wastewater treatment through Constructed Wetlands and its importance and implication. This chapter focuses to wastewater qualities basically chemical, physical, and Biological characteristics and Nutrients. This chapter also provides description on treatment requirements guidelines, types of constructed wetlands and treatment mechanism. Chapter 4 outlines a description on the theoretical approaches and methodology of basic design recommendation and design principle of horizontal and vertical subsurface CWs. This chapter also indicates the soil clogging and soil aeration in vertical flow CWs. Chapter 5 explain an overview of soil used in substrate for wastewater treatment process in the CWs. Chapter 6 shows the scenario of Macrophytes used and its function for the wastewater decomposition in the CWs. Chapter 7 describes the scenario of wastewater treatment in Nepal. Chapter 8 presents a brief description of study area geography, topography; climate, hydrology and detail about project structure of Gadenstedt and Berel. This chapter describes also the field data analysis of BOD, COD, NH4-N, TN, and TP. Chapter 9 presents the analysis and discussions of the results of wastewater effluent from the CWs. Especially focus to BOD, COD, NH4-N, TN, TP, and pH and temperature analysis. Also focus to economic analysis of power consumption in two study area and
7 Chapter 1 : Introduction highlighted about CWs as a suitable technology in Nepal. Chapter 10 deals the conclusions and recommendations that have been lay out from the investigation of result analysis of BOD, COD, N, P, pH value in concern to the improvement of CWs efficiency.
8 Chapter 2: Organization involvement 2 2.1 Organization involvement Ingenieurbro Blumberg
Blumberg Engineers is associated with a network of consulting firms in Germany, Europe and other countries round the world. Involvement of Ingenieurbro Blumberg is in planning, designing, and construction as well as monitoring and supervision of various engineering projects of water and wastewater treatment for more than 20 years. Ingenieurbro has experiences in the successful application of wastewater and water treatment systems, having completed over 350 large and small scale projects worldwide, including industrial project across several sectors over the last 20 years. They have also long experience of constructed wetlands for the wastewater treatment of small community, industrial effluent, agricultural effluent and road runoff. Ingenieurbro works closely with municipalities and districts for the promotion of wastewater treatment by constructed wetlands as an eco-technology. They are providing consulting services in the environment sector. Especially, Ingenieurbro involves in monitoring and supervision as well as provides technical advice for the betterment in the Lahstedt municipality and Berel wastewater treatment project after the construction. 2.2 Wasserverband Peine
The Wasserverband Peine has been working in the drinking water supply and industrial water since 1952. In 1996, Wasserverband Peine has involved in the wastewater treatment sector and especially providing services in the region of Peine, Baddeckenstedt, Borsum and Dransfeld. The regional office in Baddeckenstedt is responsible for the water sample collection, analysis and data recording of Berel wastewater treatment plant. 2.3 Lahstedt municipality
Lahstedt Municipality has given more importance on the conservation of nature and the environment and municipality are operating community sanitation Lahstedt in the five villages of the municipality. Municipality has their own central laboratory, which is responsible for monitoring, water sample collection, analysis and data recording of Gadenstedt.
9 Chapter 3: Wastewater treatment through Constructed Wetlands 3 Wastewater treatments through the Constructed wetlands (Literature review) 3.1 Constructed Wetlands
Constructed wetland treatment systems are engineered systems that have been designed and constructed to utilize the natural processes involving wetland vegetation, soils, and their associated microbial assemblages to assist in treating wastewater (Vymazal, 1998). There are three types of wetlands categorizes according to flow type like free water surface flow, horizontal subsurface flow and vertical subsurface flow. They all have macrophytes coverage of varying degree and the flow is usually driven under gravity system. In constructed wetlands, pollutants are removed through a unique combination of physical, chemical and biological processes, including sedimentation, precipitation, adsorption to soil particles, assimilation by plant tissue and microbial transformations.
Bastian et al.,(1993) described that constructed wetlands have been designed not only for the single purpose of treating wastewater but also implemented for multi use objective such as treated wastewater effluent using as a water source for creation and restoration of wetland habits for wildlife and environmental enhancement. The efficiency of CWS for the pollutants removable is largely depends upon the bed size, composition of substrate, type of vegetation, flow pattern, environmental conditions and wastewater composition. The degree of control is larger than in a natural wetland where species composition and performance may change over time. The treatment methods by CWs were developed in Germany in 1952 at the Max Planck Institute in Pln (Seidel 1995) and in the mid-1980 in Europe (Copper, 1996). CWs are suitable to treat the wastewater coming from single house, small community, as well as industrial effluent; land fill leachate, agricultural effluent and road run-off. A relatively large amount of treatment plants are currently in use in Europe and North America. Most of them are small, but for example in Denmark, where the total amount is about 100 plants, there are more than 30 plants constructed for 5 000-6 000 person equivalents (Leonardson, 1994).
10 Chapter 3: Wastewater treatment through Constructed Wetlands Due to simple construction, low cost and large buffering capacity, CWs with subsurface flow have been constructed in Africa, Asia, and South America. 3.1.1 Application and Importance of Constructed Wetlands Constructed wetlands are an appropriate technology for small communities in rural and suburban areas. Many rural projects with activated sludge plants failed because it was not properly operated, often no skilled stuff is available or the energy costs is no longer affordable. Constructed wetlands may also be applied for primary, secondary or tertiary treatment and may need a pre treatment before discharging into constructed wetlands. In general, influent and effluent constitutes of these characteristics; data shown in Table 3.1 2006/07 COD BOD5 NH3-N Total P Influent Parameters 191.0 mg/l 69.63 mg/l 39.2 mg/l 4.61 mg/l Effluent Parameters 11.8 mg/l 11.00 mg/l 1.07 mg/l 0.37 mg/l
Table 3.1: Wastewater treatment plant Shenyang (China) for 6000 people
(Source: Ingenieurbro Blumberg, Gottingen)
CWs are used in various fields to increase the water quality and at various treatment levels as described below. In domestic wastewater treatment, CWs treated the disposal of single houses or small dwelling cluster. But it required to pretreatment in the septic tanks. CWs are mostly used as secondary treatment. In animal wastewater treatment, livestock wastewater includes dairy manure, milk house wash water, run off from cattle feeding, poultry and swine manure are collected and treated. The strength of wastewater is higher than for municipal applications, with BOD, TSS and ammonia often above 100 mg/l (Kadlec and Wallace, 2009). In mine water treatment, a large number of treatment wetlands were built the 1980s to treat acids mine drainage in the United States (Wieder, 1989). CWs were in used at more than 300 sites in the United States in 1989, to increase the pH and reduce concentration of iron and /or manganese at coal mine sites. Industrial wastewater from food processing is containing more bio-degradable and nitrogen. CWs are used to reduce of nutrients and organic. Application area of CWs
11 Chapter 3: Wastewater treatment through Constructed Wetlands is now in wine, starch, alcohol, sugar and meat processing industries. Pulp and paper mill are using CWs to reduce the effluent value in limitation. Process water and storm water coming from petroleum refineries are being treated by constructed wetlands as using advanced secondary and tertiary treatment (Knight et al., 1997). When the inorganic and organic degraded water combines with the rainfall and groundwater, then leachates are produced with more toxic and damaging surrounding environment. In modern lined landfills, leachates are collected from the lined cells and treated by constructed wetlands, which is one of rapidly developing technology, with both surface flow and sub surface flow. After the rainfall, pollutants concentration and loads are generally low range in the undeveloped area, low density residential and commercial. Similar pollutants concentration can be found high range in the high density resident and commercial as well as large industrial area. The use of constructed wetlands, usually with accompanying ponds, is now a routine best management practice (BMP) for controlling the quality of runoff (Kadlec and Wallace, 2009). In agricultural runoff treatment, concentration of main contaminants like suspended solids, nitrate, phosphorus and chemicals depend upon farming practices, rainfall intensity soil type and topography. CWs are only the economically feasible means of controlling phosphorus, nitrogen and ability to abate the pulse of some pesticides. Nevertheless, this lesson deals mainly with the conventional use of constructed wetlands, which are to treat the pre-treated municipal wastewater, or so-called primary effluent. The typical treatment cycle is shown in Figure 3.1.
Raw Wastewater
Primary Treatment
Primar y Effluent
Constructed Wetlands Secondary Treatment
Second ary Effluent
Disinfection or Tertiary Treatment
Final Discharge
Fig 3.1: Constructed Wetlands in the treatment cycle
12 Chapter 3: Wastewater treatment through Constructed Wetlands 3.1.2 Horizontal Subsurface Flow Constructed Wetlands In a horizontal subsurface flow CWs, water flows from inlet to outlet in the horizontal path through a bed of a relatively homogenous medium, like gravel, sand or stones of different sizes. HSF wetlands are typically comprised of inlet piping, clay or synthetic liner, filter media, emergent vegetation, berms, and outlet piping with water level control. The main objective of impermeable layer made of plastic or soil with very low permeability, to prevent seepage of wastewater mixing into the groundwater. During the passage through the wetland, wastewater will come into contact with a network of aerobic, anoxic and anaerobic zone (Vymazal, 1998). The decomposable parts of the wastewater are transformed by microorganisms which are attached as bio-film in plant roots and the filter medium. The vegetation in the wetland consists of emergent macrophytes (rooted aquatic plants with leaves above the water surface).
Fig 3.2: Cross section of an HSF constructed wetland. (Picture from Ingenieurbro Blumberg)
It is recommended to let clean water enter over CWs surface during the planting phase. Plant growth may be inhibited by the high oxygen demand in wastewater coming from a septic tank effluent. The wastewater can be introduced after a few weeks of plant growth. The role of macrophytes is discussed in detail in chapter 6 of this thesis report. Similarly, removable of organic matter, TSS, nitrogen and phosphorus reduction are described in section 3.6 of this chapter.
13 Chapter 3: Wastewater treatment through Constructed Wetlands Wastewater needs to be pre-treated in a septic tank or similar, to remove solids, before entering at HSF wetland. If without pretreatment allowed to enter into the wetland, these could effectively clog the medium and prevent water passage and subsequent treatment. Kickuth developed a concept of wastewater treatment through constructed wetlands with horizontal flow and known as Root Zone Method system. This method was put in operation in Germany in 1974. Soil was used as a medium as a result low hydraulic conductivity and suffered from surface runoff. But the problem was overcome by the use of more porous media e.g. gravel (Vymazal, 1998). In Europe, the most common term for HSF constructed wetlands is the Reed Bed Treatment System (RBTS) because of frequently used plant is Common Reed (Phragmites australis). Detail design criteria and recommendation of HSF constructed wetlands are described in chapter 4. 3.1.3 Vertical Subsurface Flow (VSF) Constructed Wetlands In VF CWs, wastewater is distributed over the whole surface area of beds and allowed to flow vertically through bed material. The earliest VSF Constructed Wetlands in Europe were so-called infiltration fields in the Netherlands and this system is also known as Seidel-System or Max Planck Institute Process (Brix, 1994).
Fig 3.3: Detail cross- section of Vertical Flow Subsurface CWS
14 Chapter 3: Wastewater treatment through Constructed Wetlands The water is fed under the intermittent loading system and then the water percolates down through the sand medium. This enables diffusion of oxygen from the air into the bed. As a result, VF CWs are far more aerobic than HF CWs and provide suitable conditions for nitrification. VF CWs do not provide any denitrification and are also very effective in removing organics and suspended solids. Removal of phosphorus is low unless media with high sorption capacity are used. As compared to HF CWs, vertical flow systems require less land. The system is typically comprised of a preliminary settling/distribution ditch, alternative infiltration compartments with soil/sand media, a discharge via drain and an effluent ditch as shown in fig 3.3. The bed is planted with emergent wetlands plants (typically Phragmites). Detail design criteria and recommendation of VSF constructed wetlands are described in chapter 4.
3.1.4 General advantage and disadvantage
Constructed wetlands are widely acceptance and many advantages compared to conventional treatment systems, and some of them are presented here. CWs are simple in construction, low operation and maintenance costs with or without low energy demand. They have high ability to tolerate fluctuations in flow, high process stability, so they can stand low loading for an extended period of time, e.g. during a vacation, and also handle extra large loads during a short period, and still keep a good effluent quality . Untreated water is not exposed to the atmosphere during the treatment process, hence there are less odor problems and the risk associated with human or wildlife exposure to pathogenic organism is minimized and fewer problems with mosquitoes (Kadlec and Wallace,2009). They are used to enhance aesthetic of open spaces, help for recreational and educational opportunities. Reed harvesting as a regenerative energy source may contribute to generate electricity (biogas). The treated effluent water might be acceptable as irrigation water for cash crops, lawns, public parks and golf course.
They generally require larger land areas than conventional wastewater systems. But compared to FWS constructed wetlands, SSF constructed wetlands require less land
15 Chapter 3: Wastewater treatment through Constructed Wetlands area. They can tolerate temporary water level draw downs, but not complete drying (a base flow of water is required).The Evapotranspiration rate of aquatic macrophytes in treatment wetlands is high thus reducing the water volume available for irrigation. Some disadvantages with HSF wetlands are risk of shortcuts on the surface between inflow and outflow and possibility of clogging if pre-treatment is insufficient. In temperate regions the performance might be decreased during winter. Constructed wetlands are regarded as an attractive alternative for small to medium-sized communities in sparsely populated areas and in developing countries (Brix, 1993).
3.2
Characteristics of Wastewater.
In order to design wastewater treatment systems, it is very necessary to understand the nature of wastewater. The treatment capacity and treatment efficiency of systems are calculated based upon the wastewater characteristics because the effluent quality depends upon the influent characteristics. Wastewater generally includes a large variety of contaminants and can be very complex in composition, originating from households, industries and storm water collection. In this project no industrial wastewater will be considered, only domestic and stormwater.
Fig 3.4: A range of possible source of household wastewater showing wastewater from toilet, kitchen, bathroom, laundry and others. (Source: http://www.unep.or.jp/ietc/publications/freshwater/sb_summary/2.asp)
Typical components of wastewater are microorganisms, biodegradable and other organic material, nutrients, metals and other inorganic material coming from household and paved surface area. Domestic wastewater can be categorized into
16 Chapter 3: Wastewater treatment through Constructed Wetlands two groups like black water and grey water. Black water is especially generated from the WC, containing faeces and urine. Grey water is wastewater coming from the kitchen, bathroom and laundry (Ujang and Henze 2006). The water treated in the constructed wetland is especially domestic and surface run-off from pavement. This literature study focuses on the parameters that were tested in the project. Chemical, physical and biological characteristics are described below. 3.2.1 Chemical Characteristics Organic material Wastewater contains a vast number of organic materials that are comprise of carbohydrates, fat, proteins, higher fatty acids and soluble organic acids, originate from kitchens and bathrooms, and toilets. It is hard to determine all organic materials in detail but they share common characteristics that can be tested in more collective analyses. The parameters included in the analyses of this study, except for organic nitrogen, are listed below. Substances mg/l Total solids Suspended solids Total dissolved solids Total nitrogen Chloride8as CaCO3) Alkalinity Fats BOD5 High 1000 600 500 85 175 200 40 300 Pollution Average 500 350 200 50 100 100 20 200 Low 200 120 100 25 15 50 0 100
Table 3.2: Analysis of domestic waste water by the American Public Health Association (Source: Wastewater Technology, by W.Fresenius and W. Schneider, 1989) Biochemical oxygen demand, (BOD5) BOD indicates the amount of biodegradable substances in wastewater, and is widely used and recognized as an important parameter in wastewater treatment processes. It is a measure of the oxygen consumption of microorganisms, when oxidizing organic matter in wastewater, at 20C. For the measurement of BOD 5, the test is normally runs for five days, and the result is then more properly designated as BOD 5. It is expressed in milligrams per liter (mg/L), which indicates the mass of oxygen consumed per liter of solution. If the concentration of BOD5 is near to 300 mg/l, 200
17 Chapter 3: Wastewater treatment through Constructed Wetlands mg/l , then it is called high and average level of polluted wastewater as per the American Public Health Association as shown in table 3.2. Chemical oxygen demand (COD) COD describes the amount of chemical oxidant, usually potassium dichromate, required to oxidize the organic matter. It is expressed in milligrams per liter (mg/L), which indicates the mass of oxygen consumed per liter of solution. Item BOD , 5 days,20 C COD Total solids Suspended solids Grit (inorganic, 0.2 mm and above) Alkalinity (as CaCO3) Chlorides Total nitrogen, as N Total phosphorous, as P Range of values in wastes (g/capita-day) 45 - 54 1.5 to 1.9 x BOD5 170 - 220 70 -145 5 -15 20 - 30 4-8 6 -12 0.6 4.5
Table 3.3: Per capita contributions of domestic wastewater characteristics PH The pH is a useful and important parameter in measuring the conditions of wastewater during the whole treatment process. The pH is a logarithmic index of the concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) in water solution. A pH value of 7 indicates neutral conditions. Above 7 is basic and below is acid. Especially metabolic reactions in biological processes are highly pH dependant and sensitive to low pH levels or changes in pH. 3.2.2 Physical Characteristics These characteristics are concerned with detection of wastewater by using the physical senses like temperature, odor, color, and feel of solid material. Suspended solids and total solids Suspended solids represent that fraction of total solids in any wastewater that can be settled gravitationally. Suspended solids can further be classified into two fractions like organic which is volatile and inorganic which is fixed. However, organic matter is
18 Chapter 3: Wastewater treatment through Constructed Wetlands present in the form of either setteable form or non-setteable (dissolved or colloidal) form. If the organic fraction of suspended solids present in sewage is discharged untreated into streams, it leads to sludge deposits and subsequently to anaerobic conditions. These are also the main cause of clogging effects in the constructed wetlands. The wastewater are characterized as high, average and low level polluted as per the concentration of suspended solid, dissolved solids and total solids if they meet the above mentioned requirement in table 3.2. Temperature Temperature affects chemical and biological processes in a profound way. The rate of chemical reactions and biological activity increases with increased temperature. Similarly, metabolism and growth of microorganisms are affected by this but only up to a certain level, after which the rate becomes lower and eventually lethal temperatures stop the growth altogether. Different microorganisms tolerate different temperature intervals. Turbidity Turbidity in water is caused by suspended matter, e.g. clay or silt, small organic and inorganic particles, plankton and protozoa. Therefore, turbidity is sometimes used as surrogate for gravimetric measurement of suspended matter. The particle size of the present substances ranges between 1 to 300 m. The turbidity can be measured by a decrease in the intensity of the radiation passed through the liquid or by the intensity of the stray light. Turbidity is often measured using a turbidimeter, consists of nephelometer, light source and photometer (Kadlec and Wallace, 2009). The unit for turbidity measured with this instrument is nephelometric turbidity units (NTU). 3.2.3 Biological Characteristics Microorganisms A microorganism is unicellular or lives in a colony of cellular organisms that is too small to be seen by the human eye. The study of microorganisms is called microbiology, a subject that began with Anton van Leeuwenhoek's discovery of microorganisms in 1675, using a microscope microscope1.
Information share from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microorganism
19 Chapter 3: Wastewater treatment through Constructed Wetlands Microorganisms are very diverse and classified into two major groups like prokaryotes and eukaryotes. The prokaryotes are divided into two groups like bacteria and archaea. The eukaryotes can be divided into three groups, fungi, algae and protozoa. Microorganisms are the cause of many infectious diseases. The organisms involved include pathogenic bacteria, causing diseases such as plague, tuberculosis and anthrax; protozoa, causing diseases such as malaria, sleeping sickness and toxoplasmosis; and also fungi causing diseases such as ringworm, aspergilosis. Bacteria are unicellular and can have a number of different shapes and sizes (0.1-40 m). They are universally present in human feces, with normal population of about 1011 organisms per gram (Kadlec and Wallace, 2009). 3.3 Nutrients
Nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium -- there are valuable nutrients contained in wastewater. Excessive amounts of nutrients, especially nitrogen and phosphorus, speed up the eutrophication process. Eutrophication is the slow, natural nutrient enrichment of streams and lakes and is responsible for the "aging" of ponds, lakes, and reservoirs. As algae grow and then decompose, they deplete the dissolved oxygen in the water. Excess nutrients in water usually results toxicity to aquatic life like fish, offensive odors, unsightliness, and reduced attractiveness of the water for recreation and other public uses. Similarly excessive nitrate (NO3-) in drinking water can cause human and animal health problems, particularly for small babies. 3.3.1 Nitrogen Nitrogen occurs in different forms in municipal or domestic wastewater are ammonia (NH4+),nitrite (NO2-), nitrate (NO3-), nitrous oxide (N2O) and nitrogen gas (N2). In the atmosphere, concentration of nitrogen is up to 78 %. Similarly, organic nitrogen is also present in wastewater in the form of amino acid, urea and uric acids. Amino acids are the main component of proteins, which is essential to all form of life. Urea (CNH4O) and uric acid (C4N4H403) are the simplest form of organic matter in aquatic system. Nitrogen in domestic sewage comprises about 60% ammonia and 40% organic nitrogen (Wallace and Kadlec, 2009). The wastewater can be defined as high, average and low level of pollution, if total nitrogen concentration exceeds up to 85, 50 and 25 mg/l respectively (see table3.2). Nitrogen removal process is described in detail in section 3.6 of this chapter.
20 Chapter 3: Wastewater treatment through Constructed Wetlands 3.3.2 Phosphorus Phosphorus is an important constituent of all life. This nutrient occurs naturally in most plants and animals and readily enters the food supply of humans from these sources. It is one of the 20 most abundant elements in the solar system, and the 11th most abundant in the earths crust (MPCA, 2007). Human activities, however, have resulted in excessive loading of phosphorus into many freshwater systems. Excessive amounts of phosphorus may lead to the increased growth of algae and other microorganisms, causing water quality to degrade. Water containing large amounts of algae can become unsafe to drink and can cause vomiting and diarrhea. Contact with algal blooms can cause skin irritation, thus impacting on the recreational use of water. In domestic wastewater, phosphorus exists in the form of orthophosphate, dehydrated orthophosphate and organic phosphorus. Most phosphorus is conversed into orthophosphate forms (H2PO4-, HPO42-, and PO43-) under the biological oxidation (Cooper and Job, 1996). In wetlands, lakes, ponds and rivers particulate phosphate may be deposited by sedimentation, trapped by macrophytes stems or sorbed to biofilms. 3.4 Treatment requirements 3.4.1 Legislation In Germany, a framework act of the Federation, the Federal Water Act (Wasserhaushaltsgesetz) provides fundamental requirements for water management measures. According to Article 7a of the Act, a permit for the discharge of wastewater shall be granted only if the pollutant load of the wastewater in question is kept as low as is possible through application of appropriate procedures using the best available technology. The Federal Government shall establish relevant requirements, by means of ordinances approved by the Bundesrat that are in keeping with the best available technology2.
Promulgation of the New Version of the Waste Water Ordinance of 17. June 2004,this ordinance will come
into force on 1 January 2005 http://www.bmu.de/english/water_management/doc/3462.php
21 Chapter 3: Wastewater treatment through Constructed Wetlands European Communities (EC) developed a Waste Water Treatment Regulations 2005. These Regulations contain general binding rules requiring sanitary authorities to ensure that waste water treatment plants do not cause a nuisance through odours or noise emissions. The Regulations set a legal requirement for waste water treatment plants to be designed, constructed, operated and maintained so as to avoid causing nuisance from odor emissions or noise. Operators of such plants, including sanitary authorities, must indicate to the Environmental Protection Agency each year all steps taken to comply with the Regulations and, on request from the Agency, must furnish copies of all complaint records. The Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive of EC has already contributed to an improvement of the quality of big European rivers by reducing BOD levels by 2030%, of phosphorus concentrations by 30-40% and of NH4-N levels by around 40%. Austria, Denmark and Germany, plus with certain restrictions the Netherlands have shown that successful and timely implementation is possible, leading to significant improvements in water quality by achieving compliance rate of about 2/3 of the pollution load covered by the 1998 and 2000 deadlines (H. Blch ,2005). The Austrian Water Act (1959/1990) is based on the principle of provision with respect to water considering whole environment and its relationship with water and wastewater are taken into consideration. The effluent values from treatment plant should be within limiting values, which is legally regulated (Vymazal, Brix, 1998).
Country Belgium Germany Austria Poland Czech Italian Netherlands Sweden 1000 5000 PE 500 5000 PE 3 < 2000 m -1 day 500 2000 PE Remarks COD 250 110 75 150 120 125 750 150 BOD 60 25 20 30 30 25 250 30 10 SS 50 50 35 35 70 30 TN 30 35 15 NH4-N 5 6 15 TP 2 5 10 0.3 0.5 Reference VLAREM II (1995) Joachim (2000) AES ,1996 Kempa (2001) Czech Law No. 61/2003 Italian Law (1999) Debets (2000) Linde and Alsbro (2000)
Table 3.4: Effluent standards of different European countries for small scale discharges into the surface water (modified data of Diederik P. L. Rousseaua, Peter A. Vanrolleghemb, and Niels De Pauwa)
22 Chapter 3: Wastewater treatment through Constructed Wetlands Wastewater coming from domestic use, industry, agriculture or any other activity that can contaminate the water of lakes, rivers and aquifers, should be treated before discharge. To protect the environmental and water course, effluent from wastewater treatment systems should be standard limit governed by national law. Some of the European country has set the standard norms of effluent wastewater as shown in table 3.4. 3.4.2 Guidelines A over growing population, unrelenting urbanization, increasing scarcity of good quality water resources and rising fertilizer prices are the driving forces behind the accelerating upward trend in the use of wastewater, excreta and greywater for agriculture and aquaculture. The health risks associated with this practice have been long recognized, but regulatory measures were, until recently, based on rigid guideline values whose application often was incompatible with the socio-economic settings where most wastewater use takes place. In 2006, WHO published a third edition of its guidelines for the safe use of wastewater, excreta and grey water in Agriculture and Aqua culture. These guidelines are divided into four volumes, which propose a flexible approach of risk assessment and risk management linked to health-based targets that can be established at a level that is realistic under local conditions. Some of the recommendations regarding reuse of treated wastewater for irrigation purposes and decentralized wastewater treatment systems will be presented here. To reuse water for activities and areas with public access, for example parks and irrigation of crops that will be eaten raw or that are not commercially processed, WHO (2004) recommends that there should be no detectable faecal coliforms /100 ml of water, and BOD values of less than 10 mg O2/l. This is called unrestricted irrigation. For restricted irrigation, when irrigating areas with limited or no public access and cereal crops, industrial crops, fodder crops, pasture and trees, the recommendations from USEPA (2004) are faecal coliform concentrations of less than 200 faecal coliforms /100 ml and BOD and SS levels of less than 30 mg/l. In the guidelines from WHO (1989) on safe wastewater reuse, the recommended limit was 1000 faecal coliforms /ml for unrestricted irrigation. in the new guidelines from 2006, WHO validated their earlier general recommendation of 1000 E.coli/100 ml for unrestricted wastewater
23 Chapter 3: Wastewater treatment through Constructed Wetlands
use in agriculture, but other values were also given, e.g. 105 E.coli/100 ml for drop irrigation of higher crops (WHO, 2006). 3.5 Hydraulics in Constructed Wetlands 3.5.1 Retention Time (RT) and Hydraulic Loading Rate (HLR) Nominal retention time is defined as the wetland water volume involved in flow divided by the volumetric water flow. Alternatively, it can be described a measure of retention time, it takes for the whole water volume of a wetland to be replaced. It is defined as RT = V/Q, where V is the total water volume and Q is the flow through the wetland. The assumptions are steady-state conditions, i.e. the inflow is equal to the outflow (Q = Q
in
=Q
out),
and no mixing of the water column. The total volume of the
wetland is occupied by the medium, e.g. sand, gravel. These medium having the porosity holds water. The actual retention time for a constructed wetland is given by the following expression (Kadlec and Wallace, 2009):
(1)
... (2)
A = surface area of the wetland (m2), h = depth of water-filled part of the wetland (m) = porosity, % expressed as decimal, Q = average flow through the bed (m3/d) = detention time (d), q = hydraulic loading rate (m/d)
Above expression in eqn. 1, takes into consideration the porosity of the medium but not plant roots, biofilms or non degradable residues. Over longer time, the accumulation of non-degradable residues in the pore spaces and the spreading of plant roots will also add resistance to the flow. Eventually this could lead to clogging of the medium and unwanted surfacing of the wastewater. The void fraction, also termed media porosity, ranges usually from 0.3 - 0.45 depending on the soil material chosen, e.g. sand, gravel or clayey soils (Vymazal, 1998a). In surface flow systems, the reactive volume is defined as the volume of the free water body above the substrate minus the portion occupied by the submerged plant parts, e.g. stems, leaves, detritus, but also settled solids. The porosity of surface flow wetlands has
24 Chapter 3: Wastewater treatment through Constructed Wetlands proved difficult to exactly measure, thus, porosity values for surface flow wetlands in the literature are highly variable. For example, Reed (1995) recommended wetland porosity values ranging from 0.65 - 0.75 for fully vegetated surface flow beds. To meet advanced treatment standards in surface flow as well as in subsurface flow wetlands, the HRT should be at least 5 days (Vymazal, 1998a; WPCF, 1990). Reed (1995) suggested a hydraulic retention time of at least 6 to 8 days to ensure adequate nitrification rates. It can be concluded that there are no universally applicable recommendations in the literature. Hydraulic loading rate also play important role in the treatment efficiency of CWs. There is also relationship between nominal detention time and hydraulic loading rate as expressed in eqn. 2. From the expression, it can be seen that hydraulic loading rate is inversely proportional to nominal detention time for the given wetlands depth (Kadlec and Wallace, 2009). Hydraulic loading rate therefore embodies the notion of contact duration, just as nominal detention time does. Horizontal subsurface flow wetlands 2.0 - 5.0 cm/d for secondary treatment (Vymazal, 1998) < 20 cm/d for tertiary treatment (Vymazal, 1998) Vertical flow wetlands 6.0 cm/d (Mennerich, 2003) The required energy to overcome the resistance of the medium, plant roots and residues, is provided by the difference in hydraulic head between the inlet and the outlet of the wetland. The time it takes for the water to pass from the inlet to the outlet of the wetland may be less than the nominal retention time since the velocity of the water may be higher in certain channels of the bed and shortcuts can be formed. According to USEPA (2000) the actual retention time has frequently been reported to be 40-80 % less than the theoretical retention time. This is one of the reasons to loss of pore volume, preferential flow and dead volume, i.e. stagnation pockets sometimes exits. 3.5.2 Porosity and Permeability Porosity can be defined as the ratio of fraction volume of voids over the total volume of materials. Soil porosity refers that pore spaces are filled with air, other gases, or
25 Chapter 3: Wastewater treatment through Constructed Wetlands water. Large pores known as macropores allow the ready movement of air and the drainage of water. They are also large enough to accommodate plant roots and the wide range of tiny animals that inhabit the soil (Brady and Weil, 1999; Munshower, 1994). Clay soils have numerous micropores which help to hold large quantities of water, but since they have few macropores cause very slow infiltration rates. The pores in the clays may be so small and hold water so tenaciously that the water is not available to plants. Sandy soils with numerous macropores but few micropores have higher infiltration and percolation rates but a lower water-holding capacity than other soil textures. (Munshower, 1994). Permeability is the measure of a soils ability to transmit water and it is largest for coarse gravel with same size grains. In a less sorted sample, the small grains fill the voids between the large grains and lower the permeability. The permeability can be expressed with a coefficient, called hydraulic conductivity.
Fig 3.5: Permeability test model with different material (Gravel, Sand, Silt and clay)
(Source: http://techalive.mtu.edu/meec/module06/Permeability.htm)
3.5.3 Soil clogging Clogging is a well known phenomenon in soil filter as well as Constructed wetlands and occurs in the wetlands bed by different mechanism like sediment deposition, chemical precipitation and Biomat formation. Clogging caused soil pore spaces decrease which restricts the flow of water through the bed media. Mostly suspended (minerals) solids deposited within the inlet region of HSF wetland beds due to the low flow velocity and such kind of deposition occurs within the 5% of the wetland bed (Kadlec and Wallace, 2009). Biological clogging occurs when bacterial growth or its by-products reduce the pore diameter. Biological clogging frequently associated with organic and inorganic solids, which are entrapped by biofilms for the formation of
26 Chapter 3: Wastewater treatment through Constructed Wetlands Biomet. Kadlec and Watson (1993) found approximately 10% voids blocked by volatile and inorganic solids. Especially, the combined effects of short-term and long term bed clogging are reducing the hydraulic conductivity of the inlet zone of the HSF bed and upper 0-15 cm of bed in VSF CWs. Purification efficiency drops significantly when constant ponding occurs. Clogging is dependent on the height of organic mass loading. Therefore the system has to be designed large enough so that resting periods in parts of the filter bed can occur. Another possibility to avoid clogging is to keep the load so low that it does not occur due to the natural degradation processes. The experiences with soil clogging in constructed wetlands differ widely, since the problem depends on many factors (Platzer and Mauch, 1997). Sufficient soil (or bed) aeration is the main factor for the proper functioning of VFBs and wastewater needs to be pumped onto the VFBs intermittently (4-12 times per day). Communal constructed wetlands with VF CWs should have at least 4 beds in order to feed them intermittently loading on a regular basis like some beds 6 weeks in operation and 2 weeks of rest for better oxygenation. The hydraulic loading should not exceed 150 L/(md) for domestic wastewater under normal conditions (during rain events, a hydraulic loading up to 500 L/(md) can be acceptable). The TSS loading should be less than 5 g/(md) and this requires
efficient pre-treatment and organic loading (COD) should not exceed 20 g/ md (Winter and Goetz, 2003). Adequate plants with developed rhizome/root system play an important role in maintaining and restoring soil conductivity and withstand against the clogging. 3.6 Treatment mechanisms in Constructed Wetlands Constructed Wetlands are effective in treating many contaminants, including organics (BOD, COD), suspended solids, nitrogen and phosphorus as well as, and also in reducing metals, organics and pathogens from wastewater (Vymazal, 1998). In a subsurface flow wetland TSS and BOD are generally removed effectively while the removal of nutrients (P and N) are variable and depends on loading rate, type of substrate, oxygen supply and composition of wastewater (Brix 1993). The major
27 Chapter 3: Wastewater treatment through Constructed Wetlands processes for removal of pollutant are complex within the wetland system as described as below. 3.6.1 Organic compounds removal (BOD and COD) The organic strength of wastewater can be measured as BOD (Biochemical Oxygen Demand) and COD (Chemical Oxygen Demand). However, BOD is the more important and frequently used parameter for domestic or municipal wastewaters (Kadlec and Knight, 1996). Settable organics are rapidly removed in wetland system under quiescent condition by deposition and filtration. Organic compounds are degraded aerobically as well as anaerobically. Firstly, organic compounds are biologically decomposed by the heterotrophic microorganisms under aerobic condition and converted to water and carbon dioxide (Vymazal, 1998). Similarly, anaerobic degradation is a multi-step process that occurs within constructed wetlands in the absence of dissolved oxygen (Cooper et al. 1996). Anaerobic degradation is much slower than aerobic degradation. The oxygen needed to support the aerobic process is supplied directly from the atmosphere via diffusion or oxygen leakage from macrophytes roots in the rhizosphere (Cooper, 1996) The removal rate of organic matter is temperature-dependent since higher temperatures have a positive effect on microbial activity. The growth rate, reproduction, metabolism and the mobility of organisms, e.g. rates of biochemical reactions, usually double when temperature is increased by 10C within the given tolerance range of an organism. The decomposition of BOD in all types of constructed wetland systems is usually very efficient and has been reported to be on the range of 70 - 95 % (Reed, 1995) for pre-treated municipal or domestic wastewaters. However, the BOD removal rate is poorer at low input concentrations due to the internal background production of about 1 - 6 mg/L BOD. COD removal performance is usually slightly lower than of BOD since some groups of organic compounds cannot be biologically decomposed by microorganisms. This results in background levels ranging from 30 to 100 mg/L COD (Kadlec and Knight, 1996). 3.6.2 Removal of Suspended Solid (SS) Suspended solids are setteable and floatable particles in wastewater consisting of organic and inorganic matter. The major removable process of setteable suspended solids is sedimentation and filtration. Non-settling or colloidal solids are removed at
28 Chapter 3: Wastewater treatment through Constructed Wetlands least partially, by bacterial growth (which results in the settling of some colloidal solids and the microbial decay of others) and collusions with the adsorption to other solids (plants, pond bottom, suspended solids) (stowell et al. 1981). Kadlec and Wallace (2009) found the median values of inlet and out let TSS concentration in 31 vertical flow wetlands were 90 mg/l and 12 mg/l respectively, with the removable efficiency of 87%. Similarly, by the experiments showed that suspended solids are efficiently removed in both types of constructed wetlands and TSS effluent concentrations are generally less than 20 mg/L and often less than 10 mg/L in both types of constructed wetlands (Brix, 1994). According to Reed (1995) and Kadlec and Knight (1996), TSS background concentrations of about 2 - 5 mg/L TSS can be expected. The influent should be at least primary pre-treated to avoid the high TSS concentrations typically found in raw wastewaters. Suspended solid of wastewater are filtered and settled within the first few meters beyond the inlet zone. These could lead a major threat for good performance of subsurface flow systems (Vymazal, 1998). 3.6.3 Nitrogen Removal Nitrogen (N) in municipal wastewater is usually present as organic compounds, e.g. urea and amino acids, and as inorganic form, almost exclusively ammonium (NH4+). The removal mechanisms for nitrogen in constructed wetlands are manifold and include ammonification, nitrification-denitrification, plant uptake and matrix adsorption (Vymazal et al. 1998). 3.6.3.1 Ammonification
Ammonification is the process where the bacterial conversion of organic N into inorganic N, especially NH4+-N in untreated wastewaters, which is also known as mineralization. Ammonification rates are fastest in the oxygenated zone and decrease in the facultative anaerobic zone. Reedy and Patrick et al. (1984) described about the Ammonification process which are highly dependent on temperature, pH value ,C/N ratio of the residue, available nutrients in the system and soil condition (texture and structure) From the literature data, that the rate ammonification increased by double with a temperature increase of 10C.
Volatilisation
Matrix adsorption
Biomass uptake
NH4+ Anaerobic zone N2,N2O gas N2,N2O Ammonification Aerobic zone Biomass uptake
NO2-
Organic N
NO3-
Biomass uptake
Fig 3.6: Nitrogen transformation in constructed wetlands (Cooper et al., 1996)
3.6.3.2
Nitrification
Nitrification is the biological transformation of ammonium to nitrate with nitrite as an intermediate in the reaction sequence. Nitrification is a chemoautotrophic process and energy for growth of nitrifying bacterial is derived by the oxidation of ammonia and carbon dioxide is used as a carbon source for synthesis of new cells (Cooper and Job, 1996). Nitrification includes two consecutive processes where ammonium-N is oxidized by autotrophic bacteria to nitrite (NO2-), after it is formed, immediately is oxidized to nitrate (NO3 -). Nitrite occurs therefore in very low concentrations while nitrate may occur in high concentrations. The first step: ammoniacal nitrogen is converted to nitrite in the presence of Nitrosomonas bacteria: 1) NH4+ + 1.5O2 NO2- + 2H+ + H2O The second step: Nitrite is converted to nitrate in the presence of Nitrobacter bacteria: 2) NO2 - + 0.5O2 NO3Ecological and Economical efficiency of Constructed Wetlands and Transferability of Decentralized Wastewater Treatment Operation to Nepal
30 Chapter 3: Wastewater treatment through Constructed Wetlands Equations 1) and 2) can be comprised as follows that describes the entire nitrification process: 3) NH4 + + 2 O2 NO3 - + 2 H+ + H2O
According to Vymazal (1998), nitrification is influenced by temperature, pH value, concentration of ammonium-N and dissolved oxygen. Especially, temperature and pH have a major effect on the rate of nitrification. The optimum temperature for nitrification ranges from 25 C to 35 C in water and from 30 C to 40 C in soils. Temperatures below 15 C affect the nitrification rate more significant compared to temperatures between 15 C and 35 C. Minimum temperatures for growth of Nitrosomonas and Nitrobacter are 5 C and 4 C, respectively (Cooper, 1996). Nitrifying bacteria are sensitive organism and susceptible to a wide range of inhibitors. Nitrification can exists on the optimum pH ranges from 7.5 to 8.6, however, can also occur at much lower pH values (Vymazal, 1998). 3.6.3.3 Denitrification
The biological reduction of nitrate (NO3-) to nitrogen gas (N2) by facultative heterotrophic bacteria is called Denitrification. Heterotrophic bacteria need a carbon source as food to live. There are several genera of heterotopic bacteria including, Achromobacter, Aerobacter, Alcaligenes, Bacillus, Brevibacterium, Flavobacterium, Lactobacillus, Micrococcus, Proteus, Pseudomonas and Spirillum are capable of dissimilatory nitrate reduction (Cooper, 1996). Denitrification occurs when oxygen levels are depleted and nitrate becomes the primary oxygen source for microorganisms. The process is performed under anoxic conditions, when the dissolved oxygen concentration is less than 0.5 mg/L, ideally less than 0.2. When denitrifying bacteria break apart nitrate (NO3-) to gain the oxygen (O2), the nitrate is reduced to nitrous oxide (N2O), and, in turn, nitrogen gas (N2). In unbalanced equation form: NO3- NO2 - NO N2O N2 Since nitrogen gas has low water solubility, it escapes into the atmosphere as gas bubbles. Free nitrogen is the major component of air, thus its release does not cause any environmental concern. Since denitrifying bacteria are facultative organisms, they can use either dissolved oxygen or nitrate as an oxygen source for metabolism and oxidation of organic matter. If dissolved oxygen and nitrate are present, bacteria
31 Chapter 3: Wastewater treatment through Constructed Wetlands will use the dissolved oxygen first. That is, the bacteria will not lower the nitrate concentration. Denitrification occurs only under anaerobic or anoxic conditions. Conditions that affect the efficiency of denitrification include nitrate concentration, anoxic conditions, and presence of organic matter, pH, temperature, alkalinity and the effects of trace metals. Cooper et al. (1996) pointed out that optimum pH values for denitrification are between 7.0 and 8; however, pH value rised due to the alkalinity production during denitrification. Denitrification is also strongly temperature dependent and proceeds at very slow rates, at temperature below 5C.
3.6.3.4
Plant uptake
Nitrogen removable mechanism also depends upon plant uptake system especially macrophytes which are used in CWs will take up nitrogen in its mineralized state and incorporate it into its biomass and tissue through their root system. However, the potential nitrogen uptake capacity by plants is limited by its productivity (growth rate) and the nutrient content in the plant tissue. The uptake capacity of emergent macrophytes, when the biomass is harvested, is roughly on the range of 1000-2500 kg N ha-1yr-1 and highly productive Water Hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) have higher uptake capacity up to nearly 6000kg N ha-1yr-1 whereas submerged macrophytes is lower range of about 700 kg N ha -1yr-1 (Brix,1994a, Vymazal,1998). Similarly, Gersberg et.al (1985) pointed out that the amount of nitrogen removed with biomass under optimum condition can be achieved 10-16% of the total removed nitrogen. Furthermore, nitrogen is only temporarily stored in the emergent plant biomass and will return back to the wetland system by decomposition process through an annual cycle of growth and die back. Regularly harvesting of the aboveground biomass can be realized in order to improve the total nitrogen removal efficiency. Although wetland plants show generally a high productivity and can incorporate considerable amounts of nitrogen into their biomass, the uptake rates are relatively insignificant compared to the total nitrogen loading charged into the constructed wetland (Brix, 1994a).
3.6.3.5
Sediment adsorption
Removal of nitrogen through matrix adsorption (fixation of nitrogen at soil particles) accounts for the third pathway nitrogen can be removed from wastewater. In a reduced state of ammonium N is stable and can be adsorbed onto active sites of the bed matrix. However, cation exchange in the bed matrix is not a long-term sink for NH4-N removal and NH4-N sorption in continuous flow will be equilibrium with NH4-N sorption solution. Only in the intermittent loading of a system will show rapid removals of NH4-N by adsorption mechanism due to depletion of NH4-N during rest periods (Cooper, 1996). This process amounts to about another 10 % of the total nitrogen removal rate and can be considered as insignificant (Wissing, 2002).
3.6.4 Phosphorus Removal Phosphorus in wastewater occurs mostly in the form of phosphates and organic phosphorus. The main mechanisms for phosphorus removal in subsurface flow systems are chemical and physical adsorption, precipitation in the soil matrix and plant uptake. The adsorption and retention of phosphorus in wetland soils depends primarily on the soil type and chemical composition, and further, surrounding conditions such as pH value, redox potential (Vymazal et al.1998). In acid soils, inorganic P is adsorbed on hydrous oxides of Fe and Al and may precipitate as insoluble Fe phosphates and Al phosphates. Precipitation as Ca-P is the dominant transformation at pH greater than 7.0 (Cooper, 1996). Soil with high amounts of clay has a large capacity to bind P than non-cohesive, coarser-textured soils (gravel beds), but the permeability is low. Hence there have been hydraulic problems in constructed wetlands. The P removal can be improved using a filter medium that has a large capacity to bind P, like gravel with high amounts of calcium or iron. Like nitrogen, phosphorus is taken up through the root system and transports it to the growing tissues, particularly at the beginning of the growing season (in temperate regions during the early spring). The uptake capacity of emergent macrophytes is lower as compared to nitrogen and phosphorus removal by plant uptake is roughly 50-100 kg P ha-1yr-1(Brix, 1994a). However, the wetland vegetation acts only as a
33 Chapter 3: Wastewater treatment through Constructed Wetlands temporary storage, thus, phosphorus removal through plants is limited to seasonal uptake during the vegetation period. Phosphorus contents for plants such as reeds ranges from 0.9 to 1.35 mg/g (dry weight) for stems, 1.0 to 1.7 for leaves, and 0.9 to 1.63 for whole shoots (Davies, 1993).Phosphorus removal by plant harvesting is also found often less than 10% of the annual load even in lightly loaded wetlands (Herskowitz, 1986) and Hurry et al. (1990) pointer out the uptake of phosphorus by plant in constructed wetland is only 7 %. 3.6.5 Pathogen Removal Bacteria and viruses are important organisms from a public point of view as well as protozoan pathogens and helminth worms are also of particular importance in tropical and subtropical countries. Pathogens are removed in constructed wetlands by the suitable combination of physical, chemical and biological process (Cooper, 1996). In the physical factor, filtration and sedimentation are major processes, which may be involved in the reduction of pathogens in wetlands. Chemical factors include oxidation, UV radiation, exposure to biocides excreted by some plants and absorption to organic matter. Biological removal mechanisms include antibiosis, predation by nematodes, protists and zooplankton, attack by lytic bacteria and viruses and natural die-off (Cooper et al. 1996). The die-off rates of all the bacteria and coliphage were greater in the water column than the sediment. The die-off rates of fecal coliforms in the water and sediment were 0.256 log 10 day-1 and 0.151 log10 day-1, respectively (Karim, 2004). With the literature survey of 60 constructed wetlands around the world, the removal efficiency of total coliforms (TC) and fecal coliforms (FC) in constructed wetlands with emergent macrophytes is high, usually 95 to >99% while removal of fecal streptococci is lower, usually 8095%. Whereas TC and FC in the outflow concentrations are usually in the range of 102 to 105 CFU/ 100 ml while for fecal streptococci (FS) the range is between 102 and 104 CFU/ 100 ml. Bacterial removal efficiency is a function of inflow bacteria number, therefore, the outflow numbers of bacteria are more important (Vymazal, 2005). The removal efficiency also depends upon the hydraulic retention time.
34 Chapter 4: Criteria for the design of subsurface flow CWs
Criteria for the design of subsurface flow CWs
Constructed wetlands are usually designed as a secondary treatment for removal of suspended solids (SS) and organic matter (BOD and COD) and as a tertiary (advanced) treatment for nutrient removal (nitrogen and phosphorus). Primary treatment occurs normally conventionally in septic tanks having three-room digesters or Imhoff tanks, but also in pond systems. They also remove pathogens, heavy metals and organic contaminants. 4.1 Basic design recommendations
4.1.1 General consideration about planning /necessary conditions The general considerations for being able to use constructed wetlands for wastewater treatment are: Retention, enhancement and interpretation of existing ecological, landscape and cultural values, such as trees and other native vegetation and sites of archeological significance should be considered. These are valuable assets that will be of interest to the local community and help to create a unique sense of place. A successful physical pre-treatment is necessary for a good performance of all constructed wetlands. Enough space should be availability because it is a low-rate system with a higher space requirement than technical systems. Construction place of CWs should be fully receiving sunlight instead of shadow. Urbanization and population developments have to be considered when calculating the expected wastewater flow rate to the constructed wetland. The use of locally indigenous species in wetland plantings ensures that plants are adapted to local environmental conditions and that the character of the wetland is in keeping with the surrounding landscape The substrate used should not contain loam, silt or other fine material, nor should it consist of material with sharp edges. Uniform distribution of the wastewater in the inlet area and surface area. A sufficient hydraulic capacity of the beds has to be proven by application of Darcys law. The surface of the beds should be flat to omit unequal distribution or surface run off so that short circuits can be avoided. Basic design of CWs has to take into account suspended solids and organic load. CWs beds have to be designed considering nitrification and denitrification using oxygen consumption, soil aeration, and availability of carbon source as additional criteria.
35 Chapter 4: Criteria for the design of subsurface flow CWs 4.1.2 Design life The exact design life of constructed wetlands cannot be calculated but only be expected to have at least 30-40 years. This is one of assumption based on different literature study. The design life will be long till CWs fulfill the objective of treatment. There are no theoretical reasons which would indicate that constructed wetlands would stop working after a certain length of time (at least for removal of organic matter, nitrogen and pathogens). The design life is determined by the design life of major components involved in constructed wetland such as influent pump, plastic pipes, plastic lining, gravel and sand. The pumps and feeding pipes can easily be replaced if necessary. The gravel and sand will never need replacement. The exact design life of the plastic lining is also unknown and the condition of the plastic lining can also not be verified in an operational constructed wetland. If a constructed wetland ever has to be abandoned, it is easy to use the space of the former constructed wetland for other purposes, or to just let the plants grow wild.
4.1.3 Design parameters There are several design parameters or approaches for subsurface flow CWs which are used at different points in the design calculations, depending on the type of wastewater and climate: Average flow rate of wastewater (m3/s) Surface area per person equivalent (in m/p.e.) Organic loading per surface area (in g BOD or gCOD/(m d)) Hydraulic load (in mm/d or m3/(m2d)) Oxygen consumption and input. Detention time (day) Hydraulic gradient (m/m or %) Base slope (m/m or %)
4.2
Design principles of subsurface flow CWs
The focus of this chapter is the general principles for horizontal flow (HF) and vertical flow (VF) constructed wetlands, which are both subsurface flow type constructed wetlands. The filter bed is based on sand and plant roots (the gravel in the bed does not have a filtering function, but just covers the drainage pipe and avoids puddles on the surface layer). Detailed design of a subsurface flow CWs are described below detail as per the literature information achieved. 4.2.1 Horizontal flow (HF) CWs In the beginning HF CWs had some problems with surface run-off and therefore often poor treatment results, but nowadays well-designed HF CWs are widely accepted as a robust and low maintenance treatment system. HF CWs are an interesting option especially in locations without energy supply and low hydraulic gradient. Kickuth has first proposed the equation, which has been widely used for the sizing of HSF system for the domestic treatment. Ah = Qd (ln Co ln Ct) / KBOD KT = K 20( ) (T-20)
R
where, KBOD
KT d n
...
(3)
. (4) (5) (6)

2
t = V.n / Qd = LW d n / Qd = Ah d n/ Qd HLR = 100 Qd / Ah
Where Ah = treatment area of the wetland (m ), Ct = outlet effluent pollutant concentration (mg/l), Co = influent pollutant concentration (mg/l), KBOD = rate constant
o -1 T
(m/d) , K20= rate constant at reference temperature 20 C (day ), K = Rate constant

-1
at temperature dependent (day ), n = porosity (percent, expressed as decimal

3
fraction), Qd = average daily flow rate through the wetland (m /day), t = hydraulic
o
residence time (day-1), T = operational temperature ( C), V = volume of wetland

3
available for water flow (m ), W = width of the wetland (m), L = length of wetlands beds, d = depth of the wetland (m), = temperature coefficient for rate constant.
R
37 Chapter 4: Criteria for the design of subsurface flow CWs Table 4.1 Shows the parameters for the design of the two types of constructed wetlands (FSW & SSFW) based on the Reed et al. (1995) equation.
Table 4.1: Temperature coefficient for rate constant in design equations

(Source: Design manual of waste stabilization pond and constructed wetlands, S. Kayombo)
Similarly, dimension of beds are derived from Darcys Law. Cross section is of beds can be calculated by the equation (Reed et al. 1998, Cooper et al. 1996) as: Ac = Qs / Kf (dH/ds) W = Ac / d ... (7) . (8)
Where Ac is the cross-sectional area of wetland bed (d*W) perpendicular to the flow direction (m2), d is the depth (m), Kf is the hydraulic conductivity of the medium (m3/m2.day), and dH/ds is the slope of the bed (m/m). The most important criteria and recommendations developed for HSF constructed wetlands are summarized as follows (Cooper et al. 1996, Vymazal et al 1998, Kadlec et al., 2009, ATV 1997): Specific surface area for secondary treatment is about 5 m 2 PE-1 and for tertiary treatment is 1 m2 PE-1 Organic loading should be less than 150 kg BOD5 ha-1 d-1 (usually recommended 80 kg BOD5 ha-1 d-1) While the top surface of the filter is kept horizontal to prevent erosion, the bed
38 Chapter 4: Criteria for the design of subsurface flow CWs bottom slope should be 0.5 - 1%, whereas in most cases 1% is used from inlet to outlet to allow for easy drainage. The depth of filter beds of HSSF CWs is normally around 0.6 0.8 m (allow an additional 15 cm freeboard for water accumulation). The hydraulic loading should be 40 mm/d for secondary treatment condition and 200 mm/d for tertiary treatment. Detention time in wetland should be more than 5 days. Hydraulic conductivity of media 10-3 3x10-3 m/s (86 -260 m/d). Media used in Bed are especially washed gravel, crushed stones (3-6 mm) Media porosity should be 30 45 %. In most of system, plastic liner or membrane such as HDPE or LDPE has been used with thickness 0.5 1.0mm. Hydraulic gradient should maintain 2- 5 %. Minimum area of each the reed bed of 20 m2.
4.2.2 Vertical flow (VF) CWs VF CWs are more suitable than HF CWs, when there is a space constraint as they have higher treatment efficiency and therefore need less space. Kadlec and Knight (1996) developed a first-order decay, plug flow model for all pollutants, including BOD, TSS, total phosphorous (TP), total nitrogen (TN), ammonia nitrogen (NH4-N), oxidized nitrogen (NO3-N, NO2-N ), and faecal coliform (FC). Their model is based on areal rate constants instead of temperature rate constant. The Kadlec and Knight model may be less sensitive to different climatic conditions: . (9) Where Q = average flow rate through the wetland (m 3/day), = treatment area of
the wetland (m2), Ce = target effluent concentration (mg/l), Ci = target influent concentration (mg/l), C* = background pollutant concentration (mg/l), k = first order aerial rate constant (m/d). K-values especially depend on different the parameter of the environmental and operation circumstances. Table 4.2 gives the first order areal rate constant, which has been deduced from measurements of practically operated plants:
Parameter BOD COD NH4-N TN TP FC
Areal rate constant (k) m/yr m/d 20 - 60 0.055 0.16 10 40 0.027 0.11 10 40 0.027 0.11 12 20 0.033 0.055 12 0.0027 0.033 70 95 0.19 0.26
Table 4.2: Values of areal rate constant (Vymazal et al. 1998)
In VSF CWs, wastewater is intermittently pumped onto the surface and then drains vertically down through the filter layer towards a drainage system at the bottom. The drainage pipes are covered with gravel. The treatment process is characterized by intermittent short-term loading intervals (4 to 6 doses per day) and long resting periods during which the wastewater percolates through the unsaturated substrate, and the surface dries out. The intermittent batch loading enhances the oxygen transfer and leads to high aerobic degradation activities. VF CWs therefore always need pumps or at least siphon pulse loading. Some of basic design criteria and recommendations for VF CWs are summarized for better efficiency achievement (Cooper et al. 1996, Vymazal et al 1998, Kadlec et al., 2009, ATV et al., 1997): The specific surface area is required 1m/p.e. for BOD removal only and 2 m/p.e. for additional nitrification is needed and bed depth is used on the range of 0.5 -0.8 m. Some VF CWs was designed in Austria, with specific area 4 -5 m/p.e and main layer bed depth was 0.6-0.8 m. The organic loading per surface area should be limited to 20 gCOD/(md) in colder climates and in warm climates with about 60-70 gCOD/(md) (corresponding to approximately 30-35 g BOD/(md), with 90% nitrification . Bottom slope of 0.5 - 1% in direction to the outlet. Nowadays mostly sand and gravel are used for media with permeability of 10-3 10-4 m/s. The depth of the sand filter beds should be at least 50 cm, with an additional 20 cm of gravel at the base (to cover the drainage pipes), 15 cm gravel on the top of the bed and 15 cm freeboard for water accumulation. The gravel on top is there to prevent free water accumulation on the surface, and could in actual fact be
40 Chapter 4: Criteria for the design of subsurface flow CWs omitted in case of constructed wetlands without free access for members of the public. The hydraulic loading for VF CWs in colder climate should not exceed 100 - 120 mm/d and in summer hydraulic rates up to 200 mm/d of pre-treated wastewater could be applied without negative influence. Minimum area of each reed bed size 10 m2.
41
Chapter 5: Substrate in Subsurface flow CWs
5 Substrate in Subsurface flow CWs Wetland substrates support the wetland vegetation, provide suitable sites for biochemical and chemical transformations, and provide sites for storage of removed pollutants. The different filter media such as soil, sand, gravel, organic materials which are used in constructed wetlands are known as substrates.
Soil Texture Fine to course gravel Fine to course sand Karst limestone Sandstone Silt loess Glacial till Unweathered marine clay Shale kf (m/s) 10-3 - 1 10-7 10-2 10-4 10-2 10-8 10-4 10-9 10-5 10-12 10-4 10-12 10-9 10-13 10-9
Table 5.1: typical kf values (Cooper et al. 1996)
The provision of a suitably permeable substrate in relation to the hydraulic and organic loading is the most critical design parameter of subsurface flow systems. Most treatment problems occur when the permeability is not adequately designed for the applied load. Some of the horizontal flow CWs which were built from 1985 to 1989 in Europe, used soil as a substrate, where it was assumed that the hydraulic conductivity would increase. Some of these suffered from surface-flow and this led to channeling and scouring of the surface which results in areas of the bed being starved of water and this in turn led to poor reed growth and poor treatment. Similar problem occurred with plants built in Germany and Denmark (Cooper, 1996).
As a result of these problems, WRc decided in 1986/87 to recommend the use of gravels in UK system at Little Stretton (Seven Trent Water) and Gravesend (Southern Water) especially washed gravel of different size like 3-6 mm, 5-10mm and 6-12 mm. (Cooper, 1996). In Germany with VF CWs with reed beds was built with soil of hydraulic conductivity of 3x 10-3 m/s and latter it was advised in the European Guidelines of 1990 (Cooper, 1990) not to assume a hydraulic conductivity greater than that of the original media. Conventional wisdom regarding intermittent sand filters suggested clean washed sand with an effective size of 0.2-0.5mm with less than 1 % by weight passing through a 0.1mm sieve (Reed et al., 1988). At oaklands
42
Chapter 5: Substrate in Subsurface flow CWs
Park in UK, VF beds are filled with different layer by graded gravel usually with a top layer of washed sharp sand as given in table 5.2. Substrate
Top layer Bottom layer
Depth
8 cm 15 cm 10 cm 15 cm
Size
Sharp sand 6 mm washed pea -gravel 12 mm round washed gravel 30 60 mm round washed gravel
Table 5.2: Graded gravel used in different layer as recommended by Burka at Oaklands Park. (Vymazal et al., 1998)
In additional, large stones were placed around the drainage pipe, which formed the under drain system. In Austria, substrate profile of VF system was divided into two major substrate as top and bottom layer. Top layer consists of protection layer of depth 20 cm filled with 8/16 mm grain size, main layer of depth 60 cm filled with 0/4 and 4/8 mm mixing in 1:1 ration and transitional layer of depth 10 cm filled with 4/8 mm grain size. In the bottom, drainage layer of depth 20 cm filled with 16/32 mm gravel (Vymazal, 1998). Similarly in the case of Phytofilt system, beds contains four layer in which top layer of depth 0.3 m filled with soil ,upper filter layer of depth 0.4 m filled with sand/gravel having conductivity (kf) value 5.10-3 5.10-2 m/s , intermediate filter layer of depth 0.7 m filled with sand /gravel with kf value 5.10-6 5.10-5 m/s and lower layer filled up to 0.4 m with kf value 5.10-6 5.10-5 m/s. Generally, sand layer needs a thickness of 40 to 80 cm, which has the actual filter bed function of the subsurface flow CWs with a hydraulic capacity (kf-value) of about 10-4 to 10-3 m/s. The drainage pipes at the base are covered with gravel and top gravel layer does not contribute to the filtering process. The recommended grain size distribution for the substrate is like d 10 > 0.3 mm or d60/d10 < 4 (Vymazal, 1998). The substrate should not contain loam, silt nor clay material because of low kf values and hence are not recommended.
A B C Fig 5.1: Example of filter material used in CWs for municipal wastewater treatment in Brazil and Peru (photo by C. Platzer, H.Hoffmann, and source: gtz, 2010). Ecological and Economical efficiency of Constructed Wetlands and Transferability of Decentralized Wastewater Treatment Operation to Nepal
43 Chapter 6: Macrophytes used in Constructed Wetlands 6 Macrophytes used in the Constructed wetlands Macrophytic plants provide much of the visible structured of wetland treatment system. These macrophytes are very important for physical, chemical and microbial process in the CWs. A basic understanding of the growth requirement and characteristics of these wetland plants is essential for successful treatment wetlands design and operation. Macrophytes have several properties in relation to the treatment process and most important effects of the macrophytes are the physical effects that plant tissues prevent the formation of erosion channel, prevent clogging of bed medium, provide the surface area for attached microorganisms (Brix, 1994a). Similarly plant uptake of nutrients is only of quantitative importance in low loaded system which is described detail in chapter 3 (section 3.6) and more focus is given in this chapter about the transfer of oxygen to the rhizosphere by leakage from root and type of macrophytes used in CWs. Moreover, macrophytes have additional site specific values such as providing a suitable habit for wildlife and giving a system an aesthetically appearance.
6.1
Type of macrophytes used in CWs
A wide range of macrophytic plants occur naturally in wetlands environment and have been recognized to have the ability to treat wastewater. The United State Fish and Wildlife Service has found more than 6700 plant species on their list of obligate and facultative wetland plant species in the United States (Kadlec, 2009). Four groups of aquatic macrophytes can be used distinguished on a basis of morphology and physiology (Wetzel, 2001). Emergent macrophytes: These are the dominating life form in wetlands and marsches and grow on water-saturated or submersed soils within a water table ranges from 50 cm below the soil surface to water depth approximately 150 cm or more. They produce aerial stems, leaves, roots and rhizome-system. These emergent macrophytes are like Phragmites australis (Common Reed),
Schoenoplectus (Scirpus) lacustris, Typha latifolia (Cattails),
44 Chapter 6: Macrophytes used in Constructed Wetlands
Fig 6.1: Emergent macrophytes (a) Phragmites australis (b) Schoenoplectus lacustris (c) Typha latifolia (photo Wikipedia)
Floating - leaved macrophytes: They are rooted in submerged sediments in water depth of approximately 0.5 to 3 m and possess either floating or slightly aerial leaves like Nyymphaea odorata, Nuphar luteum(waterlilies), Potamogeton natans (pond weed). Freely floating macrophytes: They are not rooted to the substratum and they are freely floating on in the water surface. These kinds of species are used usually to non turbulent, protected areas (e.g. Lemna, Spirodella polyrhiza (Duckweed), Eichhornia crassipes (water Hyacinth). Submerged macrophytes: These species have their photosynthetic tissue entirely submerged inside the water surface. Vascular angiosperms (e.g. Myriophyllum spicatum, Ceratophyllum demersum) occur only to about 10 m of water depth and nonvascular macroalgae occur to the lower limit of the photic zone (up to 200m, e.g., Rhodophyceae). However, the selection of plant species are required several criteria that are suitable for use in constructed wetlands under different conditions such as availability in climate zone, pollutant removal capacity and tolerance ranges, plant productivity and biomass utilizations. The plants should be selected for constructed wetlands, which are adapted to the local climate, soil conditions, but also the surrounding plant and animal communities. A lot of plants that occur in natural wetlands have the potential for purification of waters as well as higher tolerance capacity. Because, constructed
45 Chapter 6: Macrophytes used in Constructed Wetlands wetlands receive a permanent wastewater inflow including high organic and nutrient concentrations. All plants cannot tolerate these conditions and will not survive. Most common macrophytes are popular and recommended for use in constructed wetlands like Phragmites australis (common reed), Juncus effusus (soft rush) and conglomeratus, Scirpus lacustris (common bulrush), Scirpus maritimus (alkali bulrush), Typha angustifolia (narrow-leaved cattail), Typha domingensis (southern cattail), Typha latifolia (broad-leaved cattail), Iris pseudacorus (yellow flag), Acorus calamus (Sweet-flag) (Cooper et al., 1996, Vymazal et al., 1998). The emergent plants most used in constructed wetlands which are survival, tolerance capacity are given in table 6.1 Emergent species Typha Phragmites Juncus Schoenoplectus Carex Max. Salinity tolerance mg/l 30,000 45,000 20,000 20,000 Optimum pH 4.0 10.0 2.0 8.0 5.0 7.5 4.0 9.0 5.0 7.5
Temperature Desirable 10 - 30 12 33 16 26 16 27 14 32 Survival* 12 24 10 30 -
Table 6.1: Main aquatic macrophytes used in constructed wetlands (Reed et al., 1988)
(*- Temperature range for seed germination: roots and rhizomes can survive in frozen soils.)
The hidden objective of macrophytes used in constructed wetlands can be harvested biomass and can be utilized for energy production, agricultural purposes, animal or cattle feed, livestock forage, thatching material, diverse handicrafts. Phragmites australis is one of the most productive, widespread and variable wetland species in the world. Due to its climate tolerance and rapid growth, it is the predominant species used in the constructed wetlands not only in Europe but also in tropical and subtropical region (Cooper, 1996). Table 6.2 gives the summary of the typical
characteristics of the main aquatic macrophytes used in CWs.
46 Chapter 6: Macrophytes used in Constructed Wetlands
Emergent species
Growth rate (cover 1st year) Rapid dense Very rapid dense Moderate to rapid dense Moderate to slow dense
Typical spacing m
Typical root penetration in gravel m 0.3 0.4
Annual yield (mt /ha) Dry weight 30
Habitat value
Typha
0.6
Phragmites
0.6
>0.6
40
Juncus
0.3 0.6
0.6 0.9
20
Carex
0.15
<5
Good nesting cover and food source for wetlands birds Low food values but some values as nesting cover Good food source for wetland birds and nesting for fish when flooded. Food source for numerous birds. Good for habit enhancement.
Table 6.2: Characteristics of main aquatic macrophytes (applied from Cooper et al., 1996)
6.2
Functions of macrophytes in constructed wetlands
The macrophytes growing in constructed wetlands can contribute directly by up taking nutrient in the treatment processes and indirectly as they support physical, chemical and microbial processes. The most important effects are the physical effect, where the presence of vegetation reduces the current velocity, reduces the risk of erosion, prevent the clogging, increase the water and plant surface area. Similarly, they provide huge surface area for attached microorganisms and suitable habitat for wildlife and giving aesthetic appearance for the single house, hotels as well as floating island. It is well documented that aquatic macrophytes release oxygen from roots into the rhizosphere. This chapter focuses only about the oxygen release by macrophytes. Oxygen release There are many studies which show the ability of some aquatic macrophytes to pass a supply of oxygen into the rhizosphere through a special helophyte tissue in the plant stems and roots from the air. The plants, with their roots and rhizomes, provide the suitable environment for microorganisms growth. Oxygen release rates from
47 Chapter 6: Macrophytes used in Constructed Wetlands roots depend on the internal oxygen concentration, the oxygen demand of the surrounding medium and permeability of the root wall (Vymazal, 1998). The ability of macrophytes to transport oxygen and thereby to support of aerobic microorganism in the rhizosphere is one of the key mechanisms for efficient BOD and nitrogen removal. The flux of oxygen transferred into the rooting system has been tentatively quoted to be 4-5 gO2/m2d and later prediction by Armstrong et al., (1990) based on oxygen release from single adventitious roots plus laterals in a streaming oxygen free system, measured polar graphically, yielded 5-12 g O2/m2d; this work has based on 150 shoots per m2, 10 roots per shoot and a rhizome oxygen concentration of 17 %. Total flux of gaseous oxygen into the bed substrate of 5.9 g O2/m2d of which 2.08 gO2/m2d was through the hollow culms of standing dead culms of Phragmites australis has been measured Roots and rhizomes used 2.06 g O 2/m2d for the respiration purpose and measured to almost perfectly balance the oxygen influx through the culms leaving only 0.02 g O2/m2d to be released to the surrounding matrix. (Brix and Schierup et al., 1990).
Fig 6.2: Oxygen mass balance for Phragmites australis in the constructed reed beds at Kal, April 1988 (g O2/m2d) (Photo taken: Brix and Schierup, Cooper, Ingenieurbro Blumberg) Ecological and Economical efficiency of Constructed Wetlands and Transferability of Decentralized Wastewater Treatment Operation to Nepal
48 Chapter 6: Macrophytes used in Constructed Wetlands Individual experiments has been conducted in the laboratory to detect the oxygen release from roots and rhizomes of Phragmites australis, Typha latifolia, Glyceria maxima and Iris pseudacorus by using oxygen microelectrodes ( Fruergaard ,1987). With the help of microelectrode, oxygen concentration within the internal gas-space of roots and rhizomes was measured by microelectrode penetrating into the root and rhizome wall. Generally, no release of oxygen from the surface of rhizomes and old roots could be detected even though the internal oxygen concentration was relatively high as shown in table 6.3. Only young white roots without laterals released oxygen to the surrounding medium and it was found that the oxygen release rates were highest in the sub apical region of the roots and decreased with distance from the root apex (Brix and Schierup, 1990). The root apex itself actually consumed oxygen from the surrounding medium. However form the experiments of four species, Phragmites showed the highest oxygen release rate and Typha the lowest. At lower experiment temperatures the release rates would probably have been higher because of lower tissue respiration.
Table 6.3: Oxygen release from individual roots of Phragmites, Typha latifolia, Glyceria maxima and Iris pseudacorus measured by an oxygen microelectrode (from Fruergaard, 1987)
Species Root apex 2mm from apex 5mm from apex 9 mm from apex 60 mm from apex Rhizome 10 mm from apex 35 mm from apex 65 mm from apex Root apex 8 mm from apex 40 mm from apex Root apex 15 mm from apex 70 mm from apex 150 mm from apex
Phragmites australis
O2 release (10 - 8 g cm-2min-1) <0 6.3 4.7 4.2 < 0 0 >0 0.55 0 <0 1.3 2.3 <0 2.0 >0 0.62
Internal O2-con (vol %) Not analysed Not analysed Not analysed Not analysed Not analysed 12.3 10.8 Not analysed Not analysed Not analysed Not analysed 4.7 Not analysed Not analysed 5.8 8.5
Typha latifolia
Glyceria maxima
Iris pseudacorus
49 Chapter 7: Scenario of Wastewater Treatment in Nepal 7 7.1 Scenario of Wastewater treatment in Nepal Country background
Nepal is a small and beautiful landlocked country lies between two big neighbouring countries like China on the north side and India on the south, east and west. It is also known as Himalayan country with total area of 147,181 sq. km (56,827 sq mi) and divided as per geographically into the three main regions like mountains, hills and terai regions. Mountains cover 20%, hills fall 63% and terai covers 17% of total area respectively. It is located between the latitudes 2742' N and longitudes 85 19' E (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nepal). The altitude varies from some 60 m above sea level in the terai to 8,848 m the Mt. Everest, which is the highest peak of the world. Nepal has a population of 29.9 million with an average annual population growth rate of 1.7 % and life expectancy for males and females is 59 years and 58 years respectively.Nepal is one of the least developed country with Gross Domestic Production (GDP) per capita is $ 438 and ranked as low human development country, at 138 out of 169, with a Human Development Index (HDI) is 0.428 (UNDP, HDR 2010). The population living below the national poverty line has declined from 42% (1990-1995) to 31% (2003-2004) (www.who.int). As per the Department of Water Supply and Sewerage (DWSS) under the Government of Nepal indicates the figure in the period of mid July 2003 to mid July 2007 that 80.4 % of the population have access to drinking water supply and 46 % in basic sanitation.
China
Kathmandu valley
India
Fig 7.1: Map of Nepal showing Mountains, Mid hill and Terai regions (http://www.worldmapfinder.com/De/Asia/Nepal) Ecological and Economical efficiency of Constructed Wetlands and Transferability of Decentralized Wastewater Treatment Operation to Nepal
50 Chapter 7: Scenario of Wastewater Treatment in Nepal In Nepal, the water resources are regarded having the potential to be the catalyst for all round development and economic growth of the country. Nepal has a monsoon type climate. The total rainfall varies between 1,000 to 4,000 mm with an annual average of 1,814 mm. More than 75% rainfall occurs during four months of the monsoon period (June - September). Summer temperatures rises more than 40 C in Terai and 20C in hilly region. Similarly in winter, average maximum and minimum temperatures in the Terai varies from a mild 23C to a brisk 7 C while the central valleys experience a chilly 12C maximum temperature and a minimum temperature often falling below freezing point. (www.himalayanmart.com)
7.2
Wastewater treatment in Nepal
Wastewater without treatment from household and industry is discharged directly into receiving the river, which creates serious water pollution problem and so exerts immense pressure on the urban and semi urban environment. As a result, urban sanitation has become a major challenge for municipalities and small towns in Nepal. Wastewater treatment plants are almost non-existent in the country except for a few in the Kathmandu Valley and outside of valley but even these are not functioning well. The total wastewater produced in the country is estimated to be 370 million litres per day (MLD) but installed capacity of wastewater treatment plants is only 37 MLD fulfilling only 10% of total demand and functioning wastewater treatment plants account for 17.5 MLD, i.e. 5% of total demand (Nyachhyon, 2006). It is estimated that only about 12 % of urban households are connected to the sewer system (www.wateraid.org) Kathmandu Valley comprises of three districts, Kathmandu, Lalitpur, and Bhaktapur have total of 150 local administrative units (Village Development Committees and Municipalities). The Valley encloses the entire area of Bhaktapur district, 85% of Kathmandu district and 50% of Lalitpur district covering 665 square kilometers and more than 1.5 million people, (220,000 households) are living. Kathmandu Valley is the most important urban concentration in Nepal (Pant and Dongol, 2009) Although there are some waste water treatment systems in Kathmandu Valley (KV), these are not functional and as a result waste water from the drains and sewers are discharged directly into the Bagmati, Bishnumati, Dhobi Khola and other small rivers
51 Chapter 7: Scenario of Wastewater Treatment in Nepal of KV without treatment. The city is becoming an example of a terribly polluted city with open sewers and unhygienic disposal of waste leading to the pollution of all the existing rivers in Kathmandu. (Pant and Dongol, 2009) 7.2.1 Wastewater treatment in Kathmandu Valley Arata et al., (2003) pointed that only 38 % of the population is connected with the sewer system and collected 47 MLD of total domestic wastewater (approximately 124 MLD) in Kathmandu valley. According to ADB (2000), there are 1340 industries in and around the Kathmandu Valley, which generate 0.8 MLD of wastewater. Similarly, 56.7 MLD of wastewater is discharged into the different river systems in the valley, from which 82% of total volume is of domestic origin. Within the periods of 1975 -1996, there were five municipal wastewater treatments plant (WWTP) namely Hanumanghat, Sallaghari, Guheshwori, Dhobighat and Kodku constructed in the Kathmandu valley for the treatment of wastewater with total design capacity 34.4 MLD.
Fig 7.2: Map of Wastewater Treatment Plants in Kathmandu Valley (Hillary Green, 2003)
Hanumanghat WTP was constructed in 1975 for 0.5 MLD wastewater treatments coming from some parts of Bhaktapur city. With the reference of ADB (2000) and BASP (2002), this plant was under the partial function after the construction but it was found this plant full of sludge and not working at all, and the land being used as
52 Chapter 7: Scenario of Wastewater Treatment in Nepal a crop field (Poh et al., 2003). Sallaghari WTP was designed and constructed in 1983 to treat about 1.0 MLD form north and south parts of Bhaktapur with the support of the German Government. The system was originally designed as an aerated lagoon but due to operators cost high cause of electricity cost, aeration system was closed. Since then, the plant has been partially operating as a non-aerated lagoon system (Asian Development Bank, 2000). Dhobighat WTP was designed in 1982 for an average flow of 15.4 MLD wastewater collected from the northeast part of Kathmandu; however it is not functioning due to the breakdown of the pump station and truncated sewer line along several sectors in the city. Lack of proper maintenance, stabilization ponds are now serving as a
grazing for cattle and football field for the local people (Arata, 2003). Kodku WTP was designed and constructed as stabilization pond in 1982 to treat wastewater coming from Patan (Lalitpur). This plant consisted of primary anaerobic ponds followed by secondary facultative ponds with several surface mixers and a system of mixed, shallow tertiary aerobic ponds (Shrestha, 1999). According to the ADB (2000), the Kodku system is partially operating, as the chlorinator had never worked since its installation. According to Tetsuji Arata , MIT Nepal Project team member, , observed in January 2003 that effluent quality was not satisfactory and even smelled like that of sewer water when discharged into the Bagmati River (Green, Poh and Richards, 2003).
Treatment plant Hanumanghat Year of establishment 1975 Capacity (mld) 0.5 Type of plant Aerated lagoon Aerated lagoon Area coverage Part of Bhaktapur city North and south part of Bhaktapur city Northeast ern part of Kathmandu (upper Bagmati zone) Wastewater from the northeast part of kathmandu Part of Patan city Existing situation Operating inefficient as non-aerated lagoon Operating inefficient as non-aerated lagoon and receives wastewater only from southern part of the city
Sallaghari
1983
1.0
Guhyeswari
1996
16.4
Oxidation ditch
In operation
Dhobighat
1982
15.4
Stabilization pond Stabilization pond
Out of oder
Kodku
1982
1.1
Operating inefficiently
Table 7.1: Condition of wastewater treatment plants in Kathmandu valley

(Source: http://www.undp.org.np/publication/html/mdg_NAN/Chapter_8.pdf)
53 Chapter 7: Scenario of Wastewater Treatment in Nepal
Fig 7.3: Guheshwori Wastewater Treatment Plant. (Photo from Hillary Green, 2003)
Guheshwori WTP was designed and constructed on the bank of Bagmati River in 1996 for the treatment capacity of 16.4 MLD in the upper Bagmati zone especially treating the wastewater coming from the north part of Kathmandu valley. The main objective of this project is to keep Bagmati River clean by preventing the direct discharge of untreated liquid wastes into the river. It is the only fully operating treatment plant in the Kathmandu Valley than others mentioned four plants above. The treatment plant adopts the most advanced technology of wastewater treatment and the process is extended aeration consisting of a deep oxidation ditch of carrousel type (WHO, 2008). The plant at Guheshwori has two carrousel type oxidation ditches each with three aerators and 60 HP are required to drive the aerators Operation and maintenance cost of plant at Guheshwori is estimated 12.5 million NRs/year (US $ 167,000 /year) (Richards, 2003). Although this plant is partially functioning and the cost of operation is very high so that the sustainability is questionable (Water aid Nepal). It is the possibility of treatment plant may be halt in the near future, due to the lack of financial support from the Nepal Government. It is a hotly debated question among wastewater professionals whether conventional activated sludge wastewater treatment plants are appropriate treatment technologies suitable for developing countries like Nepal (Harleman, 2001). These treatment plants are based on simple lagoon systems except Guheshwori, where wastewater is treated through natural processes such as sedimentation and biological degradation in a series of large lagoons. Although these plants are technically very simple with no mechanized parts but they are still not functioning well because of poor operation and maintenance and mismanagement
54 Chapter 7: Scenario of Wastewater Treatment in Nepal
7.3
Constructed Wetlands as an alternative technology in Nepal
Most of the centrally collected wastewater treatment plants in Nepal are not functioning due to high cost of operation and maintenance and lack off trained human resources. To mitigate the financial problem and minimize of water pollution, low-cost natural treatment options like Constructed Wetlands (CWs) and the related Reed Bed Treatment System (RBT) have been introduced in Nepal since 1997. Environment and Public Health Organization (ENPHO), a national non-governmental organization, has introduced constructed wetland (CW) as a low cost, simple, effective and an appropriate alternative technology for wastewater treatment in Nepal. ENPHO designed and constructed first wetland system with a two staged subsurface flow for Dhulikhel Hospital in 1997 to treat domestic wastewater (Shrestha, 1999). Due to the success of the CW system in Dhulikhel Hospital, since then, the interest of people has been growing in this technology and more than a dozen constructed wetlands have been established for various applications such as the treatment of hospital wastewater, grey water, septage, landfill leachate, institutional, universities and municipal wastewater. Since 1997 to 2004, there are 12 sub-surface flow constructed wetland systems in operation for treatment of grey water, wastewater and fecal sludge as shown in Table 7.2
Table 7.2: List of Constructed Wetlands in Nepal (Source: R. R. Shrestha and P. Shrestha) Ecological and Economical efficiency of Constructed Wetlands and Transferability of Decentralized Wastewater Treatment Operation to Nepal
55 Chapter 7: Scenario of Wastewater Treatment in Nepal Recently, ENPHO has established the first community-based wastewater treatment system in Madhyapur Thimi Municipality of Nepal using this technology with support from ADB, UNHABITAT, Water Aid Nepal, and Thimi Municipality. Similarly, the Urban Environment Improvement Project (UEIP) which is being implemented in eight urban centres with the assistance of ADB is now in the process of constructing 18 more plants in these towns (Water Aid Nepal, www.wateraid.org)
TSS Removal Rate (%) 97 98 97 98 97 87 87 99 BOD5 Removal Rate (%) 97 98 99 97 98 97 95 99 COD Removal Rate (%) 94 94 97 96 94 93 88 98 NH4 Removal Rate (%) 68 91 97 85 96 99 40 96
Location Dhulikhel Hospital Single house grey water Malpi School Sunga Commnunity SKM Hospital Kathmandu University ENPHO Kapan Monastry
Table 7.3: Efficiency of CWs (UN-HABITAT, 2008 and ENPHO, 2004)
In general, the performance of the CWs has been excellent as shown in table 7.3. After regular monitoring of the systems and analysis of wastewater sample shows high pollutant removal efficiency achieving more than 90% removal of TSS, BOD and COD. Plant species, which are locally available called Phragmites Karka, is used in this process. In Dhulikhel hospital, the designed system does not need any electric energy as the wastewater is fed hydro-mechanically into the beds. The total cost of the system including the sewer lines was US$ 27,000 in 1997, while the cost of the constructed wetland alone was at US$ 16,400 (Poh, 2003). For the single house, the system required an investment of only about Rs. 36,000 (US$ 520) and the family is able to save about 400 liters of water per day (Water Aid Nepal). In SKM hospital , the system also does not need any electric energy as the wastewater is feed hydromechanically into the beds and total costs of the system including the sewer lines were US$ 27000 in 2000 (Poh, 2003). In Sunga community, the total cost of the
56 Chapter 7: Scenario of Wastewater Treatment in Nepal treatment plant was Rs. 2.5 million in which total construction cost of the wetland amounted to NRs. 1,800,000 (US$ 26,000) at NRs. 2,900 (US$ 40) per m 2 of the wetland and average O&M cost of the wetland is about NRs. 20,000 (US$ 290) per year. So, Constructed wetlands (CWs) are a biological wastewater treatment technology designed to mimic processes found in natural wetland ecosystems and required less land, less expensive for construction, operation & maintenance as compare to conventional expensive technology. Hence, they can be considered as effective, economic and environmentally friendly and sustainable systems for wastewater treatment. 7.4 Fact finding of CWs in Dhulikhel Hospital and Sunga Community
Dhulikhel Hospital is a community-based hospital located in Dhulikhel Municipality and approximately 30 kilometer far from Kathmandu. Hospital location is 1,650 meters above sea level and has a sub-tropical climate with an annual rainfall of about 1,456 mm (HMG, 1996).Constructed wetlands is designed and constructed by ENPHO at Dhulikhel Hospital in 1997 as a first plant in Nepal under the technical support from a Nepali PhD scholar from University of Natural Resource and Applied Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria (Shrestha, 1999). The treatment system was originally designed to treat 10 m3 of wastewater per day, but it is currently treating about 40 m3 per day as the capacity of the hospital has increased significantly since 2000. The constructed wetland in Dhulikhel Hospital is a two-staged subsurface flow system, which consists of a horizontal flow bed surface area of 140 m2, followed by vertical flow bed of area of 120 m 2. Three chambered sedimentation tank of 16 m3 capacity has been constructed for pre-treatment.
Horizontal Flow Bed
Vertical Flow Bed
Fig 7.4: Site Plan of the Constructed Wetland System at Dhulikhel Hospital (UN-HABITAT, 2008). (Photo by Dr. Roshan Raj Shrestha) Ecological and Economical efficiency of Constructed Wetlands and Transferability of Decentralized Wastewater Treatment Operation to Nepal
57 Chapter 7: Scenario of Wastewater Treatment in Nepal The depth of the horizontal bed is found varies from 0.65 to 0.7 meters and filled with 1-4 mm crushed gravel with conductivity (Kf) of 0.03 m/s having pore volume of 39%. The inlet and outlet zone was filled with 10-20 mm gravel and inlet pipe of 100 mm diameter PVC pipe with 20 mm diameter hole at a distance of 2 m connected with a feeding tank (0.9 m3 per feed). The outlet pipe of pipe 100 mm dia. perforated pipe with 6 mm diameter perforations. Similarly, the depth of the vertical bed is 1.05 m (0.75m sand, 0.10 m with 5-8 mm gravel, 0.15m with 10-20 mm gravel and 0.05 m with sand) and filled with clean sand as main layer with conductivity (Kf) of 0.001 m/s and a pore volume of 30%. The main inlet pipe of 100 mm diameter connected with 6 branches of 50 mm diameter pipe with 8 mm and 6 mm holes at a distance of 1 m. Both of the beds were planted with Phragmites Karka, a local variety of reeds that was easily available. The system does not need any electric energy as the wastewater is fed hydro-mechanically into the beds (UN-HABITAT, 2008). The total cost of the system including the sewer lines was US$ 27,000 in 1997, while the cost of the constructed wetland alone was at US$ 16,400. Initial tests done in 1997 showed that the plant was able to remove 98% of total suspended solids (TSS), 98% of BOD5, 96% of COD and 99.9% of total coli forms. It also removed 80% of the ammonia nitrogen and 54% of phosphate. Follow-up monitoring in 2003 showed that the plant was still removing 96% of BOD5 and 93% of TSS and COD (Water Aid Nepal Bulletin).
Month No of reading Minimum Maximum Average Median Std. Deviation Elimination (%) Q m3/day 13 7 40 20 11 11 TSS mg/l IN OUT 12 26 230 83 41 58 97 12 0.3 6.7 2.3 1.8 1.9 NH4 mg/l IN OUT 11 17 52 33 19 12 95 11 0.04 5.4 1.6 0.04 2.2 PO4-P mg/l IN OUT 12 2.2 26 8 2 7 47 12 0.6 18 4 0.7 5.8 BOD5 mg/l IN OUT 13 31 210 110 41 63 97 13 0 10 3 4 3 COD mg/l IN OUT 13 63 1048 325 79 273 94 13 4 40 20 18 14 E. Coli. Col /ml IN OUT 11 39000 8E+08 1E+08 1E+05 2E+08 99.9 11 3 987 148 38 307
Table 7.4: Summary statistics of inlet and Outlet concentration and mean efficiency Dhulikhel Hospital Constructed Wetland System (1997 to 2000) (Source: Poh, 2003)
The Hospital as well as the local people is very satisfied with the performance of the treatment system and the system has become a showpiece for the Hospital. Many
58 Chapter 7: Scenario of Wastewater Treatment in Nepal researchers, students, journalists and other people regularly visit the Hospital to see the constructed wetland in action and learn from it. The Hospital is now in the process of expanding the system. Sunga community Madhyapur Thimi municipality, one of Nepals oldest settlements living Newar community, is a small municipality located in Kathmandu Valley. It has a population of 47,751 in 2001 and covers a total area of 11.47 sq. km with 20% residential area, 70% agricultural land and around 10% vacant land. As the town was designated as a municipality only in 1996, major infrastructure developments like the sewerage system, water supply and road network are all still in the planning phase. Due to lack of funds, still wastewater treatment through oxidation ponds was not completed; however a part of the municipality was connected to sewers in the 1990s. From the social-economic analysis more than 50% of the populations are still lacking proper sanitation facilities. Sanitation improvement is one of the most urgent issues in the municipality that should to be addressed, so the local people of Madhyapur Thimi and the municipality showed an interest in managing the wastewater through innovative technology.
Fig 7.5: Solid Waste dumping site before and after the construction of CWs at Sunga wastewater treatment plant, Thimi (Photo by: UN-HABITAT and Water Aid/ Marco Betti)
The people of Sunga village are interested to implement the innovative urban wastewater treatment technology to improve sanitation, improve water quality of rivers, and provide alternate water uses other than for drinking purposes and to link with livelihood opportunities for poor communities. At the request of community
59 Chapter 7: Scenario of Wastewater Treatment in Nepal people and the Municipality, in 2005, ENPHO, with support from ADB, UN-HABITAT and Water Aid Nepal, initiated the construction of a community-based wastewater treatment plant. Sunga constructed wetlands are also known as the first communitybased wastewater treatment plant in Nepal. In addition to the funding agencies, Madhyapur Thimi municipality provided the required land for construction along with the financial assistance for operation and maintenance of the wastewater treatment plant. Under this initiative, ENPHO joined hands with the local people of Sunga and built CWs on steep terrain, which was previously a waste dumping site near to a school at Sunga. This treatment plants has come in operation since October, 2005. Now the site has a beautiful garden and a model treatment plant that provides a learning ground for students as well as professionals. The constructed wetland at Sunga consists of a coarse screen and a grit chamber for preliminary treatment, an anaerobic baffle reactor (ABR) with capacity of 42 m 3 for primary treatment, Horizontal Flow (HF) followed by Vertical Flow (VF) reed beds for secondary treatment and two sludge drying beds for treating sludge of area 70 m 2. The total area of the constructed wetland is 375 m 2 in which HF and VF beds covers 150 m2 by each (UN-HABITAT, 2008). The treatment plant has a capacity to treat wastewater from 200 households, but it is urgently treating wastewater from 80 households. The plant receives an average daily flow of 10 m 3 of very high -strength wastewater (average BOD5 of raw wastewater is 900 mg/l). Monitoring of the performance of the system over its first year of operation shows that it removes organic pollutants highly efficiently (up to 98% TSS, 97% BOD5 and 96% COD). It was also found that the ABR was very effective in removing organic pollutants and could remove up to 74% TSS, 50% BOD5 and 18% COD (UNHABITAT, 2008). The effluent values show that there is a significant reduction of BOD5, COD and TSS as compared to the raw wastewater and these values are below the legal limits (50mg/l TSS , 50 mg/l BOD5 , 250 mg/l COD ) as specified by the Government of Nepal for the combined wastewater treatment. The total cost of the treatment plant was Rs. 2.5 million in which the total construction cost of the wetland amounted to NRs. 1,800,000 (US$ 26,000) at NRs. 2,900 (US$ 40) per m2 of the wetland. The average O&M cost of the wetland is about NRs. 20,000 (US$ 290) per year. As per the tripartite agreement made between ENPHO,
60 Chapter 7: Scenario of Wastewater Treatment in Nepal the management committee of Sunga WWTP and Madhyapur Thimi municipality, the municipality has committed Rs 50,000 annually for operation and maintenance including remuneration (NRs. 3000/month) and equipment for the caretaker. The average annual O & M cost of the wetland at present is about NRs. 20,000 (US$ 290) per year, which is less than the amount allocated by the municipality. It has been agreed that the surplus amount will be transferred to the operation and maintenance reserve fund for future maintenance of the plant. Table 7.5: Concentration of pollutants at Sunga (August,2006) Parameter Units TSS mg/l BOD5 mg/l COD mg/l Ammonia mg/l Nitrate mg/l Total Phosphorus mg/l Fecal Coliform CFU/ ml (Source: UN-HABITAT, 2008) RAW 796 950 1438 145.5 4.1 26.4 1.3E+5 ABR 204 450 1188 408.9 36.8 44.3 1.3 E+6 HFCW 28 165 213 214.1 32.6 20.4 1.1E+6 VFCW 16 30 50 21 56.6 24.3 8.1E+3
By visually observing CWs operation and treatment efficiency, other surrounding communities of Sunga village are also interested to implement such kind of treatment plant. During the handover ceremony on 1st September 2006, many other local communities requested ENPHO to construct additional similar treatment plants in other parts of the Municipality. These opinions and demands from the local community clearly indicate that CWs has been well accepted.
The Sunga constructed wetland is a clear demonstration of the effectiveness of the community based wastewater management project and its contribution. Due to easy operation and maintenance, this project has many advantages such as treated effluent from wastewater can be used as multiple purposes like for irrigation, gardening, toilet flushing, and washing vehicle. In addition, the project has also become successful in enhancing the river quality and making the treatment plant healthier and aesthetically attractive with an enhanced environment thus ensuring benefits to the community dwellers. This has inspired people to adopt this type of technology that can be managed by the community itself for the solution of currently mismanaged wastewater in the city.
61 Chapter 8: Case Study of Project Area 8 8.1 Case study of Project Area Study area of Gadenstedt
8.1.1 Location Gadenstedt is a small village lies in the Lahstedt municipality of Peine district situated in the German Federal State Lower Saxony, south-east of Hanover. The population of Gadenstedt is annually varying and according to present data total Gadenstedt population has 2434 (see fig 8.2). The highest point lies in Degree Mountain which is 105.2 m above from sea level and the lowest point 70.2 m above sea level lies in is Fuhse river south of the lukewarm Thaler mill in Gadenstedt.
Fig 8.1: Map of Gadenstedt, Lahstedt

(source:http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datei:Landkreise_Niedersachsen.svg and http://www.maplandia.com/germany/niedersachsen/braunschweig/peine/lahstedt/)
The small river which is called Fuse is flowing near to this small village. The accessibility of Gadenstedt by bus is 25 minutes from Peine. The village Gadenstedt is the old communities that can be seen a strong traditional cultural.
62 Chapter 8: Case Study of Project Area
Fig 8.2: Population graph of Gadenstedt (source: www.lahstedt.de)
8.1.2 Geography and topography
The project area situated in the Gadenstedt of Lahstedt municipality. The surrounding land of Gadenstedt is flat and used for agricultural purpose. The project area as per the geographical location lies in 521448 north latitude and 10136 east longitude. According to the topographic map (1:25000) is the terrain height to 85 meters above sea level. 8.1.3 Climate and hydrology The annual average temperature and rainfall data are recorded in the metrological station located in Hildesheim. As per these data, the study area has an annual average temperature of 9.2C and annual rainfall 708 mm. However, it was found maximum temperature of 34C in July and minimum -4C in January as per the recorded data of 2010 at the study area. 8.1.4 Description of the project Constructed Wetlands has been widely recognized as a simple, effective, reliable and economical technology compared to several other conventional systems especially decentralized system of wastewater treatment for rural and semi urban area.
63 Chapter 8: Case Study of Project Area Considering this advantage, the municipality of Lahstedt focused to introduce such kind of technology. The municipal area consists of 43 km 2 with 5 villages and a total of 10.100 populations living in the five villages like Gadenstedt, Adenstedt, Mndstedt, Oberg, and Gro Lafferde. It was decided to use such kind of treatment processes however requiring extensive land for constructed wetlands and open lagoons. This resource is cheaply available in the rural area. The Federal Government of Germany developed the standard guidelines mentioning the rule and regulation to treat wastewater according to the population. The treatment of wastewater is a duty prescribed by the law of government authorities. The project Ecotechnological treatment of waste water and sewage sludge in Lahstedt was registered and officially sponsored project at the world exhibition EXPO 2000 in Hanover. The constructed wetland as polishing biotopes in Gadenstedt was constructed in 1998 for the waste water treatment covering the area of 1.1 hectare. After achieving the good results, the Municipality of Lahstedt has
decided to expand and improvement in the sewage plants in the locality of Oberg, Mnstedt, Adenstedt, and Gro-Lafferde.
Fig 8.3: Combined waste water biotope in Oberg
In the 2001 combined wastewater biotopes was constructed in Oberg and Mnstedt covering an area of 0.57 ha and 1.4 hectares respectively. Similarly sewage sludge processing plant covering an area of 0.6 ha was constructed in Gro-Lafferde in 2002. This is one of the innovative ideas for the alternative system on natural method is gaining popularity not only in the state of Lower Saxony but also in Europe. This is
64 Chapter 8: Case Study of Project Area one of model which show decentralized wastewater treatment under the local level initiative for the environment protection. However the main focus is given to waste water treatment through the CWs of Gadenstedt. The waste water is being treated in Gadenstedt through the combination of conventional and natural system. The treatment plant is located around 500 m far in the west side of village. Gadenstedt has an old trickling filter which was constructed in 1959 and treating the waste water.
Gadenstedt Village
Constructed Wetlands and Lagoon area
Screening, Grit chamber, Trickling filter and Sludge drying bed
Fig 8.4: Isometric view of Gadenstedt and project site (from Google)
An old trickling filter system is also functioning properly but community people are not interested to replace by new activated sludge systems due to high operation cost. They are planning to be continuing use of old sewage treatment plant to eliminate the pollutants from wastewater and will close in near future within the 10 years. After then they will depend totally upon Constructed Wetland. With the concept of ecological technology, the project especially designed and constructed in 1998 under the direct supervision and involvement of Ingenieurbro Blumberg.
The project was designed with different objective for the wastewater treatment. So the project was divided into three parts: polishing biotope (reed bed treatment system); combined waste water biotope (cascade of ponds and reed beds); reed
65 Chapter 8: Case Study of Project Area planted dry beds for sewage sludge. A total cost of construction was 1.7 million DM, whereas Lahstedt municipality shared the cost by 75% and state government of Lower Saxony by 25 %.
8.1.4.1
Screening
Screening is the first unit operation used at wastewater treatment plants. The main objective of screening is to remove floating materials like faecal matter, toilet paper and mineral solids, plastics, stone and metals preventing to damage and clogging of downstream equipment, piping, and appurtenances. Coarse and fine screens are used 15-75 mm and 3-12.5 mm.
Screening
Fig 8.5: Screening and collection drum (HUBER Screenings Treatment Systems in Gadenstedt)
A screening compactor is usually situated close to the mechanically cleaned screen and compacted screenings are conveyed to a dumpster or disposal area. Total 195.7 cubic meter floating materials was screened during the whole year periods, but values from October and November was not included due to absence of record and maximum screening material found in January equals to 189.7 cubic meter and remaining months collected varies from 0.25 to 1.0 cubic meter respectively. 8.1.4.2 Aerated grit chamber
Grit includes sand, gravel, cinder, or other heavy solid materials that are heavier (higher specific gravity) than the organic biodegradable solids in the wastewater.
66 Chapter 8: Case Study of Project Area Aerated grit chambers are typically designed to remove particles of 70 mesh (0.21 mm) or larger. When wastewater flows into the grit chamber, particles settle to the bottom according to their size, specific gravity, and the velocity of roll in the tank. Aerated grit chamber was designed in a rectangular type to treat around the 400 to 600 m3 per day. It was constructed with the cross section area of 2.5 m 2 and the length of 14 m respectively. Air is introduced in the grit chamber along one side, causing a perpendicular spiral velocity pattern to flow through the tank. Heavier particles are accelerated and diverge from the streamlines, dropping to the bottom of the tank, while lighter organic particles are suspended and eventually carried out of the tank. Grit is collected from bottom of channel by automatic sand scraper and pumped into the collecting drum. Total sand was collected 4 m3 in 2010.
Gritchamber
Fig 8.6: Grit chamber in Gadenstedt treatment plant (photo by R. Shrestha, drawing from
Ingenieurbro Blumberg)
8.1.4.3
Trickling filter
Trickling filter was constructed in 1959 and one of the oldest treatment plants operating to treat the wastewater coming from Gadenstedt village. The trickling filter was filled with the lava and gravel of sizes ranging from 40 to 80 mm corresponding with specific surface area of ca. 100 m 2 /m3. In the trickling filter the treatment process proceeds from top to bottom. The lava and gravel are providing more surface area for the development of biofilms when wastewater flows downwards. The
67 Chapter 8: Case Study of Project Area removal of pollutants from the wastewater involves both absorption and adsorption of organic compounds by the layer of microbial biofilms. The BOD5 volumetric loading rate is found 0.1 kg/ m3.d which is less than 0.4 kg/ m3.d and total nitrogen loading rate is found 0.039 kg/m3.d which is less than 0.1 kg /m3.d. The surface loading rate is 4.17 m / d. Under operating conditions ca. 2/3 of this can be assumed to be biologically active. The depth and diameter of trickling filter consists of 3 m and 13 m respectively.
Trickling filter
By R. shrestha
From Ingenieurbro Blumberg
BOD 5
NH4 +
NO3 -
By R. shrestha
Fig 8.7: a) Wastewater dosing into the bed through the rotating arm, b) lay out plan of project, c) trickling filter and d) diagram of biological process in trickling filter Ecological and Economical efficiency of Constructed Wetlands and Transferability of Decentralized Wastewater Treatment Operation to Nepal
68 Chapter 8: Case Study of Project Area 8.1.4.4 Constructed Wetland as polishing biotopes
Constructed wetland is used as a tertiary treatment plants like a polishing biotopes which is used to treat effluent coming from the existing trickling filter. Four vertically flow CWs was designed and constructed in 1998 covering the total area of 1.1 hector of which 7300 m2 is covered by reeds (Phragmites) in four vertically percolated CWs. These ground surfaces are sealed with a lining at bottom to prevent wastewater entering into the ground water.
By R. Shrestha
Fig 8.8: a) Construction phase of Lagoon, b) Bed preparation of Constructed wetlands, c) planting Reeds in bed during the construction period of 1997-1998, d) after the maturation of Reed
The system was designed to treat 500 m3 / day of the wastewater during summer to more than 2000 m3 / day in winter. But it was found by data analysis of discharge in the whole year of 2010 that the actual wastewater treated with varies maximum 650 m3 / day to minimum 496 m3 / day. It was assumed that the treatment capacity would in the future be extended up to 3000 inhabitants in Gadenstedt. The depth of the vertical beds is 1.5 meter and filled with different filter materials of different depth considering as a research purposes (Ingenieurbro Blumberg, 1998). The area of
69 Chapter 8: Case Study of Project Area constructed wetland is divided into four small reed bed areas and materials used in these beds are categorized into two groups. Top layer of 10 cm depth was filled with aggregate and second layer was filled with sand (+ 5% limestone) and aggregate 2/8 mixing in 1:1 ratio in the depth from 10 - 80 cm in the bed 1 & 3. Sand (+ 5% limestone) and root wood mixing also in 1: 1 ratio was filled in 80 125 cm depth and 125 135 cm depth with aggregate 2/8. Similarly in bed 2 & 4 are also filled with limestone 0/32 at depth 0-20 cm, Sand (+ 5% limestone) and without root wood in depth 20-135 cm. Finally bottom layer of four beds (1, 2, 3, and 4) was filled with coarse aggregate16/32. However, there are different filter material used for the purpose of wastewater treatment with an estimated conductivity (Kf) of 10 -4 to 10
-3
m/s and a designed pore
volume of 30-40%. The drained basins are lined with a polyethylene membrane. The planned freeboard allows storage of a volume up to 2.000 m3 above the filter substrate. The beds were planted with Phragmites Australis (Common Reed).
Technical data of CWs of Gadenstedt Total size of area 1.1 hectares Surface Area Vertical subsurface flow reed 7500 m2 Surface area beds with total size Depth 1.5 metres Capacity 3000 P.E Person equivalents Current connected load 2600 P.E Person equivalents Hydraulic loading 127 m / yr Depth Bed 1 & 3 Bed 2 & 4 0-10 cm Aggregate 4/8 Limestone 0/32 10 20 cm Sand 0/1 + 5% Limestone } Aggregate 2/8 } 20 80 cm Sand 0/1 + 5% 1: 1 mixing Limestone 80 125 cm Sand 0/ 1 + 5% Limestone Without Root wood Root wood } 1:1 mixing 125 135 cm Aggregate 2 / 8 135 150 cm Aggregate 16 /32 Aggregate 16 /32 Table 8.1: Technical data of Constructed Wetlands at Gadenstedt WWTP
New sewer was constructed from the old sewage treatment plant to the nearby Polishing biotope. Similarly effluent from trickling filter collected in collection chamber and pump was installed to distribute wastewater on the polishing biotope (reed beds) under intermittent loading with a low pressure distribution system. First time samples were analyzed in 1999 to measure the efficiency of CWs and obtained the good
70 Chapter 8: Case Study of Project Area results as shown in fig 8.9. Constructed Wetlands are used as a tertiary treatment system.
45.0 40.0 35.0 30.0 25.0 20.0 15.0 10.0 5.0 0.0
First Results in 1999
n = 20
mg/l COD
mg/l BOD5 7.7 4.9
mg/l NO2-N 0.58 0.035
mg/l NO3-N 17.2 4.7
mg/l NH4-N 1.4 0.2
mg/l TN 19.2 4.90
mg/l TP 4.5 1.0 pH 7.4 7.1
Influent Effluent 60.0 50.0 40.0 30.0 20.0 10.0 0.0
40.0 10.0
October 2004 - Setember 2005

n = 50
mg/l COD
mg/l BOD5 16.0 4.0
mg/l NO2-N 0.30 0.10
mg/l NO3-N 14.0 9.0
mg/l NH4-N 2.0 0.7
mg/l TN 16.0 9.00
mg/l TP 3.0 2.0 pH 7.3 7.4
Influent Effluent
54.0 15.0
Fig 8.9: Constructed Wetlands used as a tertiary treatment system
Nonetheless, CWs are also used as secondary treatment of municipal wastewater to check the efficiency and main objective to replace the trickling filter slowly. The wastewater was treated through the CWs from December 2001 to April 2002 and it was found by the analysis that removal efficiency of COD, BOD5 and NH4-N in CWs were 92%, 96% and 44% respectively. Similarly reduction of TN and TP were found 52% and 29% respectively. Influent and effluent values of organic and nutrients can be seen detail in fig 8.10.

350.0 300.0 250.0 200.0 150.0 100.0 50.0 0.0 mg/l COD Influent Effluent 301.0 24.0 mg/l BOD5 165.0 4.0 mg/l NO2-N 0.60 0.10 mg/l NO3-N 9.8 3.1 mg/l NH4-N 13.4 7.5 mg/l TN 22.1 10.70 mg/l TP 4.1 2.9 pH 7.5 7.3
December 2001 to April 2002
n = 19
Fig 8.10: CWs used as secondary treatment system at Gadenstedt WWTP
8.1.4.5
Combined waste water biotope
First of all, domestic wastewater and rain water from paved surfaces area of Gadenstedt flow together through the combined sewer system into the treatment plants. During heavy rains a considerable amount of such combined wastewater is diverted into the open lagoons before entering to the treatment plants. Combined wastewater biotopes are used to treat large amount of wastewater coming from paved surface during the rainy season and protected the receiving river being polluted from organic and inorganic pollutants. This lagoon system was designed to treat wastewater 123000 m3 per year and 19250 kg COD per year from 38.5 hectare paved area.
Fig 8.11: Combined wastewater treatment biotope (Lagoon) at Gadenstedt WWTP Ecological and Economical efficiency of Constructed Wetlands and Transferability of Decentralized Wastewater Treatment Operation to Nepal
72 Chapter 8: Case Study of Project Area Combined wastewater biotopes of total area covering of 17000 m 2 are divided into three parts, which are called settling pond, unaerated storage pond and reed planted soil filter. Wastewater is first passed though settling ponds with covering area of 2940 m2 to settle the suspended solids and after then treated in retention pond where organic pollutants are oxidized by aerobic and anaerobic process. Storage pond has a covering the area 5070 m2 with a large retention capacity of 13440 m 3 and detention volume of 4680 m3. Floating islands are also constructed in the storage pond. Marsh plants growing on floating islands accelerate the sewage purification process and absorb noxious substances and nutrients dissolved in the waste water. The root zone under the water provides a suitable place for the growth of microbiofilms (e.g. fixed nitrifying bacteria). The wastewater is finally treated in a reed planted soil filter covering net area 1.330 m2 before it is discharged into the receiving river Fuhse.
Total size Settling pond Retention pond Permanent retention volume Maximum volume of water Storage volume Reed bed filter Hydraulic load on Reed bed filter Gadenstedt 1700 m2 2940 m2 5070 m2 4680 m3 13440 m3 8760 m3 2400 m2 132 m/ yr Surface area Surface area Surface area capacity capacity capacity Total Surface area
Table 8.2: Facts and figures about the combined wastewater treatment biotope
(Source: Ingenieurbro Blumberg, Leaflet of Lahstedt Municipality)
The former method of combined waste water treatment in Gadenstedt did not conform to legal requirements. The permissible pollutant overflow rate of 250 kg COD / ha / yr was clearly exceeded with a figure of 372 kg COD / ha .yr. The specific overflow load will be below 64 kg COD / ha /yr well within the limit in Lower Saxony. Samples were taken from December 2001 to April 2002 to analyze the concentration of organic matter and nutrients. This system is therefore far superior in efficiency to conventional combined waste water treatment systems with concrete basins. Construction and maintenance costs are clearly lower. Hydraulic stress impacts on the receiving river are avoided. A secondary environmental complex with valuable biotope functions is established.
Common Reed in CWs
Source: Ingenieurbro Blumberg website (http://www.blumbergengineers.de/) Figure 8.12: Isometric view of wastewater treatment plant at Gadenstedt
8.1.4.6
Sewage sludge dewatering and mineralization in reed beds
Sewage sludge is the end product of wastewater which is settled in the primary settling tank and pumped into the reed beds for dewatering and mineralization process where such kind of sludge is treated with aerobically and anaerobically. This scarcely known method of dewatering and stabilizing sewage sludge in dry beds planted with reeds has been in practice in Gadenstedt for nine years. Three reed beds are used for this purpose covering area of 516 m2 .The roots of the plants which penetrate the dumped sludge helps to accelerating the dewatering and mineralization process. Dewatering process is achieved by evapotranspiration and especially by drains which are fitted at the bottom of the reed beds. Dry bed also helped in reduction of pollutants in sewage sludge. It was found that sewage sludge dewatered and stabilized in the reed beds which are designed for operation approximately 10 to 15 years with energy saving method and after then beds are cleared and refilled with sludge for the next 10-15 years. However, from the experienced showed that dry
74 Chapter 8: Case Study of Project Area matter content of over 50 % is currently achieved. The major advantages of dry reed beds are to store surplus sludge load during the winter months when agricultural use is prohibited. Transport costs are lowered by volume reduction and new options for utilization and recycling of this valuable nutrient source in landscaping, horticulture, tree nurseries, private gardening and recultivation can be explored. It is one of the natural sludge dewatering and stabilization at reasonable investment and maintenance costs.
8.1.5 Method and Field works 8.1.5.1 Field work - pH measurement
It is very important to measure the pH value of influent and effluent of waste water because of the pH value shows the characteristic of water whether it is an acidic or basic. Pure water is said to neutral with a pH value close to 7.0 at 25 C. Influent and effluent of wastewater with a pH lesser than 7 are said to be acidic and a pH greater than 7 are basic nature. It is measured on a scale of 0 to 14. The term pH is derived from p the mathematical symbol of the negative logarithm (base10) and H the chemical symbol of Hydrogen. The formal definition of pH is the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration i.e. pH = -log10 [H] +. pH variation is dependent upon the hydrogen ions concentration. When hydrogen ions concentration is low, pH indicates high and water becoming more basic. Water with low pH cause the acidic or high pH cause basic nature is harmful to the flora and fauna. Most organisms have adapted to life in water of a specific pH and may die if it changes even slightly. This is especially true for aquatic life. The most significant environmental impact of pH involves synergistic effects. Synergy involves the combination of two or more substances which produce effects greater than their sum. Changes pH value of water shows the negative impact on the quality of the receiving river and soil properties. So pH is a critical factor determining the health of a waterway. pH measurement is important for environmental science, civil engineering, food science and many other applications. In addition to controlling various biological processes, pH is also a determinant of several important chemical reactions. Ammonium changes to free ammonia at pH
75 Chapter 8: Case Study of Project Area above neutral and at higher temperature. The protonation of phosphorus changes with pH and the hydroxide and oxyhydroxide precipitations of iron, manganese and aluminum and pH sensitive. (Kadlec und Wallace, 2009)
Minimum 3.8 Maximum 10.0 Limiting pH Values Effects Fish eggs could be hatched, but deformed young are often produced Limits for the most resistant fish species Range tolerated by trout Carp die in five days Trout eggs and larvae develop normally Limits for perch Limits for stickleback fish Tolerable range for most fish Upper limit for good fishing waters Fish avoid waters beyond these limits Optimum (best) range for fish eggs Mosquito larvae are destroyed at this pH value Mosquito larvae live within this range Best range for the growth of algae
4.0 4.1 --4.5 4.6 --5.0 --5.4 6.0 --3.3 7.5
10.1 9.5 4.3 9.0 9.5 5.0 9.0 8.7 11.4 7.2 1.0 4.7 8.4
Table 8.3: Limiting pH values for different aquaculture (Source: CWQRB, 1963)
A pH meter is used to measure the pH value of water. It is an electronics instrument consist of a glass electrode connected to an electronic meter which helps to measure pH by the activity of hydrogen ions nears it tips and displays in digitally on the electronic meter. Three pH values are measured every day in the morning and sometimes afternoon by using pH meter and recorded for the
Figure 8.13: pH meter (WTW pH 315i)
data analysis. Firstly, pH value of influent waste water is taken at Grit chamber before entering to the trickling filter. Second measurement is done on the effluent water from Trickling and third measurement on the effluent coming from constructed wetlands. Daily measured values of pH are recorded in the dairy by manually. It was found that pH meter was kept in a wet condition when it was not used to prevent the glass electrode being dehydrated and cleaned once in a month by using HCl.
8.1.5.2
Temperature measurement
Daily meteorological variations in air temperature, cloudiness, windiness and relative humidity cause responses in the water temperature changes. The annual cycle of wetland water temperatures follows a sinusoidal pattern with summer maximum and minimum in winter. Kadlec and Wallace et al. (2009) pointed out four reasons for the importance of water temperature in treatment wetlands like several key biological processes, water quality parameter, evaporative water loss processes and functional in subfreezing conditions even in cold-climate. Several biogeochemical processes that regulate the removal of nutrients in wetlands are affected by temperature, thus influencing the overall treatment efficiency (Kadlec and Reddy, 2001). The temperature conditions in a wetland affect both the physical and the biological activities in the system. The biological reactions responsible for BOD removal, nitrification, and denitrification are known to be temperature dependent (Reed et al., 1995). In the studies highlighted above, it is reasonable to expect temperature to be significant in wetlands treating the waste water. To analysis the temperature effects on the biological activity, daily air temperature of maximum to minimum was recorded by automatic temperature reading equipment installed in the site and similarly water tempera was also measured by a pH meter together during pH reading. Daily water temperature is recorded in daily record book by manually. 8.1.5.3 Field work Water sample were taken for chemical / physical and biological analysis from three different places of treatment plants. Water sample were taken from the site using 1000 ml bottle washed with a 2 percent HCl solution and rinsed with distilled water. Rinsing with acid and distilled water is necessary to remove any contaminant present in the bottle. The samples were collected mostly in the morning time and once in a week. Actually sample collection was done four times in every month for physical and chemical analysis but sometimes found to be 5 to 6 times in a month. There are always five to six days differences between each start of new sample collections.
Sample collection for COD, BOD, NH4-N, TN, TP analysis
Fig 8.14: Influent and effluent sample taken at Gadenstedt WWTP
First influent sampling was taken near to grit chamber and second sample taken effluent of trickling filter and third was taken effluent of constructed wetlands. More priority was given sample collection and handling so samples were always deliver to Laboratory within two hours of last sampling time. It was always kept in mind that if analysis was not started within two hours, sample should be kept at sample container below 4 C from the time of collection. All samples were stored in a dark insulated box until the return to the laboratory. Sample were analyzed for COD, BOD5, total Nitrogen (TN), and total phosphorus (TP) and nitrogen in the form of nitrate (NO3-), nitrite (NO2-) and ammonia (NH4-N). Mitsch et. al., (1998) explained that samples, if not analyzed immediately after collection, were preserved with concentrated H2SO4 and refrigerated for later analysis. Sample preservation or analysis was completed within 48 hours of collection. Lab procedure There is central laboratory located in Gro-Lafferde, where samples ware brought for the experiment of COD, BOD5, NH4-N, NO3-N, TN and TP from different treatment plants situated in Lahstedt municipality like Lahstedt, Oberg, Adenstedt, Mnstedt and Gro-Lafferde. In the Lab, wastewater sample was tested by the HACH LANGE cuvettes test method and this method being much easier, saves space, time and high efficiency of achieving the reliable data. The method is also known as operational analytical method and is an alternative to reference DIN method. The sample after collecting in Gadenstedt treatment plants is returned into the laboratory within the 45
78 Chapter 8: Case Study of Project Area minutes and sample analyses are conducted. The results obtained by this method are verified by water authority of Peine four times in a year.
Fig 8.15: left: Sample of wastewater in the Laboratory for the analysis .Right: Miss Katharina Ohlemann (Lab technician) using the Homogenizer to homogenize the sample.
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD5) Biochemical oxygen demand represents the amount of oxygen consumed by bacteria and other microorganisms while they decompose organic matter under aerobic conditions at a specified temperature. The Biochemical Oxygen Demand in 5 days is of the sum parameter for the assessment of organic and oxidatively degradable wastewater pollution. In the operational analytical method, LCK -555 Cuvettes test is used to analysis BOD5 considering the recommended concentration on the range of 4-1650 mg / l. BOD5 is measured with referring to the Hack Lange booklet3. First, dilution water was made with reference to the Dr. Lange booklet. Wastewater sample is homogenized with the help of homogenizer within 30 seconds, which rotate 20000 rpm. Wastewater sample are screened by filter paper and filled into three cuvettes by opening DosiCap Zip. Reagents (tablets and beads) is poured into cuvettes with the help of funnel and sealed immediately after funnel is removed and there should not be air bubbles inside the sample cuvettes. Repeatedly invert the dilution water and sample cuvettes for 3 minutes until the reagent tablets have been
3
LCK cuvettes method can be found in the internet online for more information in the website http://shop.hach-lange.com
79 Chapter 8: Case Study of Project Area dissolved completely. After then, the three cuvettes are filled with required amount of sample and dilution water as per the table 8.4, using a transfer pipette, ensuring there are no air bubbles, and seal with the DosiCap Zip. First cuvettes are filled with 1 ml sample of influent and 3 ml dilution water considering the BOD5 measurement ranged 50 275 mg /l under the category of B2. Second and third cuvettes are filled with 4 ml of sample taking the effluent of trickling filter and constructed wetlands considering the low BOD5 concentration under the category A1. These samples are shaken vigorously for 1 minute
Fig 8.16: SPECTROPHOTOMETER DR2800 for the measurement of BOD5 and other required data also in GroLafferde
in order to enrich the sample with oxygen and leaved in darkness in the block thermostat maintaining the temperature at 20C for 5 days. After the 5 days, cuvettes are evaluated by photometry, this shows directly the BOD5 in mg/l O2 and data are recorded as concentration of BOD5 in inflow and out flow of wastewater.
Measuring range (mg/l) A = 4 58 A1 = 4 19 A2 = 7 38 A3 = 11 58 B = 25 413 B1 = 25 -138 B2 = 50 275 B3 = 75 413 C = 100 1650 C1 = 100 550 C2 = 200 1100 C3 = 300 -1650
Preliminary dilution in reaction tube Sample Dilution water 4 ml 4 ml 4 ml 1 ml 1 ml 1 ml 0.4 ml 0.4 ml 0.4 ml 1ml 3 ml 5 ml 2.8 ml 6.0 ml 9.2 ml
Prepared sample Pipette into the cuvette test 1.8 ml 0.9 ml 0.6 ml 0.5 ml 0.5 ml 0.5 ml 0.5 ml 0.5 ml 0.5 ml
Dilution factor
For CADAS 200 / LASA 30/50/ 100 / XION 500 3.5 7.0 10.5 25 50 75 100 200 300
Table 8.4: Sample preparation as per upper limit of measuring range of BOD5
(http://shop.hach-lange.com/shop/action_q/download)
80 Chapter 8: Case Study of Project Area Chemical oxygen demand (COD) COD is used to measure the oxygen equivalent of the organic material in wastewater that can be oxidized chemically using potassium dichromate sulphuric acid solution in the presence of silver sulphate as a catalyst. Chloride is masked by mercury sulphate. The green coloration of Cr3+ is evaluated (www.hach-lange.co.uk).
Fig 8.17: COD measurement of LCK-514, LCK-314 cuvettes kits box and HT200S high temperature Thermostat.
For the COD analysis, Hach - Lange method was followed and selected the LCK 514 cuvettes test for the inflow wastewater sample considering the COD concentration range 100 2000 mg/l O2 and LCK 314 cuvette test for the effluent water with low COD concentration ranging 15 -150 mg/l. Three cuvettes is taken and filled with 2 ml sample water, initially homogenized with the help of homogenizer and screened with filter paper. After closing the cuvettes and thoroughly cleaned the outside, cuvettes are inverted for few times and put into the thermostat for heating these sample at a temperature 170 C for 15 minutes instead of heating at 148C for 2 hours. When the heating process is completed then hot cuvettes are taken out and immediately inverted two times after the lock opening of thermostat. These sample cuvettes is put again in thermostat for cooling down at room temperature (18-20C). It is also important to see that sediment must be completely settled before evaluation is carried out and clean the outside of the cuvette. Cuvettes are evaluated by spectrophotometer, which shows directly the COD concentration in mg / l O2 of inflow and out flow of wastewater sample.
81 Chapter 8: Case Study of Project Area Total Nitrogen (TN) Total nitrogen of wastewater was also analysis by LCK 338 cuvette test as per the Hach Lange method and process taken into eight steps. First of all, 0.2 ml sample was put into the reaction tube and poured the reagents of 2.3 ml solution A and 1 tablet reagent B, whereas A indicate the sodium hydroxide solution and B represents oxidant tablet. Then reaction tube is closed immediately and put in the HT 200S thermostat at the temperature 170C for 15 minutes. After cooling down the reaction tube into room temperature (18-20C) in which 1 micro cap C reagents is added and inverted a few times until the streak are vanished. Such digested sample of 0.5 ml from reaction tube is filled slowly into the cuvettes test by pipette and 0.2 ml of D solution reagent is mixed. Then cuvettes tests are quickly closed and inverted few times until no more streaks can be seen. After 15 minutes, outside of cuvettes are thoroughly cleaned and measured the total nitrogen in mg/l O2 by spectrophotometer DR2800. The total nitrogen compounds are known as the sum of the Kjeldahl-N + NO2-N + NO3-N. Total phosphorus Total phosphorus was analyzed LCK - 348 cuvette test method. Firstly foil is removed carefully from the Dosi Cap Zip of cuvettes and opened the Zip, after then filled 0.5 ml sample into the three cuvettes. The Dosi Cap Zip is tightened and shaken the cuvettes firmly and put these sample into the thermostat for standard heating at temperature 170C for 15 minutes. After cooling then mixed 0.5 ml reagent B and screwed by a grey DosiCap C onto the cuvettes. Cuvettes are inverted for few times and after 10 minutes also inverted a few times more afterwards thoroughly cleaned outside of the cuvettes. Finally Cuvettes are put into the spectrophotometer which displays the concentration of total phosphorus in sample in mg/l.
Fig 8.18: Total nitrogen (TN) measurement of LCK-338 cuvettes kits box with reagents (A, B, C and D)
82 Chapter 8: Case Study of Project Area Ammonium - Nitrogen (NH4-N) The main principle of measurement is ammonium ions react at pH 12.6 with hypochlorite ions and salicylate ions in the presence of sodium nitroprusside as a catalyst to form indophenol blue. In the laboratory, NH4-N is analyzed very simple and quickly way by LCK -303 cuvettes test as per described by HachLange method. Firstly foil is removed carefully from the DosiCap Zip and opened the cap. In the three cuvettes, 0.2 ml homogenized sample is filled with the help of pipette and quickly closed by DosiCap. After cuvettes are shaken 2- 3 times and kept in rest. After 15 minutes, outside of cuvettes are thoroughly cleaned and kept in spectrophotometer which displays the concentration of ammonium nitrogen (NH4-N) in sample in mg/l.
Fig 8.19: LCK-303 cuvettes test sample for NH4-N and Kit box with instruction of measurement process.
Nitrate - Nitrogen (NO3 - N) In the laboratory, nitrate nitrogen (NO3-N) is analyzed very quickly by LCK -340 and LCK- 339 cuvettes test method. In LCK -340 cuvettes test is conducted considering the concentration of NO3-N high in influent sample in the range of 5- 35 mg/l and LCK -339 cuvettes test for the NO3-N concentration low in effluent of sample within the range of 0.23 13.5 mg/l.
First test sample is prepared as LCK-340 test method by filling 0.2 ml sample into the cuvette and mixed 1.0 ml the reagent A solution. Similarly second test sample prepared as LCK-339 by filling the cuvette with 1.0 ml sample and mixed with 0.2 ml solution A reagent. After then both cuvettes are closed and inverted a few times until no more streaks can be seen in the sample. Cuvettes are cleaned thoroughly after 15 minutes and evaluated with the help of spectrophotometer which displays digitally the concentration of nitrate - nitrogen (NO3-N) in sample in mg/l.
Fig 8.20: LCK -340 and LCK -339 cuvettes kit boxes for NO3-N measurement
Nitrite-Nitrogen (NO2-N) Nitrite is tested in the laboratory by the LCK -342 cuvettes test method. Considering nitrite nitrogen concentration in the wastewater sample should be low as within the range of 0.6 6.0 mg/l. This analysis is also similar to previous described method of NH4-N and NO3-N. Three cuvettes is filled with 0.2 ml sample for the test and immediately closed by the DosiCap. The cuvettes are shaken 2-3 times with firmly then kept in rest for 10 minutes. After then cuvettes are again inverted few time and cleaned outside surface of cuvettes. Finally, cuvettes are evaluated with the help of spectrophotometer which displays digitally the concentration of nitrite - nitrogen (NO2-N) in sample in mg/l.
8.2
Study area of Berel
8.2.1 Location Berel is one of the very small village of Baddeckenstedt municipalities and situated in Wolfenbttel district (Lower Saxony). This small village lies 20 km south of Peine, 21 km east of Hildesheim and 11 km west of Salzgitter. The Population of Berel was found from 1996 to 2003 on average 684 inhabitants, (1999 Max 698 inhabitants and 2003 Min 668 inhabitants).
Fig 8.21: Map of Wolfenbttel district and Berel

(Source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Landkreise_Niedersachsen-en.svg And http://maps.google.de/maps)
8.2.2 Geography and topography The project area is situated in the Berel of Baddeckenstedt municipality. The surrounding land of Berel is flat and used for agricultural purpose. The project area as per the geographical location lies in 52954 north latitude and 10134 east longitude. According to the topographic map, this village is 167 meters high from the sea level.
52 9 54 N 1013 4 E
Fig 8.22: Geographic location of Berel (Source: http://maps.google.de/maps ) Ecological and Economical efficiency of Constructed Wetlands and Transferability of Decentralized Wastewater Treatment Operation to Nepal
85 Chapter 8: Case Study of Project Area 8.2.3 Description of the project Wastewater was treated by a pond plant system in Berel since 1989; the plant was originally designed to be naturally ventilated type, consisting of three successive ponds. After waste regulation system was designed for 600 residents of the Great Class 1 (<1,000 inhabitants). Village has its own separate sewer to carry out wastewater coming from private house and rain water from paved surface. The wastewater is discharged through sewer pipe from the village to the existing pond treatment plant under the gravity flow system. The treatment plant is located around 600 m southeast of the village at an altitude of about 167 m above sea level. The site is bounded on the south side of the receiving water Sangebach.
Berel WWTP plantplant
Berel village
Fig 8.23: View of Berel village and treatment plant (Source: http://maps.google.de/maps)
By 1996, wastewater was treated and purified by pond under the natural system and found under the legal requirement. After then final effluent values of pond are not found under the legal limit described by Wolfenbttel district. It was found the oxygen deficiency and bad odor. For the better quality control and reduction of COD, BOD and nutrients in wastewater, two mobile surface aerators have been used in the pond - 2 since 1996. After then the effluent values were measured from 2004 to 2006 as shown in fig 8.24 and 8.25, the results also showed the concentration of COD, BOD and Ntotal were more than legal limit described by Wolfenbttel. Wolfenbttel district
86 Chapter 8: Case Study of Project Area recommended the limiting values of COD, BOD5, TN, TP concentration before discharging into the receiving water course Sangebach are shown in Table 8.5 Monitoring values of the district Wolfenbttel Chemical oxygen demand (COD) Biological oxygen demand (BOD) Phosphor (P total) Nitrogen (N total) 100 mg /l 40 mg /l 8 mg/l 40 mg/l
Table 8.5: Requirements for waste water at the point of discharge into the Sangebach
Fig 8.24: COD and BOD effluent values of self-monitoring of the treatment plant Berel
Fig 8.25: Ntotal and Ptotal effluent values of self-monitoring of the treatment plant Berel
87 Chapter 8: Case Study of Project Area From 31.01-19.03.2003, around 45 days, the Water Association of Peine investigated the hydraulic conditions of the sewage system around the catchment area of Pond treatment plant. The assessment of the external water inputs to the sewage system was based on the specific water consumption and population of 668 inhabitants. Total wastewater volume runoff into the sewer pipe was measured 5952 m3 during 45 days in which average water consumption was by inhabitants was 3607 m 3 This showed that the difference 2345 m wastewater was entered into the pipe from outside. The external water share was limited to 65% of the waste water runoff. Regarding the flow characteristics, the low rainfall condition was also observed during the investigation period. Water Association Peine was concluded that the more external water into the sewer pipes due to improperly connected drains and leaky channel coverage layer and ground water discharging into the sewage system. Community people were interested to improve the water quality as per the required limit and upgrading the sewage treatment pond safely through constructed wetland. The project especially was designed and constructed in 2008 under the direct supervision and involvement of Ingenieurbro Blumberg. The project cost was 541,830.00 Euro. 8.2.3.1 Screening
Screening is the first unit operation used at wastewater treatment plants. The main objective of screening is to remove floating materials like faecal matter, toilet paper and mineral solids, plastics, stone and metals preventing to damage and clogging of downstream equipment, piping, and appurtenances. The Screen system in the influent of the Berel treatment plant is designed as a flat fine screen with a gap width of 3 mm. Because of the relatively low feed rate to the treatment plant, the smallest size is provided by the company Grimmel Water Technology (or equivalent) The maximum hydraulic capacity of the
Fig 8.26: Screening and automatic screening waste collected in dust pin at Berel WWTP
88 Chapter 8: Case Study of Project Area proposed computer system provides a adequate security for future new connections to the sewage treatment plant in Berel.
Technical data of Screening system Wastewater supply Q max 10 Channel width W 500 Channel depth 600 Bar rack width 460 Bar gap width 3 Maximum water level before screening H 200 Machine height from channel bottom 1360 Machine width 800 Machine length 1650 Electrical power around 4.5 l/s mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm kW
Table 8.6: Technical data of screening system installed in Berel
8.2.3.2
Pond system
The treatment plant in Berel was designed in the late eighties as a naturally aerated pond treatment system. The treatment plant consists of three successive lagoons with a total surface area of 6,800 square meters. The surface ratio of the ponds is around 4:3:3. The largest pond 1 has a surface area of 2,700 square meters.
Structurally, the lagoons have been designed with a slope gradient of 1:1.5, a depth of 1.20 m and a freeboard of 20 cm. The inflow into a pond branches off from the shaft 109 and terminates in an inlet structure as shown in fig 8.27. In pond 1, a mud pocket and a floating baffle wall were installed. Baffles walls were constructed in ponds 1 and 3 to allow the flow through the entire treatment plant. The overflow of the ponds and the drainage area to the receiving waters consist of a landscaped area of shallow water depth of 20 to 50 cm with embankment slope 1:1.6. Overflow and for the period of sludge removal from Pond 1, wastewater is diverted directly from manhole No. 109 to pond 2 through the manhole No. 110 as shown in fig 8.27
Fig 8.27: Isometric view of Berel WWTP and settling pond Ecological and Economical efficiency of Constructed Wetlands and Transferability of Decentralized Wastewater Treatment Operation to Nepal
89 Chapter 8: Case Study of Project Area Wastewater was first treated through a combination of physical, biological, and chemical processes in the pond1, also known as settling pond, where suspended solids settled and organic material is decomposed by aerobic bacteria under the biological reaction to reduce the COD, BOD. After then wastewater is pumped into the constructed wetland. Effluents from constructed wetlands enter the pond 3, which is working as polishing pond. Finally effluent of polishing pond is discharged into the receiving small river called Sangebach. For the efficiency of pond system is described more detail in chapter 9 (result and discussion). 8.2.3.3 Constructed Wetlands (CW)
Constructed wetlands are designed in Berel for a maximum treatment capacity of 600 residents. The calculation and design of CWs is based on the DWA Worksheet A 262 (2006) and the design of the FLL / IV worksheet "recommendation for planning, construction, care and maintenance and operation of constructed wetlands" 2005/2006. Total surface area of constructed wetland is 2400 sq.m and divided into four equal small reed bed areas having each surface area of 600 sq.m .
By Ingenieurbro Blumberg
d e
c
Fig 8.28: a) Gravel filling over the drain pipe in the bottom layer of bed, b) Reed planting in the bed, c) Lay out plan of Berel treatment plant (Pond and constructed wetlands) d) Reed after the maturation, e) End cape fitting at distribution pipe
The total depth of the vertical flow beds is 1.0 meter and filled with different filter materials of different depth (Ingenieurbro Blumberg, 2006). At the bottom layer,
90 Chapter 8: Case Study of Project Area where HDPE drain pipe were laid down to drain water, was filled with coarse aggregate of 16/32 mm size up to 0.25 m depth. Second layer was also filled with fine aggregate of 5,6/8 mm size up to 0.15 m and top layer of about 0.60 m depth was filled with fine sand filter materials.
Figure 8.29: shows the structure of the filter materials used in CWs schematically.
Phragmites communis (common reed) was planted on the surface area of CWs. Two pumps were installed to deliver controlled amounts of the waste water intermittently and alternately on the four beds of CWs. The distribution of the waste water to the four reed bed is controlled by four electrically operated valves. Wastewater is evenly distributed on the surface through a feed system of HDPE pipes with low pressure largely maintenance. Possible blockages can be washed out by removing the end caps of distribution pipes. Bed slope was maintained about 2% to drain water under gravity system and percolated water was collected by drainage pipe. These pipes are also connected with main drainage pipe (DN 200) and collected into the collection chamber after then discharged directly into pond 3.
8.2.4 Method and Field work 8.2.4.1 Field work
At Berel treatment plant, water samples were collected mostly once a week in the morning time and totally four times in a month for better result analysis. Actually samples were taken for Lab analysis from four different places of treatment plants and collected in 1000 ml plastic bottle separately. First influent sampling was taken near to inlet of settling pond, second sample taken effluent of settling pond, third was taken effluent of constructed wetlands (1 and 2) and fourth sample was final effluent of polishing pond. All samples were stored in a dark insulated box until the return to the laboratory. In Labor, Sample ware analyzed for COD, BOD5, total Nitrogen (TN), and total phosphorus (TP) and nitrogen in the form of nitrate (NO 3-), nitrite (NO2-) and ammonia (NH4-N).
Fig 8.30: Water sample collection as shown in circle at Berel treatment plant
A pH meter is used to measure pH value of water, which help to find out whether it is acidic or basic or neutral nature and with together ph reading, temperature reading is also recorded. A pH meter is an electronics instrument which displays pH and
temperature values in digitally on the electronic meter after the glass electrode dipping into the sample and hold at least 60 seconds. Water temperature and pH values are recorded by manually, when the sample is collected for Laboratory analysis.
8.2.4.2
Laboratory work
There is branch laboratory of Wasserverband Peine located in Baddeckenstedt, where samples ware brought for the experiment of COD, BOD5, NH4-N, NO3-N, TN and TP. In the Lab, wastewater sample was tested by the HACH LANGE cuvettes test method and this method being much easier, saves space, time and high efficiency of achieving the reliable data. The procedure of measurement of COD, NH4-N, NO3-N, TN and TP was same as Gadenstedt treatment plant and detail described in section 8.1.5.3 of this chapter. Only measurement procedure was different in the case of BOD5 than HACH LANGE cuvettes method. The
92 Chapter 8: Case Study of Project Area measurement method proceed in the laboratory is also known as operational analytical method and is an alternative to reference DIN method. The sample after collecting in Berel treatment plants is returned into the laboratory within the 1 hour and sample analyses are conducted.
Fig 8.31: left: Mr. Marko Lux (Lab technician) using the Homogenizer to homogenize the sample and right: Sample of wastewater in the Lab for the analysis.
(Wasserverband Peine Laboratory at Baddeckenstedt)
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD5) BOD is measured by using OxiTop BOD
Respirometer Systems. This method is based on a pressure measurement in a closed system where microorganisms in the sample consume the oxygen and form CO2. This is absorbed by NaOH, creating a vacuum which can be read directly as a measured value in mg/l BOD. The sample volume being tested regulates the amount of oxygen available for a complete the respirometer system's BOD
Fig 8.32: OxiTop Respirometer for BOD measurement in Laboratory
measurement. BOD measurement ranges of up to 4,000 mg/l can be measured with the respirometer system using different sample volumes. The OxiTop BOD respirometer systems have two different heads; one is green used for inflow and yellow for outflow. The influent sample of 164 ml is taken in green head bottle and yellow head bottle is filled with 432 ml effluent sample after then mixed with 2 tablets NaOH. These samples are kept inside the heating box at room temperature for 5
93 Chapter 8: Case Study of Project Area days. However, every day one value of effluent and influent are observed and recorded and continue up to 5 days. The final value after 5 days is measured as BOD5 values, but there is some constant multiple factor to obtain the exact value of BOD5 in the case of influent and generally the measured value is multiplied by 10. Respirometer systems further measured BOD values that can be read at all times after the period of 5 days, which permits the tracking of check values or measurements over longer periods. Chemical oxygen demand (COD) For the COD analysis, Hach - Lange method was followed and selected the LCK 514 cuvettes test for the inflow wastewater sample considering the COD concentration range 100 2000 mg/l O2 and LCK 414 cuvette test for the effluent water with low COD concentration ranging 5 - 60 mg/l. Four cuvettes is taken and filled with 2 ml sample water, initially homogenized with the help of homogenizer and screened with filter paper. Detail measurement process of COD is followed as instruction given and described detail in section 8.1.5.3. Ammonium nitrogen (NH4-N) In the laboratory, for the measurement of NH4-N, LCK 303 and LCK 305 cuvette test method is used for the measurement of influent and effluent of wastewater sample of Berel. Detail processes are same as Gadenstedt sample measurement, which is described in detail in chapter 8.1.5.3
Nitrate-Nitrogen (NO3 - N) and Nitrite-Nitrogen (NO2-N) In the laboratory, nitrate nitrogen (NO3-N) is analyzed very quickly by LCK -340 and LCK- 339 cuvettes test method. In LCK -340 cuvettes test is conducted considering the concentration of NO3-N high in influent sample in the range of 5- 35 mg/l and LCK -339 cuvettes test for the NO3-N concentration low in effluent of sample within the range of 0.23 13.5 mg/l. Nitrite is tested in the laboratory by the LCK -342 cuvettes test method. Considering nitrite nitrogen concentration in the wastewater sample should be low as within the range of 0.6 6.0 mg/l.
94 Chapter 8: Case Study of Project Area Total phosphorus (TP) Total phosphorus was analyzed by LCK - 350 and LCK - 348 cuvettes test method. Influent and effluent of waste sample taken from settling pond was analyzed by LCK 350 cuvette considering the phosphorus concentration on the range of 2-20 mg/l and effluent from constructed wetland and final polishing pond was analyzed by LCK348 cuvette test with low range of phosphorus (0.5-5.0 mg/l).
95 Chapter 9: Results and discussion 9 Results and discussion
The mean value for sampling data are taken for the analysis and other parameters that are being studied covers the six main wastewater sampling i.e. COD, BOD, NH4N,TN,TP and pH. Other analysis including nitrate, nitrite and temperature are included in this study.
9.1
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) of Gadenstedt and Berel WWTP
500.0 450.0 400.0 350.0 300.0 365 250.0 200.0 150.0 100.0 50.0 0.0 COD Influent COD Effluent of TF Jan Feb 588
COD influent and effluent ,Gadenstedt

511 558 486 468 477 568 569 555 531
455
Inflow Discharge (Q) - m3/d
mg / l
Mar
Apr
May June July
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
293.0 204.5 134.0 264.0 306.0 281.5 460.0 292.0 155.0 214.0 114.0 214.0 42.0 57.0 37.0 31.7 43.3 34.8 58.4 40.5 24.8 27.6 25.3 22.7
COD Effluent of CWs 17.0 21.0 15.0 12.9 17.7 14.6 19.5 18.3 16.1 15.0 15.0 15.0
Fig 9.1: COD influent and effluent values at Gadenstedt WWTP
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) is a widely known parameter used to measure the amount of oxygen required that can chemically oxidize organic matter as well as inorganic substances present in the wastewater. COD values are much larger than BOD values due to presence of humic materials in wastewater. For untreated domestic wastewaters, COD concentration is found on the range of 250 - 1000 mg/l (Metcalf and Eddy, 1991). The above graph shows that concentration of COD in wastewater varies from 114 mg/l in November to 460 mg/l in July. The average value of influent of total 52 samples is 257 mg/l. This shows that volumetric loading of COD on the trickling filter is 0.23 kg/m3.d. The effluent COD concentration is mostly below than 50 mg/l except in the month of February and July. However, the average value of COD is 38.23 mg/l
96 Chapter 9: Results and discussion that effluent from the trickling filter. The surface loading rate on the CWs is varied from 50 l/m2.d to 78 l/m2.d and found average organic loading of 2.68 g/m 2.d. Final COD effluent of CWs is on the range of 14-21 mg/l. (See in Appendix -1 more detail COD values) COD reduction in %, Gadenstedt
120% 100% 80% 60% 40% 20% 0% % reduced by CWs % reduced by TF 86% 72% 72% 88% 86% 88% 87% 86% 84% 87% 78% 89% 9% 7% 8% 7% 8% 8% 6% 4%
18%
16%
6%
9%
Jan 9% 86%
Feb 18% 72%
Mar 16% 72%
Apr 7% 88%
May June 8% 86% 7% 88%
July 8% 87%
Aug 8% 86%
Sep 6% 84%
Oct 6% 87%
Nov 9% 78%
Dec 4% 89%
Fig 9.2: COD reduction efficiency of CWs and TF at Gadenstedt WWTP
From the graph 9.2, COD is reduced by the trickling and constructed wetlands on the range of 72-89 % and 4 -18 % respectively. And overall efficiency plant is found 93 % where trickling filter contributes up to 84 % and CWs up to 9 %. The graph clearly shows that effluent level of COD from trickling filter and constructed wetlands are mostly below the legal limit of 110 mg/l mentioned by German Federal Government Law and 90 mg/l by specific limit of Lahstedt wastewater treatment plant.
Similarly, in the case of Berel wastewater treatment plant, COD concentration in wastewater varies on the range of 223 820 mg/l. Firstly, wastewater is treated by settling pond, which helps to reduce the COD by 20 -72 % except August. Effluent values are found on the range of 72.9 350.5 mg/l. Similarly, effluent waster from settling pond is pumped and dosed over vertically flow CWs at the surface loading rate of 59 l/m2.d under intermittent system. The water is then drained vertically under gravity and voids in the filter media are refilled with air from the atmosphere. This
97 Chapter 9: Results and discussion mechanism helps to provide sufficient oxygen to oxidize the organic and inorganic materials present in wastewater.
900.0 800.0 700.0 600.0 132.0 125.5 500.0 400.0
COD influent and effluent , Berel

190.0 Inflow Discharge (Q) - m3/d 147.0 150.0 137.5 123.0 94.5 87.0 64.0
219.5 231.0
mg /l
300.0 200.0 100.0 0.0 Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
COD Influent COD Effluent of SP COD Effluent of PP 120% 100% 80% 2% 47%
469.3 820.3 407.5 716.8 496.0 449.0 547.8 336.5 223.0 318.3 224.7 317.8 297.8 350.5 221.7 231.5 334.0 179.7 154.8 324.7 72.9 255.7 127.0 158.3 67.7 59.1 62.2 68.8 43.4 52.8 78.5 44.1 43.1 36.5 42.1 74.8
COD Effluent of CWs(1+2) 75.9 68.6 34.5 28.0 28.5 30.8 44.5 44.8 37.6 19.1 18.3 30.8
COD reduction at Berel WWTP

1% 34% 28% 46% 62% 83% 57% 37% 68% 46% -7% Jan Feb Mar -6% 33% -3% -5% -6% July 4% -2% 60% 72% 67% 43% 20% -5% -11% Nov 50% 33% 20% 0% 16% 74% 48% 40%
Percent
60% 40% 20% 0%
-14% Dec
-20% Apr May June Aug Sep Oct Months
% reduction by SP
% reduction by CWs(1+2)
% reduction by MP
Fig 9.3: COD influent and effluent values and reduction efficiency at Berel WWTP
COD concentration remains on the range of 18.3- 75.9 mg/l on the effluent of CWs and overall reduction efficiency is achieved by 44 %. The surprising results show that final effluent from maturation pond contains more COD value than effluent value of CWs. Only in the month of January, February and August COD values are reduced with very low percentage (1-2%) and remaining months of the year, COD values are increased by 2 14 %. COD increased in the polishing pond is the main cause of algae lifecycle phenomenon.
98 Chapter 9: Results and discussion
However, finally COD effluent from MP and CWs are below the legal limit of 150 mg /l mentioned by German Federal Government law and 100 mg /l by specific limit of Berel WWTP.
9.2
Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5) of Gadenstedt and Berel WWTP
Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) is an approximate measure of the amount of biochemically degradable organic matter present in a water sample. It is defined by the amount of oxygen required for the aerobic microorganisms present in the sample to oxidize the organic matter to a stable inorganic form. The method is subject to various complicating factors such as the oxygen demand resulting from respiration of algae in the sample and the possible oxidation of ammonia (if nitrifying bacteria are also present). Other parameters like pH- value, temperature, or presence of toxic substances in a sample may affect microbial activity leading to a reduction in the measured BOD. Therefore, interpretation of BOD results and their implications has done with great care.
200.0 180.0 160.0 140.0 120.0 100.0
BOD5 inflow and outflow ,Gadenstedt n = 52 BOD5 inflow = 109 mg/l (avg.)
mg / l
80.0 60.0 40.0 20.0 0.0 Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July 9.3 5.3 5.8 3.8 10.4 2.4 Aug 4.3 3.3 Sep 4.8 5.4 Oct 4.3 4.0 Nov Dec 5.5 4.0 4.6 4.0
BOD5 mg/l Influent BOD5 mg/l Effluent of TF
112.0 103.3 70.0 110.8 159.8 139.3 182.2 109.3 94.8 95.5 56.0 76.2 10.25 16.8 14.0 10.3 7.3 6.2 4.0
BOD5 mg/l Effluent of CWs 4.00
Fig 9.4: BOD5 influent and effluent values at Gadenstedt WWTP
The above graph shows the analysis of BOD5, sample measurement from Gadenstedt treatment plants. The BOD5 concentration in the wastewater is varied with a maximum 182 mg/l in July and minimum 56 mg/l in November. The average
99 Chapter 9: Results and discussion value of BOD5 in influent lies 109 mg/l and these values are much higher than the recommended by German Federal Government. The effluent BOD5 of trickling filter is found on the range of 4.3 16.8 mg/l with average value 8.35 mg/l that shows the reduction efficiency of BOD in trickling filter on the range of 80-96%, when comparing the influent and effluent of trickling filter. Similarly, BOD5 concentration in the final effluent from the constructed wetlands is found 2.4 7.3 mg/l (with average 4.46 mg/l) and reduction efficiency of CWs varies also on the range of 1 11 %, when comparing the TF and CWs with respect to influent concentration.
BOD5 reduction in % ,Gadenstedt

120% 100% 80% 60% 40% 20% 0% -1% -20% % reduced by CWs % reduced by TF Jan 6% 91% Feb 9% 84% Mar 11% 80% Apr 6% 91% May June 3% 94% 1% 96% July 4% 94% Aug 1% 96% Sep -1% 95% Oct 0% 96% Nov 3% 90% Dec 1% 94% 91% 84% 80% 91% 94% 96% 94% 96% 95% 96% 90% 94% 6% 9% 11% 6% 3% 1% 4% 1% 0% 3% 1%
Fig 9.5: BOD5 reduction in percent by TF and CWs
Above fig 9.4 clearly shows that effluent value of BOD5 from trickling filter and CWs are mostly below the legal limit of 25 mg /l given by German Federal law and Gadenstedt WWTP. But only on the month of January, BOD5 level is higher than legal limit. The major cause of BOD removable depends upon the trickling filter operation and development of high growth of microorganisms. During the operation, the wastewater trickles over the surface of media and develop the visible shiny slime. The organic material present in the wastewater is absorbed and metabolized by the microorganisms in the presence of oxygen under the aerobic condition. They produce more organisms, carbon dioxide, sulfates, nitrates and other stable byproducts. The oxygen supply is seemed to be enough to decompose the organic matter and
100 Chapter 9: Results and discussion nitrification. This is one of the evidence of the old trickling filter operating properly with high efficiency. In the case of constructed wetlands, they are designed for vertically flow and intermittent hydraulics loading system. Hydraulic loading rate is found 70 l/m 2.d and organic (BOD5) loading is found 0.59 g/ m2.d. The water is drained by gravity and voids are refilled with air from the atmosphere considering porosity 30-40 %. This mechanism helps to provide sufficient oxygen for aerobic process. The substrate used in constructed wetlands whose hydraulic conductivity was designed 10 -3 m/s, which permit water to flow through the filter media without clogging. This shows that CWs are in good function whereas CWs is treating as the tertiary treatment plant only for polishing purpose. BOD reduction in constructed wetlands is assumed that oxygen is transferred by plant through the roots into rhizomes and aerobic condition exits which help to decompose the organic matter by micro-organism. There are different views found in the literature on how much excess oxygen that is available for biological activity in the root zone of constructed wetlands. The flux of oxygen transferred into the rooting system has been tentatively quoted to be 4-5 gO2/m2d (Armstrong et al., 1988). The oxygen transferred into the root zone by Phragmites australis was 2.08 g /m2.d, but root and rhizomes consumed the oxygen for respiration was measured 2.06 g /m 2.d, which show the perfectly balance oxygen influx through the culms leaving only 0.02 g/m 2.d to be released to the surrounding matrix and these values are far lower than those quoted (30-150 g/m2d) for vertical flow system (Brix et al., 1990). It is also much lower than the oxygen demand of 8 10 g O2 /m2d for a bed designed at 5 m2/ pe for BOD removal only (Cooper et al., 1996). With reference of literature, it is very difficulties to find out such kind scientific measurement in the study area, but it is concluded that vegetated plants are more important for better hydraulic conductivity rather than supply of oxygen. In the case of Berel, the data taken are not consistency in the case of BOD measurement. The effluent of BOD5 from settling pond was measured only in the February and March with the value 200 mg/l and 185 mg/l respectively. The reduction percentages were 35 % and 12 %. The effluent values of BOD in CWs are an average value of 22.0, 10.0 and 9.0 mg/l respectively (average 13.67 mg/l) during
101 Chapter 9: Results and discussion January, February and March, which shows removals efficiency of 80 %. The ability to reduce BOD shows that the microorganisms in constructed wetlands have been developed well and the wetland has a design that gives sufficient time and internal surface for degradation of organic matter to occur. These values are below the legal limit of 40 mg /l stated by German Federal law and 25 mg /l stated by Berel WWTP for the small treatment plant up to one thousands inhabitants.
350.00 300.00 250.00 200.00
BOD5 influent and effluent , Berel
mg / l
150.00 100.00 50.00 0.00 Jan Feb Mar Apr May June Aug Sep Nov
BOD5 Influent BOD5 Effluent of SP
297.50 310.00 210.00 245.00 147.50 280.00 260.00 158.00 113.33 200.00 185.00 10.00 13.25 9.00 14.00 18.25 5.75 22.37 4.75 7.80 12.33 15.33
BOD5 Effluent of CWs(1+2) 22.00 BOD5 Effluent of PP
Fig 9.6: BOD influent and effluent measured values of wastewater in Berel.
9.3
Ammonium nitrogen (NH4- N) of Gadenstedt and Berel WWTP
The most important inorganic forms of nitrogen in wetlands treating municipal or domestic wastewater are ammonia (NH4+), nitrate (NO3-), nitrite (NO2-) and nitrous oxide (N2O) and dissolved element nitrogen or nitrogen gas (N2) (Kadlec and Wallace, 2009). Ammonia exists in water solution as either as un-ionized ammonia (NH3) or ionized ammonia (NH4+, ammonium ion), depending upon water temperature and pH. At the time of the study, the plant was operating at a design flow of 512.83 m 3 per day with a hydraulic loading rate of NH4-N at the average of 0.017 kg /m3/d. Above figure shows that the average concentration values of NH4-N in the wastewater is more than 10 mg/l besides March (8 mg/l) and November (9.7 mg/l) .In the summer these values can be found maximum on the range of 20-34.3 mg/l and in the winter values varies from 16-18.3 mg/l respectively. (More detail can be seen in Appendix II)
40.0 35.0 30.0 25.0
NH4-N influent and effluent , Gadenstedt
mg / l
20.0 15.0 10.0 5.0 0.0 Jan 16.4 3.3 1.7 Feb 18.3 2.7 1.8 Mar 8.0 0.2 0.2 Apr 16.5 0.3 0.2 May June 15.5 2.3 0.2 20.1 0.3 0.2 July 34.3 2.6 0.4 Aug 26.0 0.6 0.4 Sep 14.1 0.2 0.3 Oct 14.0 0.2 0.2 Nov 9.7 1.0 1.0 Dec 10.9 1.0 1.0
NH4-N Influent NH4-N Effluent of TF NH4-N Effluent of CWs
Fig 9.7: NH4-N influent and effluent values at Gadenstedt WWTP
.Average monthly effluent NH4-N values from TF during colder temperature periods varied from 1 to 3.3 mg/L. Similarly in summer average monthly value of NH 4-N is on the range of 0.2 mg/l to 2.6 mg/l. Temperatures in winter is ranged between 5C and 7C, while the summer water and air temperatures ranged between 14 -18C and 23-34C respectively. (See Appendix IV of air and water temperature). Efficiency of trickling filter for NH4-N removal varies between 80 to 99 % (average 93%). Table 9.1: NH4-N reduction in percentage by TF and CWs
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec % reduction by TF 80% 85% 98% 98% 85% 98% 92% 98% 99% 99% 90% 91% % reduction by CWs 10% 5% 0% 0% 14% 0% 6% 1% -1% 0% 0% 0% Overall efficiency 90% 90% 98% 99% 99% 99% 99% 99% 98% 99% 90% 91%
In the case of Constructed wetlands, NH4-N surface loading is very low as 0.1 g/m2.d. So NH4-N is reduced by CWs only in four months like January ,February ,May and July by 10%, 5%, 14%, 6% respectively, otherwise the values are similar to effluent
103 Chapter 9: Results and discussion from trickling filter. However, finally NH4-N effluents from CWs are below the legal limit of 10 mg /l mentioned by Gadenstedt WWTP. Overall efficiency of NH4-N reduction is found by 96%. In Berel, NH4-N concentration in the wastewater varies from lowest 34.4 mg/l to maximum 61mg/l as shown in fig 9.8. After retention in settling pond, effluent values of NH4-N are found on the range of 17- 41.9 mg/l and discharge into the CWs at the surface loading rate of 59 l/m2.d and organic loading 1.8 g/m2.d.
70.0
NH4 - N influent and effluent ,Berel

60.0 50.0 40.0 30.0
mg /l
20.0 10.0 0.0 Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
NH4+ Influent NH4+ Effluent of SP NH4+ Effluent of PP
51.6 61.0 50.0 40.7 42.1 48.7 54.8 58.6 42.7 52.4 40.6 34.4 41.5 41.4 26.9 20.3 27.6 32.0 39.9 41.9 24.5 25.2 17.9 23.4 6.8 3.0 1.8 0.7 1.5 4.1 1.6 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.0 4.2 0.4 7.3 0.4 6.9 26.9 28.6 12.5 10.7 12.5
NH4+ Effluent of CWs(1+2) 18.8 26.3 15.7
Fig 9.8: NH4-N influent and effluent values at Berel WWTP
Concentration of NH4-N effluent from CWs is lower than 10mg/l from April to December. The effluent values of NH4-N are more than 10 mg/l in three months like January, February, and March. From the fig 9.9, the efficiency of SP and CWs for NH4-N reduction varies within 20 - 56 % (with average 38 %) and 22 -70 % (with average 48%). Similarly, final effluent from maturation pond shows the very low efficiency of NH4-N reduction only in four months like March. April, May and July on the range of 1-10% .In the other hand, concentration of NH4-N increased in remaining months varies from 4 % to 26 % beside above mentioned four months. (More detail
can be seen in Appendix II)
100% 10% 80% 60% 40% 20% 20% 0% -20% -40% % reduction by MP % reduction by SP -16% 44% 25% 32% -4% 46% 50% 6% 22%
3%
1% 55% 47% 43% 48%
33% 61% 63% 70% 69%
34% 34% 27% 28% -5% 0%
43%
52% 56% 32% -16%
-7% -13%
-26%
NH4 - N reduction in % ,Berel

Jan Feb -16% -4% Mar Apr May June July 6% 10% 3% -5% 1% Aug 0% Sep Oct Nov Dec -7% -13% -26% -16%
% reduction by CWs 44% 25% 22% 33% 61% 63% 70% 69% 55% 47% 43% 48% 20% 32% 46% 50% 34% 34% 27% 28% 43% 52% 56% 32%
Fig 9.9. NH4-N reduction efficiency of Berel WWTP
From the above result analysis of Gadenstedt and Berel wastewater treatment plants, it can be concluded that ammonium nitrogen is reduced by converting into nitrate through nitrification process. Biological nitrification takes places in the trickling filter and constructed wetlands converting ammonia in wastewater to nitrate using aerobic autotrophic bacteria in the treatment process. Nitrification is actually a two-step process for removing ammonia from wastewater using two different types of autotrophic bacteria. In the first step ammonia is oxidize to nitrite by bacteria in the genus Nitrosomonas under nitritation and then oxidize nitrite to nitrate by bacteria in the genus Nitrobacter under nitrification (Kadlec and Wallace, 2009). These bacteria known as nitrifiers are strict aerobes, meaning there must have free dissolved oxygen to perform their work. Biological nitrification systems are designed in the trickling filter and constructed wetlands to completely convert all ammonia to nitrate.
Oxidized nitrogen forms (e.g., nitrite and nitrate) do not bind to solid substrates, but ammonia is capable of sorption to both organic and inorganic substrates. Because of the positive charge on the ammonium ion, it is subjected to cation exchange .Ionized ammonia may therefore be removed from water through exchange with detritus and inorganic sediments in constructed wetlands. But it is not analyzed how much ammonia is absorbed in the soil substrate of constructed wetlands. Based on the
105 Chapter 9: Results and discussion stoichiometric relationship, Kadlec and Wallace (2009) pointed out theoretically that total oxygen required 4.57 g per gram of NH3-N oxidized in which 3.43g O2 per gram of NH3-N oxidized by the first nitritation reaction and 1.14g O2 by the second nitrification reaction. Similarly, Cooper and Job (1996) explained about approximately 4.3 mg O2 per mg of NH4-N is required to oxidize into nitrate nitrogen and nitrification occurs only under aerobic conditions at dissolved oxygen levels of 1.0 mg/L or more. This result shows that oxygen is available in sufficient quantity for microbial activity to convert ammonium nitrogen into nitrate in the trickling filter and constructed wetlands. In the case of constructed wetlands, influent wastewater flow vertical through the filter media and feeding intermittent system, so maximum oxygen entered the bed from atmosphere via pores and root. But at Gadenstedt, there is very low organic loading rate in influent of CWs, so there is low efficiency for reduction of ammonium nitrogen. The efficiency of treatment plant for ammonium nitrogen reduction in Gadenstedt and Berel is found 86% and 81% respectively. The discharge of ammonium nitrogen from wastewater treatment plants has a very less amount and it is not challenging for aquatic life.
9.4
Total nitrogen (TN) analysis of Gadenstedt and Berel WWTP
Total Nitrogen (TN) is the sum of nitrate-nitrogen (NO3-N), nitrite-nitrogen (NO2-N), ammonia-nitrogen (NH3-N) and organically bonded nitrogen. Total Nitrogen (TN) should not be confused with TKN (Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen) which is the sum of ammonia-nitrogen plus organically bound nitrogen but does not include nitratenitrogen or nitrite-nitrogen. TN is sometimes regulated as an effluent parameter for municipal and industrial wastewater treatment plants, but it is more common for limits to be placed on an individual nitrogen form, such as ammonia. Treatment plants that have a TN limit will usually need to nitrify and denitrify in order to achieve the TN limit. This graphs shows that total nitrogen concentrations in wastewater varies from minimum 29.4 mg/l to maximum 47 mg/l with an average value of 39.6 mg/l. The effluent TN from trickling filter varies from 12.8 15.4 mg/l in summer and on the range of 16.5 18.6 mg/l in winter.
50.0 45.0 40.0 35.0 30.0 25.0 20.0 15.0 10.0 5.0 0.0
Total Nitrogen influent and effluent ,Gadenstedt
mg / l
Jan 44.5 17.7
Feb 38.4 18.6 12.1
Mar 37.7 16.5 9.7
Apr 43.5 17.3 8.3
May 38.6 20.9 5.8
June 44.3 15.4 2.1
July 47.0 11.5 3.6
Aug 39.6 12.8 1.3
Sep 34.6 12.5 4.2
Oct 29.4 18.7 7.9
Nov 35.9 16.0 8.0
Dec 42.0 16.5 12.0
TN Influent TN Effluent of TF
TN Effluent of CWs 12.6
Fig 9.10: Total nitrogen (TN) influent and effluent values at Gadenstedt WWTP
Likewise, lowest concentrations of TN in the effluent of CWs are found June, July and August with an average value of 2.1 mg/l, 3.6 mg/l and 1.3 mg/l respectively. TN effluent from constructed wetland is found 7.22 mg/l (average), this value is 73% less than the legal limiting limit of 27 mg/l mentioned by Gadenstedt WWTP and overall efficiency of TN reduction is found 81 % (trickling filter - 58% and CWs - 23 %).
Influent mg/l 16,97 39,66 16.89 Effluent of TF mg/l 1,20 14,75 0,09 16,07 Effluent of CWs mg/l 0,61 6,61 0,07 7,22 -
NH4-N NO3-N NO2-N Nges N org
Table 9.2: Annual average value of nitrogen concentration at Gadenstedt WWTP (year 2010, sample n=52)
Nitrogen contains in different form which polluted water is originally present in the form of organic nitrogen and ammonia. In the table 9.2, organic nitrogen and ammonia concentration in waste water are 43% and 43 % respectively. From the above table shows wastewater with TN (39.6 mg/l) in which 43 % concentration as NH4 N and 43 % organic nitrogen, entered into the trickling filter, it goes under
107 Chapter 9: Results and discussion biochemical process which converts organic ammonia nitrogen into ammonia and further oxidized first into nitrite, then into nitrate. Then effluent of NH4 N, NO3-N and NO2-N contains 1.2 mg/l, 14.75 mg/l and 0.09 mg/l respectively. This results show nitrite and ammonium nitrogen are at minimum concentration (at or near zero) and nitrate is at a maximum value, the wastewater has been fully nitrified. A fully nitrified wastewater will have little or no organic nitrogen being utilized as a nutrient by microorganisms nitrogen.php)
Total nitrogen influent and effluent ,Berel
50.0 40.0 30.0 20.0 10.0 0.0 Jan 28.6 Feb 31.1 29.5 Mar 44.4 20.8 Apr 46.4 14.7 May June 35.1 5.9 29.9 4.7 July 45.9 1.4 Aug 45.6 4.2 Sep 32.4 9.8 Oct 21.1 11.9 Nov 23.8 14.1 Dec 13.2 13.4
in
the
treatment
process
(www.asaanalytics.com/total-
TN Effluent of CWs 24.7 TN Effluent of PP
In the case of Berel, effluent data of NO3-N, NO2-N and TN was measured in the constructed wetlands and polishing pond to analysis the efficiency of treatment process. Data analysis about the ammonium nitrogen was already discussed in previous section 9.3 of this chapter.
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec NH4-N 18,81 26,26 15,67 6,85 1,80 1,50 1,63 1,27 0,97 0,41 0,35 6,95 CWs NO3-N NO2-N 5,74 0,19 4,65 0,23 29,44 0,90 39,16 0,42 32,90 0,43 28,28 0,11 44,23 0,07 44,23 0,07 31,35 0,07 25,97 0,05 23,38 0,06 6,17 0,08 TN 24,74 31,14 44,38 46,42 35,12 29,89 45,93 45,57 32,39 21,13 23,79 13,20 NH4-N 26,9 28,6 12,5 3,0 0,7 4,1 1,1 1,5 4,2 7,3 10,7 12,5 PP NO3-N NO2-N 1,7 0,1 0,8 0,1 6,4 1,3 11,0 0,8 5,0 0,2 0,4 0,2 0,3 0,0 2,4 0,3 6,9 0,6 5,7 1,0 4,9 0,5 0,8 0,2 TN 28,6 29,5 20,8 14,7 5,9 4,7 1,4 4,2 9,8 11,9 14,1 13,4
Table 9.3: Monthly average effluent data of different nitrogen form measured in constructed wetlands and polishing pond at Berel WWTP (data - 2010, n = 46 sample)
mg / l
Fig 9.11: Total Nitrogen influent and effluent values of Berel WWTP
108 Chapter 9: Results and discussion From the above table 9.3, effluent value of NO3-N is low in winter seasons varies from 4.66 6.95 mg/l, when the water temperature was 5-7C and maximum effluents during the summer in June and July with the average value of 44.23 mg/l ,when the water temperature is found 14 -18C (see the temp fig 9.17). The nitrification process is temperature dependent so nitrification is occurred in CWs during the summer by Nitrosomonas and Nitrobacter converting ammonia and ammonium to nitrite and nitrite to nitrate. The reaction is generally coupled and proceeds rapidly to the nitrate form, which means nitrite produced by Nitrosomonas is instantly oxidized by Nitrobacter to nitrate and therefore, the concentration of NO 2-N is very less or near to zero (Schneider and Fresenius, et. al 1989). Similarly, the effluent values of NH4-N from polishing pond are high in winter and minimum in summer. Nitrate values are on the range of 0.3-11.0 mg/l shows the denitrification process occurred in the reduced environment of the water column, where anoxic conditions prevailed. This may be due to the thicker sediment layer- as dead algae settled in the bottom as sediments that contained more denitrifying organisms. Nitrates reduce to nitrites, which in turn easily combine to form substances dangerous to man. Total nitrogen concentration fluctuation is highly depended upon the nitrification and denitrification process in the treatment system. TN effluent finally into the receiving water course is 1.4 4.7 mg/l in summer and maximum values in winter varies 13.4 -29.5 mg/l, however, these values are below the legal limit of 40 mg/l authorized by Berel WWTP. The WHO recommended as International Standards for the maximum limit for nitrate concentration in the drinking water is 50 mg/L, which is equivalent to 11.3 mg/l as NO3-N (Chilton, 1996). Similarly, Mohaupt et al. (1996) reported that nitrate (NO3) concentration in surface water samples in Germany is not higher than 25 mg/l, which is half the drinking water limit. Concentration of NO3- as low as 10 mg/l are deem unacceptable for the baby food, which causes methemoglobinemia problem and nitrite as low as ca. 10 to 20 mg/l are highly toxic for fish (Schneider and Fresenius et al., 1989). In Europe, the maximum consented level of nitrates in potable water is 50.0 mg/L (www.environ.ie), while in the USA the EPA has established a guideline for the maximum level of nitrate nitrogen of 10 mg/L (NO-3N), which corresponds, to 45.0 mg/L of nitrates. Nitrogen removal on the other hand is effected through sediment accumulation, adsorption of ammonium onto the organic
109 Chapter 9: Results and discussion sediments (Howard-Williams, 1985), plant uptake and nitrification-denitrification processes. 9.5 Phosphorus of Gadenstedt and Berel WWTP
Phosphorus appears in different form in wastewater as orthophosphate, dehydrated orthophosphate (polyphosphate) and organically bound phosphorus, due to biological oxidation results in the conversion of most of phosphorus to the orthophosphate forms ( H2PO4-, HPO42-, PO43-)(Cooper el at., 1996). Microbes utilize phosphorus during cell synthesis and energy transport. As a result, 10 to 30 percent of the influent phosphorus is removed during traditional mechanical / biological treatment (Metcalf and Eddy, 1991). Phosphorus is important nutrients for the plants growth which are used in during the growing seasons.
phosphorus influent and effluent , Gadenstedt
8.0 7.0 6.0 5.0 4.0 3.0 2.0 1.0 0.0
mg / l
Jan 5.3 1.9 1.5
Feb 3.7 2.4 2.0
Mar 1.8 1.5 1.2
Apr 4.0 2.2 1.5
May June 3.9 2.9 1.8 4.3 2.7 1.5
July 7.3 4.6 2.6
Aug 7.3 4.6 2.6
Sep 3.0 1.6 2.1
Oct 3.6 2.7 1.6
Nov 2.8 1.8 1.2
Dec 3.1 1.7 1.4
TP Influent TP Effluent of TF TP Effluent of CW
Fig 9.12: phosphorus influent and effluent values of Gadenstedt WWTP
There is no legal limit specified by German federal Government about the phosphorus concentration in wastewater before discharging to receiving water course concerning to the small treatment plant for less than 5000 population. But only specific legal limit of 5 mg/l phosphorus concentration in effluent water according to Gadenstedt WWTP. In the fig 9.12, P concentration is found 7.3 mg/l in July and August and 5.3 mg/l in January, which are higher than legal limit. After then the remaining months concentration is below the 5 mg/l. Effluent form trickling filter is found on the range of 1.5 4.6 mg/l (average 2.6 mg/l), and final effluent of CWs is varied from 1.2 mg/l to 2.6 mg/l (average 1.8 mg/l) respectively. P reduction efficiency by TF and CWs are 37% and 17% respectively.

14.00 12.00 10.00 8.00 6.00
Phosphorus influent and effluent ,Berel
mg / l
4.00 2.00 0.00 Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Pges Influent Pges Effluent of SP Pges Effluent of MP
8.39 12.76 7.70 8.11 8.57 7.57 10.18 6.80 5.65 11.45 6.51 5.58 6.74 6.86 4.59 4.91 6.16 7.50 7.81 10.36 4.97 7.26 4.25 3.81 4.49 4.59 3.93 3.16 3.19 4.25 4.04 2.85 3.14 3.60 4.14 3.75
Pges Effluent of CWs(1+2) 2.77 3.01 5.18 2.36 1.77 1.94 1.94 3.38 3.56 2.61 3.20 2.31
Fig 9.13: phosphorus influent and effluent values of Berel WWTP.
In the case of Berel, P inflow concentration was not as high as compare to
limiting
values of 8 mg/l given by Berel WWTP and here only in three months, the phosphorus values are more than limiting values in February, July and October as 12.76 mg/l, 10.18 mg/l and 11.45 mg/l respectively. Phosphorus effluent from settling pond is average value of 6.27 mg/l, representing 22 % reduction and only the effluent value varies by 52 % in August. In construction wetland, P is reduced highly by 74%, 58% and 102 % respectively in summer (June, July and August). In winter seasons, CWs is also functioning properly to trap the phosphorus and reduced by 35 % and in autumn by 27 % respectively. Final P removable efficiency of CWs is found 41%.
phosphorus reduction in % ,Berel
8%
120% 100% 80% 60% 40% 20% 0% -20% -40% -60% Jan 47%
30% 16% 46% 20% -20% -12% 40% -8%
31% 39% -10%
51% 74% 28% -17% 1% -31%
58%
102%
41% 7% 25% 12% 16% 37% -9% 35% -14% 27% 32% -26%
23% -21% -52%
Effluent of SP Feb Mar Apr May
Effluent of CWs(1+2) June July Aug Sep
Effluent of MP Oct Nov Dec
Fig 9.14: Phosphorus reduction efficiency of Berel WWTP Ecological and Economical efficiency of Constructed Wetlands and Transferability of Decentralized Wastewater Treatment Operation to Nepal
111 Chapter 9: Results and discussion It was found interesting by the data analysis in fig 9.14 that effluent value of phosphorus from maturation pond increased in the month of summer like June and July by 31% and 21% with comparison to constructed wetlands. Similarly in winter concentration also varies from 12 % in February to 26 % in December. The study shows that P concentration is increased by average value of 11% in comparison to P effluent of CWs. However final P concentration on effluent is an average value of 3.76 mg/l, which is nearly 47 % less than the legal limiting values. The possible mechanisms of phosphorus removal in vertical flow through beds comprise plant uptake, assimilation by micro-organisms and physico-chemical processes associated with the bed media. Most of the phosphorus in the soil column is structural phosphorus, both organic and inorganic. Very small fraction is found in pore water or as sorbed phosphorus. It is assumed that Phragmites (reed), are planted in constructed wetlands of Gadenstedt and Berel, uptake phosphorus from root zone as an important nutrients, which are used during the growing seasons. Kadlec and Wallace et.al (2009) indicated that especially most plant roots are found on the top soil layer at the depth of 0-10 cm, which helps to remove phosphorus with high concentration from this zone by taking up during the cycle of growth. Phosphorus sorption is heavily influenced by the amount of calcium carbonate, aluminum oxides and iron oxides and organic matter present in the bed aggregate (Vohla et al., 2008). But it is also notable that algae growth, death, decomposition in pond and plant growth, death, decomposition, litter formation may increase in phosphorus mass during the cold seasons. Jin et al (2005) estimated that P sorption reactions are endothermic, colder water temperatures will decrease the apparent sorption capacity of the bed aggregate. By the study of Gadenstedt, sorption capacity decreased by 10% when the water temperature was decreased from 18C to 5C. Similarly in the case of Berel, sorption capacity decreased by 8 % after water temperature decreased from 19 C to 3 C.
Generally the amount of phosphorus that can be recovered through harvesting of emergent wetland plants is about 5-10 g/m2 (Vymazal et al., 2005a). Maximum nutrients by emergent macrophytes was found to be in the range of 200-1560 kg N/ha and 40 -375 kg P/ha in Florida (Reddy and DeBusk, 1987). Phragmites (reed)
112 Chapter 9: Results and discussion stored the phosphorus in tissue at the rate of 2-3 g P /kg and biomass growth varies 10 60 t/ha .yr (www.fao.org). Emergent macrophytes uptake nutrients depend upon the climate, plant density, loading rate and culture system. It is better to harvest above ground biomass once a year rather than frequently harvesting should improve the overall nutrients efficiency. However, it is not found such kind of practice like harvesting of emergent macrophytes from the constructed wetlands at Gadenstedt and Berel WWTP.
9.6
pH value of Gadenstedt and Berel WWTP
The physical and chemical environment of a wetland affects all biological process. Hydrogen ion concentration, measured as pH, influences many biochemical transformations. It influences the partitioning of ionized and unionized forms of carbonates and ammonia, and controls the solubility of gases solids, such as ammonia and solids such as calcite. Hydrogen ions are active in cation exchange processes with wetlands sedimentation and soils and determine the extent of metal binding (Kadlec und Wallace, 2009).
8.40 8.20 8.00 7.80 7.60 7.40 7.20 7.00 6.80 6.60 6.40 pH Influent pH Effluent of TF
pH influent and effluent value,Gadenstedt
Jan 8.11 7.96
Feb 8.26 7.98 7.70
Mar 8.03 7.98 7.54
Apr 7.92 7.92 7.58
May June 7.90 7.84 7.41 7.91 7.81 7.18
July 8.02 7.54 7.17
Aug 7.95 7.57 7.12
Sep 7.88 7.81 7.16
Oct 8.06 7.85 7.14
Nov 8.01 7.82 7.30
Dec 7.98 7.99 7.48
pH Effluent of CWs 7.54
Fig 9.15: pH value of influent and effluent of wastewater at Gadenstedt WWTP
In the above fig 9.15, the pH values of influent showed the fluctuation in every month and found to be average values of 8.0, which showed the wastewater in basic (alkali) nature. The pH effluent from trickling filter is found low in July and August with average value 7.54 and maximum value in January, February, March and December falls under the range of 7.96 to 7.99; however mean value of pH is 7.68. Wastewater was treated through the trickling filter, water containing organic matter decomposed; ammonium nitrogen in wastewater is oxidized first to nitrite nitrogen and then to
113 Chapter 9: Results and discussion nitrate through nitrification. The nitrification process produces acid and acid formation lowers the pH value. The pH value of final effluent water from constructed wetlands is found average value of 7.36 during the analysis, whereas the pH value was lower in summer, autumn and higher value in winter and spring respectively.
10.00 8.00 6.00 4.00 2.00 0.00 Influent Effluent of SP Effluent of PP Jan 8.48 7.52 7.68 Feb 8.57 7.34 7.14 7.65 Mar 8.25 7.54 6.51 7.67 Apr 8.31 7.55 6.62 7.98 May June 8.40 7.57 6.59 7.70 8.25 7.24 6.57 7.67 July 8.48 7.50 6.43 8.05 Aug 8.39 7.57 6.41 7.69 Sep 8.11 7.34 6.53 7.40 Oct 8.49 8.03 6.59 7.54 Nov 8.29 7.63 6.85 7.65 Dec 7.95 7.42 7.01 7.45
pH influent and effluent ,Berel
Effluent of CWs(1+2) 7.10
Fig 9.16: pH influent and effluent values of Berel WWTP
Similarly, in the case of Berel treatment plant, pH value of influent water in the first settling pond was found more than 8.0, showing the alkalinity nature of wastewater. pH effluent in settling pond is found on the range of 7.24 to 7.57 except October and November before entering to constructed wetlands. After the oxidation of organic matter and ammonium-nitrogen in the VF constructed wetlands during the intermittent hydraulic loading system; aerobic reaction occurred and released the carbon dioxide forming the carbonic acid, resulting the pH value reduced having average value 6.7. Final pH effluent from polishing pond is found mean value of 7.68, the main cause of algal activity. In the pond during the photosynthesis process algae consumed the CO2 (Carbon Dioxide) after decomposed and leaving an excess of hydroxyl ions. The major source of carbon dioxide for algae depends upon the carbonate and bicarbonate ions reaction. As a result, the pH of the water is increased up to 7.68 (average value) in polishing pond. The potential of increasing the pH of wastewater to high levels by CO2 stripping through air, N2, O2 and a gas mixture (95% N2+ 5% CO2) (Cohen and Kirchmann, 2004).
114 Chapter 9: Results and discussion From the data analysis the main factor which affects the pH is the amount of plant growth and organic material within a body of water. When this material decomposes carbon dioxide is released. The carbon dioxide combines with water to form carbonic acid. Although this is a weak acid, large amounts of it will lower the pH. The effluent value of pH from trickling filter and constructed wetlands is basic nature, whose value only little bit more than neutral water. pH is not changed drastically and cannot be consider the synergy effect on the water. pH play a vital role for healthy aquatic system, can function only within a limited pH range. As a consequence, surface water discharge permits frequently require 6.5< PH <9.0. Wetland water chemistry and biology are likewise affected by pH. Many treatment bacteria are not able to exist outside the range 4.0< pH <9.5 (Metcalf and Eddy Inc., 1991). Denitrifies operate best in the range 6.5 <pH <7.5 and nitrifies prefer pH =7.2 and higher. This is one of the suitable environments for wetlands water chemistry for nitrifying bacteria and microbiological degradation process. The Phragmites australis used in constructed wetlands can withstand within the pH value of 4.8 to 8.2 (Duke, 1978, 1979). There is no harmful effect on the growth and survivable of Common Reed in the constructed wetlands. The height of common reed is found to be 2-3 m in the real field Gadenstedt and Berel. Due to very close value to neutral water, the effluent water from constructed wetlands and polishing pond did not affect on the quality of water in receiving river and seemed no danger to aquatic life present in the river.
9.7
Temperature
The water temperature in treatment wetlands is important for several reasons such as: (1) Temperature modifies the rate of several key biological processes, (2) Temperature is sometimes a regulated water quality parameter, (3) Water temperature is a prime determined of evaporative water loss, (4) Coldclimate wetlands systems have to remain functional in subfreezing condition (Kadlec and Wallace et al., 2009). Treatment wetlands are solar powered ecosystems, resulting in annual cyclic temperatures, where an energy balance is dominated by radiation, heat transfer, heat gains or losses, heat conduction and convection among the ground, the atmosphere and the wastewater (Reed et al., 1995). Wetland energy flows are the proper
115 Chapter 9: Results and discussion framework to interpret and predict not only evaporative process, but also wetlands water temperatures (Kadlec and Wallace et al., 2009).
40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 -5 -10
Air and Water temperature ,Gadenstedt
Jan -4 0 6
Feb 0 5 5
Mar 4 10 7
Apr 7 16 10
May June July 9 18 11 14 29 14 18 34 18
Aug 15 23 17
Sep 11 18 15
Oct 8 14 13
Nov 4 9 14
Dec -4 0 7
Air Temp Min Air Temp Max Water Temp average
Fig 9.17: Annual pattern of water and air temperature at Gadenstedt WWTP
From the temperature figure of Gadenstedt and Berel, it is clearly showed that the annual cycle of wetland water temperature as well as air temperature follows a sinusoidal pattern, with a summer maximum and a winter minimum. The air temperature in winter are varies from -4 C to 0 C, whereas water temperature remains 5 - 7 C. Similarly air temperature was maximum in summer varies from 23 to 34C and water temperature remains 14 to 18 C respectively. This is due to the convection and diffusion method of water surface and transfer heat from air to the wetland. From the correlation graphs, water temperature is dependent on air temperature and around the less than 50 % heat is transferred into the wetlands (T w = 0.44 Ta, R2 = 0.74). Evapotranspiration (ET) is the main causes of water losses to the atmosphere through the water surface, media used and emergent vegetation in constructed wetlands. But the presence of vegetation which helps to retard evaporation, main reasons is shading of the surface, increased humidity near the surface and reduction of the wind velocity at the surface. Another important effects of plants is to provides insulation that helps protecting the soil from freezing during winter, but on the other hand, it keeps the soil the soil cooler during the spring (Vymazal et al. 1998). Abtew (1996) operated vegetated lysimeters for two years in marshes with three vegetation types: 1) Typha domingensis, 2) a mixture including Pontederia cordata, Saittaria
116 Chapter 9: Results and discussion latifolia and Panicum hemitomon, and 3) submerged aquatic Najas guadalupensis and Ceratophyllum demersum. The annual average water losses (ET p) were 3.6, 3.5, 3.7 mm/d respectively.
Air and Water temperature corelation
20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 -5 0
Water temperature C
y = 0,4387x + 6,7985 R = 0,7451
10
15
20
25
30
Air temperature C
Fig 9.18: Relationship between annual average water and air temperature in CWs, at Gadenstedt WWTP (Tw = 0.44 Ta, R2 = 0.74)
Various studies have considered the evaluation of the treatment efficiency of constructed wetlands as a function of temperature depending on components such as substrate composition, degree of plant growth, seasonal changes in
evapotranspiration rates, and microbial activities (Winthrop et al., 2002). Kadlec and Reddy (2000) studied the temperature dependence of many individual wetland processes and wetland removal of contaminants in surface flow wetland. They concluded that microbial mediated reactions are affected by temperature; the treatment response was much greater to changes at the lower end of the temperature scale (<15C) than at the optimal range (20 to 35 C). Furthermore they observed that the processes regulating organic matter decomposition were affected by temperature and so were all the nitrogen cycling reactions (mineralization, nitrification and denitrification). With caparisons the fig. of air and water temperature with the fig. of COD, BOD, NH4N, TN and TP reduction, it is clearly showed that 94-96% BOD, 86-88% COD is reduced by microorganism in the period of summer (June, July, August), when water temperature was 14-18C. BOD (84-94%) and COD (72-89%) reduced in winter (January, February and December), when the water temperature was on the range of 5-7C. Similarly constructed wetlands reduced COD (20-83%), NH4-N (63-70%), and
117 Chapter 9: Results and discussion TP (74-102%) in summer and COD (34-47%), NH4-N (25-48%), TP (27-47%) in winter in the case of Berel project.
Water Temperature
25 20 15
C
10 5 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Water temp inflow Water temp effluent of CWs
Month
Water temp effluent of SP Water temp effluent of PP
Fig 9.19: Water temperature of inflow and outflow from SP, CWs, and PP of Berel WWTP
From above data analysis, it can be concluded that temperature affected on the organic matter (COD, BOD) decomposition and nutrients removable by
microorganism that found maximum in summer and minimum in winter. This is the very simple way analysis comparing of monthly and seasonally BOD, COD, NH4-N and TP reduction in percentage with the monthly and seasonally water temperature. Nutrients reductions are strongly influenced by plants and algal uptake on a seasonal basis. It is analyzed from above data that Microbial activity is peak in midsummer and low in winter. These results justified the literature study mentioned above by Kadlec and Wallace (2009). For the better understanding of temperature effects on pollutants reduction and efficiency of CWs, it is necessary for the concrete analysis by using modified Arrhenius equation (Kt = K20 * (T-20)) and by tracer method.
9.8
Energy / Power consumption at Gadenstedt and Berel WWTP
Energy is required for the development of different sector like energy consumed 44% by industry, transportation by 3% and households by 27% and services and commercials by 26% (AGEB, 2008). Electricity demand in Germany was increased by 16.8% from 1990 to 2008 and decreased by 7 % from 2008 to 2009 (www.umweltbundesamt.de). Furthermore, as populations growing, more demand for
118 Chapter 9: Results and discussion electricity and continual increases in energy costs which affect the operation and maintenance cost in wastewater treatment plants. This gives overstress to people to expense more money on wastewater management. So it is compelled to rethink about the alternative system of wastewater treatment system not only in Germany but also in the case of underdeveloped country of Asia, Africa and Latin American. So it is analysis the data of power consumed by electric pumps, which were installed in different parts of treatment plants like screening, grit chamber, trickling filter, and constructed wetlands for the wastewater treatment process. It is only to find out difference of total annual power consumed and energy cost between the conventional and constructed wetlands system during the wastewater treatment.
9000 8000 7000 6000 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 0 Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Power consumption at Gadenstedt WWTP
By Conventional system 8101 6542 6881 4863 4943 4087 3603 3786 4129 4845 6153 7127 By Bodenfilter 1652 1447 1134 1270 1323 1079 1152 1318 1338 1554 2912 2913
Fig 9.20: Power consumed by conventional system and Constructed Wetlands
From the fig 9.20, power consumed by pumps during the operation periods in the conventional system in every month is higher than the pumps used in constructed wetlands. However electricity used by two pump for wastewater lifting, screening, compressor, sand classifier, sand blower, trickling filter (2 pumps) in the conventional system and only two pumps are used to pump out water into CWs, which are collected in collection chamber. The total power consumed for the wastewater treatment process is 84152 kWh. As shown in figure 9.21, in which conventional and CWs system consumed about 65060 kWh (77%) and 19092 kWh (23%) respectively. Total annual energy cost is invested in 14928 in which conventional system bare 11541.64 and 3386.92 by CWs.
kWh
119 Chapter 9: Results and discussion Total energy cost to be paid 5.33 per person (4.12 for conventional & 1.21 for CWs).
3386.92
Energy cost camparision ,Gadenstedt 65060 kWh
23%
19092 kWh
77%
By Conventional system By Bodenfilter
11541.64
Total power cost = 14928 . 56

Fig 9.21: Energy cost of Gadenstedt WWTP
Similarly, in the case of Berel, one small pumps of 4.5 kW was installed in the screening to collect the screenable materials and two pumps are used as alternatively to distribute the wastewater on the CWs as per design hydraulic loading rate of 59 l/m2.d (average).
Energy consumption in Berel CWs

3000 2500 2000
kWh
1500 1000 500 0 Jan Feb Mar 941 Apr 543 May 484 June 456 July 384 Aug 384 Sep 599 Oct 518 Nov 2453 Dec 538
By CWs 1835 2576
Fig 9.22: Power consumed and total power cost for Berel WWTP
Total power consumed by these three pumps are 11078 kWh in the year 2010 and energy cost be 2077.00 . Total energy cost is to be paid 3.46 per person per year, which is equivalent to 1.22 / m3, which is very cheap for the wastewater treatment.
120 Chapter 9: Results and discussion Similarly, in comparison to 2002, in Germany municipalities are allowed to pass on the full cost to the consumer without and profit with average wastewater fee was 2.24 Euro/m3, which translates to an annual cost of 117 euro per person (www.eawag.ch). According to BDEW, the federal association of the electricity and water industry, electricity prices for private households rose by 2.1% in the first half of 2010. A household with three people using 3,500 kWh pays about EUR 69 per month (www.germanenergyblog.de). So decentralized system is very fruitful to treat wastewater of small community in the economic way and helps to preserve the environment with the ecological way also.
9.9
Efficiency of Constructed Wetlands in Germany and Nepal

Germany
Gadenstedt* in out rem %
mg/l mg/l 16.66 4.40 0.61 6.61 7.29 1.81 56 47 49 55 55 26 -
Nepal
Berel** out rem %
mg/l 39.89 12.92 8.59 4.34 2.92 84 93 72 84 53 -
in
Dhulikhel** in out rem %

mg/l 325 110 33 8 83 mg/l 20 3 1.6 4 2.3 94 97 95 50 97
in
Sunga** out rem %

mg/l 50 30 214.1 24.3 28 96 94 48 45 86
mg/l 243.9 7 190 30.71 26.6 6.23 -
mg/l 1188 450 408.9 44.3 204
COD BOD5 NH4-N NO3-N TN TP TSS
37.87 8.35 1.2 14.75 16.05 2.47 -
Table 9.4: Summary of removal efficiency of constructed Wetlands in Germany and Nepal. (* as tertiary treatment system, ** as secondary treatment system)
In the given table 9.4, all the data are taken in average inflow and outflow values and focused to measure the removal efficiency of constructed wetlands. Concentration of pollutants in wastewater and removal efficiency of CWs at Gadenstedt and Berel are already discussed in this chapter and similarly in the case of Dhulikhel and Sunga described detail at chapter 7. But here the main objective of the results analysis is to compare the treatment efficiency of constructed wetlands between Nepal and Germany being the different climatic condition.
121 Chapter 9: Results and discussion The removal efficiency of COD at Gadenstedt and at Berel is found 56% and 84% respectively. Efficiency of COD reduction at Dhulikhel treatment plan is 94%, which is 38% higher than Gadenstedt and 10% more than Berel. Removal efficiency of COD at Sunga is about 40 % more than Gadenstedt and 12% more than Berel. Similarly, BOD reduction is nearly same efficiency between Sunga and Berel and only 3% difference between Dhulikhel and Berel. 49% NH4-N is reduced by CWs at Gadenstedt, 72% by Berel, 95% by Dhulikhel and 48% by Sunga respectively. Similarly, TP reduction at Gadenstedt, Berel, Dhulikhel and Sunga are found 26%, 53%, 50% and 45% respectively. This is demonstrated by removal efficiencies of BOD, COD, ammonium-nitrogen and phosphorus given in percentage. The removal efficiency of organic compound (COD, BOD) are high that indicates biological activity increased which is temperature dependent. According to the Kppen Climate Classification System (1997), the global climatic regions can be specified by the latitude ranges. Likewise, German lies under the mid-latitude climate (Europe: 45 - 60 N) and temperate climate occurs and large seasonal changes between summer and winter, high annual temperature range and abundant precipitation throughout the year. Whereas, Nepal lies under low-latitude climate (0 - 30 N and S) and partially part is under subtropical climate region. Major climate characteristic are seasonal changes between a very wet, hot and a dry and cooler period. High and tropical temperatures occurred during the wet season and high precipitation during the wet season.
It is also noticed that NH4-N and TP removal performance found high in the case of Berel and Dhulikhel and low in the case of Gadenstedt and Sunga. Nutrients removal process is largely depend upon the material chosen in bed material and types of macrophytes used in constructed wetlands. Kadlec and Wallace et.al (2009)
indicated that especially most plant roots are found on the top soil layer at the depth of 0-10 cm, which helps to remove nutrients with high concentration from this zone by taking up during the cycle of growth. Phosphorus sorption is heavily influenced by the presence of calcium carbonate, aluminum oxides and iron oxides and organic matter in the bed aggregate (Rustige et al., 2003). Constructed wetlands are in operation in worldwide. However, there is long tradition in this field especially in the temperate regions like Europe, North America and
122 Chapter 9: Results and discussion Australia, but many systems have also been constructed and tested in subtropical and tropical areas, especially in the South Asian and Southeast Asian countries, e.g. India, Indonesia, Nepal, South China and Thailand, but also in tropical Africa.
9.10 Constructed wetlands as a suitable technology in Nepal Most of the centrally collected wastewater treatment plants in Nepal are not functioning due to high cost of operation and maintenance and lack off trained human resources. To mitigate the financial problem and minimize of water pollution, low-cost natural treatment options like Constructed Wetlands (CWs) have been introduced in Nepal since 1997. Due to the success of the first CWs system in Dhulikhel Hospital, since then, the interest of people has been growing in this technology and more than a dozen constructed wetlands have been established for various applications such as the treatment of hospital wastewater, grey water, septage, landfill leachate, institutional, universities and municipal wastewater.
TSS Removal Rate (%) 97 98 98 BOD5 Removal Rate (%) 97 97 98 COD Removal Rate (%) 94 96 94 Total cost US $ 27,000 36,111 520 O&M cost US $ per annum 150 722 -
Location
Dhulikhel Hospital Sunga Community Single house grey water Kathmandu University ENPHO SKM hospital
87 87 97
97 95 98
93 88 94
26,000 570 27,000
290 -
Table 9.5: Efficiency of CWs and operation cost (UN-HABITAT, 2008 and ENPHO, 2004)
Since 1997 to 2004, there are 12 sub-surface flow constructed wetland systems in operation for treatment of grey water, wastewater and fecal sludge in Nepal. In general, the performance of the CWs has been excellent as shown in table 9.5. After regular monitoring of the systems and analysis of wastewater sample which shows high pollutant removal efficiency achieving more than 90% removal of TSS, BOD and COD. Designed system does not need any electric energy as the wastewater is fed hydro-mechanically into the beds.
The total cost of CWs at Dhulikhel hospital including the sewer lines was US$ 27,000 in 1997, while the cost of O&M per year is at US$ 150. For the single house, the system required an investment of only about US$ 520 (NRs.36, 000) and O&M cost is very negligible. In SKM hospital, total costs of the system including the sewer lines were US$ 27,000. In Sunga community, the total cost of the treatment plant was US$ 36,111 (NRs. 2.5 million) and average O&M cost of the wetland is about US$ 722 (NRs. 50,000) per year. These projects are an example of an approach towards the sustainable management of water and wastewater, which has inspired people to adopt this type of technology that can be managed by the community or institution itself for the solution of currently mis-managed wastewater in the city. The popularity of CWs for wastewater treatment are also increasing day by day and innovative ideas also developed for the treatment of septage and landfill leachate in the large scale. With this motto, the plant at Pokhara Sub-Metropolitan City was designed to treat 35 m3 of septage and 40 m3 of landfill leachate per day. It was estimated that the city generated 12,000 m3 of faecal sludge and 15,600 m3 of municipal waste every year, all of which would be collected and brought to the site. The treatment plant comprises of 7 compartmental sludge drying beds (area 1645 m2), 2 compartmental horizontal flow CWs (1180 m 2) and 4 compartmental vertical flow CWs (1500m2). The treatment plant at Pokhara is the largest constructed wetland in Nepal and it was built at a cost of US$ 85,700 (Rs. 6 million) under the financial support of Asian Development Bank (ADB). The effectiveness of the treatment plant has not yet been monitored as it is still not fully operational. It is yet in observation and however, as experiences from other countries have shown that constructed wetlands can be used to treat faecal sludge as well landfill leachate, the treatment plant built in Pokhara can be a model for other cities if it is operated properly. Nonetheless, one of the conventional treatment system plant at Guheshwori, the operation and maintenance cost is estimated NRs 12.5 million per year (US $ 167,000 /year) (Richards, 2003). This cost is really very big difference than the constructed and operation cost of constructed wetlands. So, Constructed wetlands (CWs) are less expensive for construction, operation & maintenance as compare to conventional expensive technology as well as higher removal efficiency of pollutants
124 Chapter 9: Results and discussion and utilization of treated effluent for multiple purposes. Therefore, CWs are an alternative and suitable technology in Nepal, which are considered as effective, economic and environmentally friendly and sustainable systems for wastewater treatment.
9.11
Wildlife habitat at Gadenstedt WWTP
Constructed Wetlands and Combined biotopes (Lagoon) at Gadenstedt has been a new destination to many wildlife habits. Some of the macro invertebrate groups can be seen in the wetland area, such as Mollusca and insects but there are no comprehensive lists of even the most common species in these groups. Especially focus to bird species, about 70 species have been recorded from the Gadenstedt WWTP and more than 1380 individuals have been caught and ringed. Reed Warbler, Reed Bunting, Mallard, Greylag Goose and Tufted Duck are dominating bird in the wetlands area. These are the high bird density (33 48 BP/ha.). Some of 27 species birds are found migrants from the different places of Germany and as well as from other country during the early spring and summer seasons. Some of them have been achieved remarkable of long distant migrants from Ibiza, Southern Spain and France.
Fig 9.23: (a) Mr. Matthias Meyer with a Kingfisher in the station. (b) Snails (invertebrates) on bed, (c) Tufted Ducks swimming at combined biotopes (Lagoon)
The water bodies are enriched by nutrients and organic matter from wastewater and stormwater discharge, which are suitable food chain supply for Tufted Duck and macroinvertebrate are the main food of other birds in the wetlands area. There is no hunting but consequent bird protection system. Some of artificial nest are provided for the breeding process focus to Weistorch birds. The diversity and abundance of birds in and around wetlands attract the many birds watcher. So, constructed wetlands are providing benefits beyond effective water treatment, such as wildlife enhancement and recreational opportunity.
125 Chapter 10: Conclusion and Recommendation
10
Conclusion and Recommendation
Constructed wetlands have been evolved during the last five decades into a reliable treatment technology which can be applied to all types of wastewater including domestic, industrial and agricultural wastewaters, landfill leachate and stormwater runoff. Pollution is removed through the processes which are under more controlled conditions. These treatment systems are very favorable for use in rural community and semiurban areas of low population density, where land is easily available with low price and can usually be constructed from local materials. Constructed wetlands are very effective in removing organics and suspended solids, whereas removal of nitrogen is lower but could be enhanced by using a combination of various types of CWs. Removal of phosphorus is usually low unless special media with high sorption capacity are used. Constructed wetlands require very low or zero energy input and, therefore, the operation and maintenance costs are much lower compared to conventional treatment systems. In addition to treatment, constructed wetlands are often designed as dual- or multipurpose ecosystems which may provide food and habitat for wildlife and create pleasant landscapes. So Gadenstedt WWTP is one of the tourist attraction places for many visitors from different country as well as lot of flora and fauna can be seen. At Gadenstedt, constructed wetlands are used as tertiary treatment only for polishing purpose which helps further reduction of organic matter and nutrients from the wastewater to ensure better surrounding environment of receiving water course. And the final effluent of CWs can be used for the multipurpose such as irrigation crops, aquaculture products. However these practices are not in use and directly discharge to small river Fuhse but it alternatively helps to recharging the ground water. The concentration of organic matter and nutrients are very less than legal limit of Federal law and specific limit of Gadenstedt WWTP. As per trial experiment from December 2001 to April 2002, CWs used as secondary treatment and removal efficient of COD, BOD5 was found more than 90 % and
126 Chapter 10: Conclusion and Recommendation nutrients reduction 50% and 30% respectively. So it is recommended that CWs can be used as secondary treatment to make more sense fulfilling its objective instead of tertiary treatment and energy cost can be saved. The operation of trickling filter would be better to close. At Berel, wastewater is treated with the combination of CWs and pond system. The treatment process achieves high effective in the reduction of organic matter and nutrients. Final effluent values of polishing pond are increased than effluent of CWs. So it is better to divert the effluent of CWs directly into the small river Sangebach instead of pond 3. CWs are also very suitable for the application in developing countries where most of the problems with inadequate sanitation occur. A crucial step for the implementation of CWs in developing countries is proper technology transfer. Constructed wetlands (CWs) are an alternative and suitable technology in Nepal, which are considered as effective, economic and environmentally friendly and decentralized sustainable systems for wastewater treatment.
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1 Chapter 1 : Introduction

6 Chapter 1 : Introduction 1.4 Structure of Thesis

8 Chapter 2: Organization involvement 2 2.1 Organization involvement Ingenieurbro Blumberg

Constructed Wetlands Secondary Treatment

Second ary Effluent

Disinfection or Tertiary Treatment

Fig 3.1: Constructed Wetlands in the treatment cycle

Fig 3.3: Detail cross- section of Vertical Flow Subsurface CWS

3.1.4 General advantage and disadvantage

Information share from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microorganism

into force on 1 January 2005 http://www.bmu.de/english/water_management/doc/3462.php

23 Chapter 3: Wastewater treatment through Constructed Wetlands

and no mixing of the water column. The total volume of the

29 Chapter 3: Wastewater treatment through Constructed Wetlands

Fig 3.6: Nitrogen transformation in constructed wetlands (Cooper et al., 1996)

32 Chapter 3: Wastewater treatment through Constructed Wetlands

34 Chapter 4: Criteria for the design of subsurface flow CWs

Criteria for the design of subsurface flow CWs

36 Chapter 4: Criteria for the design of subsurface flow CWs

Design principles of subsurface flow CWs

. (4) (5) (6)

t = V.n / Qd = LW d n / Qd = Ah d n/ Qd HLR = 100 Qd / Ah

(m/d) , K20= rate constant at reference temperature 20 C (day ), K = Rate constant

at temperature dependent (day ), n = porosity (percent, expressed as decimal

residence time (day-1), T = operational temperature ( C), V = volume of wetland

Table 4.1: Temperature coefficient for rate constant in design equations

39 Chapter 4: Criteria for the design of subsurface flow CWs

Parameter BOD COD NH4-N TN TP FC

Table 4.2: Values of areal rate constant (Vymazal et al. 1998)

Table 5.1: typical kf values (Cooper et al. 1996)

Type of macrophytes used in CWs

Schoenoplectus (Scirpus) lacustris, Typha latifolia (Cattails),

44 Chapter 6: Macrophytes used in Constructed Wetlands

Temperature Desirable 10 - 30 12 33 16 26 16 27 14 32 Survival* 12 24 10 30 -

characteristics of the main aquatic macrophytes used in CWs.

46 Chapter 6: Macrophytes used in Constructed Wetlands

Typical root penetration in gravel m 0.3 0.4

Annual yield (mt /ha) Dry weight 30

Functions of macrophytes in constructed wetlands

Wastewater treatment in Nepal

Stabilization pond Stabilization pond

Table 7.1: Condition of wastewater treatment plants in Kathmandu valley

53 Chapter 7: Scenario of Wastewater Treatment in Nepal

54 Chapter 7: Scenario of Wastewater Treatment in Nepal

Constructed Wetlands as an alternative technology in Nepal

Table 7.3: Efficiency of CWs (UN-HABITAT, 2008 and ENPHO, 2004)

Vertical Flow Bed

Fig 8.1: Map of Gadenstedt, Lahstedt

62 Chapter 8: Case Study of Project Area

Fig 8.2: Population graph of Gadenstedt (source: www.lahstedt.de)

8.1.2 Geography and topography

Fig 8.3: Combined waste water biotope in Oberg

Constructed Wetlands and Lagoon area

Screening, Grit chamber, Trickling filter and Sludge drying bed

From Ingenieurbro Blumberg

From Ingenieurbro Blumberg

From Ingenieurbro Blumberg

From Ingenieurbro Blumberg

m/s and a designed pore

First Results in 1999

mg/l BOD5 7.7 4.9

mg/l NO2-N 0.58 0.035