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Reciprocating compressor
STARTING AIR COMPRESSORS are required to charge the starting air receivers and supply compressed air for a variety of uses. Safety regulations demand at least two compressors, each capable of supplying all demands. One must have an independent drive for emergency use. With the high pressures demanded and to obtain the best efficiency at full or part load, reciprocating compressors are invariably used. These are generally two-stage compressors, electrically driven. Pistons for each stage may be arranged in line, either as trunk pistons or witb crossheads. Alternatively, to reduce size and weight, a tandem arrangement with orle piston mounted above the other and driven from a common crank may be used. An inline two-stage trunk piston compressor :s shown in Fig. 5.16. It can be seen that the second stage (h.p.) piston is smaller than that for the first stage (J.p.). This is to accommodate the corresponding reducti~n in the volume of air with a common piston stroke. Compression and oil control rings are fitted to each piston; cylinders and co~ are water cooled. Each stage has light, spring-loaded non-return suction and delivery valves of Iowinertia stainless sieel plates. Limited lift reduces hammering and wiD create high air velocity to maintained cleanliness. Water cooled heal exchangers are fitted to act as an intercooler, which bools the air after first stage compression, and an aftercooler to cool it again after the second (final) stage. Both cooler discharge headers have pressure relief valves and drains. The maximum air temperature at compressor discharge must not exceed 93C and a fusible plug or alarm may be fitted. _ . The compressor intake, which has an air filter, should be placed in a position free of any oil vapour. Compressors should be started with all drains open. the drains being operated intermittently durin~ running and opened again on !:hutting down. The crankcase must meet normal regulationsJor pressure relief and will hold the oil reservoir and self-contained oil pump. Automatic controls for compressors and their drains may. be fitted. OVERHAULING Before overhaul the maker's handbook should be read and any special instructions must be adhered to. Ensure that all air recovers are fully charged and that remaining air compressors are operational. This will provide for any possible emergency in which compressed air is required. The compressor for overhaul is now isolated with electric switches off and fuses or circuit breakers out. Discharge valve and all cooling water connections are shut. The precise order for dismantling will depend upon compressor design and only a general description is given here. All parts should be cleaned upon removal and carefully inspected for signs of wear, damage or mal-operation. Crankcase is opened and drained. oil strainer and internal.; cleaned. Lubricating pump overhauled and c1ear:,;lceschecked. Cooling water spaces are drained, opened, cleaned and inspected. Corrosion fittings are renewed if necessary. Cooling water pump. glands and bearing are overhauled. water strainer cleaned. Air suction filler is cleaned. suction and discharge valves for each stage are dismantled; valves. cages, springs and seats are checked and renewed as necessary. When dismantling or boxing up valves. ensure that set bolts for locating valve cages etc are slackened back while cover nuts are tightened. Inspect valve pockets for signs of excess oil carryover. Remove cylinder covers. dismaatle bottom end bearings and draw pistons with connecting rods. Clean. inspect and gauge piston. compression and oil control rings and renew rings if necessary. Clean. inspect and gauge cylinder liners. Remove

gudgeon pins after checking clearances. Examine bearing surfaces: bearings should be renewed if excessively worn. Overhaul bottom and end bearings, check clearances and journal surfaces. These bearings are usually of the thin-wall type and should be renewed if unduly worn. Oil holes and passages must be checked and bearing shells must have a good mp in the keeps. Clearances are taken by inserting feeler gauges or by jacking tI-.ebearings and measuring lift by a clock gauge. Main bearings are dismantled. inspected and weardown checked. Shaft may be turned by hand to cneck alignment. AUlubrication connections must be clear and pipes secured. If a drive chain is fitted for pumps. this should be inspected. Before boxing up cylinders and crankcase. the piston cnd clearances must be checked at top dead centre positions. Intercooler and aftercooler must be opened up. Water spaces shQ.uldbe cleaned and examined for corrosion and relief valve or bursting disc checked. Air side is opened up. cleaned and inspected and tubes cleaned internally. Drain pockets are cleaned. Drains. relief valves and discharge valve should be-overhauled. If a cylinder mechanical lubricator is fitted. this should also be cleaned and overhauled together with the lubricator points in the cylinder liner. Holding-down bolts and shaft coupling bolts should be checked for tightness. It is assumed that the compressor motor will also have been overhauled. After boxing up all parts. cooling water may be applied. Ensure adequate venting and that all parts are completely filled.Check for water leaks. Recharge crankcase with fresh oil up to the required level. The compl'C$.sorshould now be barred over or turned by hand with drains open. If this is satisfactory. connections can be remade and the compressor run for ten minutes with drains open. Stop and feel round all bearings and . coolers. If satisfactory restart compressor. check drains for excess oil. check all temperatures and pressures together with electrical load. Drain thoroughly before returning to service. Check all pressure gauges when discharge pressure has built up. Check vents from water spaces. If automatic controls are fitted. these must be tested and put into serVice. Check automatic pressure or temperature cutouts or alanns, together with remote reading pressure gauges. Types of compressor Reciprocating, screw, rotary, centrifugal 4 types Operating cycle of a RECIPROCATING air compressor -Consider for a theoretical single stage compressor, the pressure rises to slightly above the discharge pressure. A spring loaded non return valve opens and compressed air passes through at approximately constant pressure. At the end of the discharge stroke the differential pressure across the valve, aided by the valve spring, closes the discharge valve, ends the stroke, trapping a small amount of high pressure air in the clearance space between the piston and cylinder head. On suction stroke this air expands, when the pressure decrease below the outside pressure the suction valve opens, and remains open till the difference in pressure across the suction valve closes it. Another compression stroke begins.

Requirement for multi-stage air compressor in preference to the single stage air compressor. Dividing the total compression of air between a number of stages gives several advantages. For normal air start pressures we only require two stages. but for higher final pressures more stages would be used. Air temperature rises during compression and multi-staging allows the air to be passed through intercoolers between 'stages. returning it to its original temperature and bringing its compression (P/V) curve closer to that for an isothermal operation. TO GET High PRESSURE IN SMALL SIZE COMPRESSOR-- In an air compressor the numbers of stages are governed by the required final pressure of the air. As the pressure increases more stages are required. Stage compression makes easier to hold the air temperature at low level in the compressor and during the passage also. Single stage compression unfortunately generates compression temperature at the level of compression ignition engine. This has a capacity to ignite the vaporized oil present there. Multi-staging with a number of separate pistons will give mechanical improvements of compressor load and balance. reductions in size an~ mass, robust construction of smaller, high pressure parts and reduction in clearance volume losses TO SAVE THE WORK DONE -- The excess heat produced in single stage compression is also a wasteful of energy. This added energy causes a resultant rise in pressure apart from pressure rise expected from the piston. However when the air is cooled, the temperature is lost so as the pressure rise due to the heat. Only the pressure rise due to the compression remains. This xtra pressure developed due to the heat, demands greater energy or work .done for the upward movement of the piston through the compression stroke. High DELIVERY RATE -- This temperature increase, reduce the density of the pumped air, so reduces the volume efficiency of compression. At the same time the lubrication of the cylinder and piston becomes difficult. TO REDUCE THE TEMPERATURE -- Perfect cooling in a single stage compressor will remove all these problems, but not possible because of the material heat transmission is not perfect, and very less time is available for heat transmission. Inter-cooling is developed, adopted in between the stages of the compression, which lowers the work done in compressing the air. This solves a lot of mechanical problems, less difficulty for piston liner lubrication. Suction and delivery valves remain cleaner with out becoming fouled for a longer time. A main consideration is the reduction in air temperature which makes lubrication of _

later stage liners possible and generally adds to the safety of the system. The gain in efficiency can be illustrated on a pressure-volume diagram (Fig. 5.17) on which it can be seen that isothermal compression (at constant temperature) causes least area of diagram and therefore least power absorbed. Returning the compression line to this curve between stages will reduce power absorbed in the second stage by the shaded area shown.

ideal diagram of two stage compressor with intercooling Requirement for inter-coolers During compression the energy converts into heat and so a consequent rise in temperature, which reduce the density of air, so reduce the volumetric efficiency. To increase the volumetric efficiency intercoolers are required. Volumetric efficiency = volume of free air discharged / swept volume of the piston. To minimize the heat loss, reduce the temperature rise of air, the heat must be removed. Heat removal through the cylinder walls is restricted because of small surface area, and less time available. By employing the inter cooler the temperature of the air decrease, so the specific volume (volume per unit mass) decrease, so the work done on the air decrease. More mass of air is pressurized. Power consumption decreases because the work done against the heat of the air reduces. So less work is required to compress the air. This solves a lot of mechanical problems, less difficulty for piston liner lubrication. Suction and delivery valves remain cleaner with out becoming fouled for a longer time. Carbonization of the valve, surface etc reduces as the average operating temperature of the compressor is at a low level. So with out using a intercooler, or when the inter cooler gets fouled:1. No perfect cooling, volumetric efficiency decrease, air temperature rises, average operating temperature of compressor is high. 2. As specific volume increases, less mass of air is discharged, so compressor runs for a long period. 3. more power consumed, as work done against pressure rise due to the heat while compressing and discharging

4. Lubrication may be damaged due to high temperature deteriorates the lubricating oil quality. Valves may carbonize. Intercoolers are fitted with pockets and drain valves which allow removal of moisture condensed during Cooling together with any excess lubricating oil mist carried over in the air. An after cooler is fitted after the final stage of compression. This does not improve the compressor efficiency but aids removal of moisture and oil and reduces air temperature before passing it to the air receiver. An intercooler contains banks of copper tubes through which the air passes. These are expanded into a brass tubeplate. If straight tubes are used. a header is required to permit thermal expansion. U tubes in a cooler cause the ail: to make two passes & tubes are free to expand. A cast iron outer casing permits circulation with cooling water. Volumetric efficiency: Volumetric efficiency = volume of air discharged as free air / swept volume of LP piston. Free air is the air at atmospheric pressure and 15. Factors affecting the volumetric efficiency. CLEARANCE VOLUME/ BUMPING CLEARANCE is the clearance between the cylinder cover and top of the piston, at the end of the discharge stroke of the compressor. At excess clearance volume, which will be full of air at the end of the discharge stroke, contains a large mass of air due to high pressure and is un-delivered. At expansion stroke, this air is expanded until the pressure inside the cylinder is low enough for opening the suction valve. With large clearance volume, a large part of the suction stroke is made ineffective, as cylinder contains air with higher or equal pressure to the intake air. Once the pressure falls below the outside pressure, the suction valve opens, fresh air is introduced. So the mass of air discharged reduced, so as the volumetric efficiency. CLEARANCE VOLUME IS CRITICAL towards the performance of the compressor, as this varies according to the cylinder diameter, running speed, final discharge pressure. Same clearance volume at HP and LP stages contain different mass of air. If the clearance volume is high, it reduce the volumetric efficiency, if it is small there is possibilities of contact of piston top and cylinder cover. CLOSING OF THE SUCTION And DELIVERY VALVES: if the suction valve becomes leaky in nature due to weak spring or carbon deposit etc then a part of the air drawn into the cylinder will be returned through the valve during the first part of delivery stroke. Volumetric efficiency decreases. If the reseating of the delivery valve becomes slow, then a part of the air discharged will return back to the cylinder at the 1st part of the suction stroke. In both cases it causes less mass delivery, and decrease in volumetric efficiency. IN SUFFICIENT COOLING due to any reason causes the air temperature high, so the specific volume increase, so less mass of air is compressed. That is reduced volume efficiency. This may be due to water starving of the inter cooler, fouling of cooling space, cooling water temperature is high, cooling water pump does not cope up. HIGHER AIR INTAKE TEMPERATURE and more humidity reduce the density of air so causes less mass handling by the compressor. WHEN AIR SUCTION SIDE THROTTLED, the air will be prevented in following up the piston, at the correct rate during the suction stroke. So when the delivery stroke starts there exist a partial vacuum in the cylinder and less air is being discharged during each delivery stroke. This reduces the volumetric efficiency. The reasons for this may be --- dirty and partly choked suction filter, insufficient suction valve lift, suction valve springs are too strong, suction filter is very small. Requirement of suction filters size as large and necessity of keeping clean.

Dirty air filters causes a partial vacuum inside the cylinder at the end of the suction stroke and beginning of delivery, hence less mass of air is discharged, which decrease the volumetric efficiency. The partial vacuum created inside the cylinder, has a tendency to suck air from the crank case, if it occurs it will suck the oil vapors from the crank case, so oil vapors comes into the air line. This can cause carbonization of the valves, hence valve mal function and in worse case, start line explosion. Due to high running rate of the compressor, it needs a larger mass of the to be drawn into cylinder with in a small time, during suction stroke. Large, clean suction filters do not restrict this passage, so helps not to reduce the volume efficiency. Large size of suction filters avoids the turbulence of high speed air and helps to give a streamline flow. Turbulence causes resistance to flow, hence mass flow is reduced. Large size and diameter of the suction filter dampens the vibration occurs due to the jerk type of the suction. Hence very well act like a silencer. Bumping clearance: It is the clearance between the piston top and the cylinder cover when the piston is at TDC. HOW IS IT MEASURED? Normally, it is fixed by the designer. Sometimes a small, loosely, woven ball of lead wire is placed on the top of the piston, which has been moved a little off from the end of the stroke. The cylinder cover is replaced by a joint placed on top of the cylinder, and tightened. The compressor is barred slowly to the top center position so that the ball of lead wire compressed. After it is removed from the piston and measured with a micrometer and referred to the manufacturers instruction. Prevent excess wire being used. Make for 2 attempts. Ball wire should be placed centrally positioned on top of the piston. If the wire moves on one side, the piston may bend and will give wrong information. Why BUMPING CLEARANCE IS CHECKED? Excess bumping clearance, causes loss of volumetric efficiency, so compressor runs for a longer time, which affects the life of the parts. Less bumping clearance may causes contact of piston top surface to the cylinder cover may cause subsequent damage to the parts. Space should be allowed owing to the bearing wear down where the piston may throw upwards causing collision. EFFECT OF High BUMPING CLEARANCE. High pressure air retaining inside the cylinder after compression and delivery will expand in the return stroke of the piston till the pressure falls below that in the suction manifold before the fresh air charge can be drawn into the cylinder, hence a part of the stroke remain in-effective. Hence this must be kept as small as possible in order to keep the capacity maximum. CORRECTION OF THE BUMPING CLEARANCE The measured clearance is compared with the manufacturers instruction. Adjustments are made by altering the cover joint thickness or by filling or removing the shims between the foot of the connecting rod and bottom end bearing. Some times it is adjusted by putting shims over the liner, below the head. This alters the clearance of one stage only. Ideal clearance = 5% of the cylinder bore. Why CORRECT TOP, BOTTOM, And MAIN BEARING CLEARANCE SHOULD BE MAINTAINED. These three bearing clearances effect the lift of the working position of the piston in the cylinders. The lifting of working position of the piston reduce the bumping clearance at top, also increase the clearance at the lower part of the stroke. This alters the volumetric efficiency of the compressor, sometimes efficient LP and decrease efficiency of HP and vice versa. Decrease in volumetric efficiency, increase in running hours of the compressor also in extreme cases contact piston with head surface so subsequent damage. Lubricating oil pressure is affected, as these are high speed machines, so the clearance is critical as they will loose the hydro dynamic lubrication. As the bearing surface area is small

compared to the piston area and the forc acting is quite high due to high pressure on the bearing, where if the clearance is not maintained will cuase destruction OD load carrying capacity of lubricating film. Also clearance is required to be maintained, otherwise impact loading will exist once the bearing and journal which may lead to a fatigue failure or in severe cases a crack on the bearing and or journal. Why THE CLEARANCE IS NOT ADJUSTED AT ONE STAGE ALONE. The clearance in hp and lp stages are independent individually. Hence adjusting one stage simultaneously changes the relative position of the piston with respect to liner. Hence considering only one stage may cause piston to touch the liner causing a mechanical damage, or increase the clearance volume, so decrease the volume efficiency. Hence both stages are taken into account while considering the adjustments of bumping clearance. . Lubricating oil for compressor. KIND OF LO Light kind of oils can be used for compressor. They should produce deposits. This oil is subjected to high temperature, and moisture. It should keep its oiliness property. At fast running speeds the cylinder lo should not deteriorate, it should maintain the dispersive ness character. Carbonization of the oil should be very low. It should not emulsify, as plenty water available along with compressed air as a moisture It should have a high flash point. It should not be ignited readily when leaked into the compression chamber by any means. Cylinder lubrication in case of small compressor done by splash lubrication where as in case of large compressor by lubrication quills. OIL CARRYOVER Choked intake filter, causes a partial vacuum in the cylinder during the suction stroke, lo is sucked from the crank case. This generates the oil carryover. This is enhanced by leaky piston rings, oil scraper rings. When the oil scraper ring is damaged, it will not scrape the oil from the cylinder walls efficiently. Excess cylinder lubrication also causes some oil carryover. When the air temperature is high, the oil vapors are emulsified with moisture and delivered to the air discharge line If the oil separator unit is not functioning properly, then the oil carryover will occur. Lubrication Some air compressor pistons are connected to the connecting-rod through a gudgeon pin and are similar to trunk pistons. With such an arrangement the cylinders are lubricated by oil splashed from the crankcase. Condition of scraper rings is of the utmost importance in this type of compressor. When air compressor pistons are connected to the running gear through piston rods and crossheads, the piston rings, pistons, and cylinders are lubricated with lubricator pumps similar to those fitted on crosshead engines for cylinder lubrication. The oil is passed through a quill fitting to the cylinder liner. . Safety items Lubricating oil low pressure shut down, bursting disc on jacket cooler, relief valve in all stages to release at 10% of over pressure, unloader, suction filter, suction, discharge, oil pressure gauges, non return discharge valve on the line, drain valve, jacket cooling water flow gauge glass, expansion tank low level alarm, high delivery temperature shut down are the various safety items on a reciprocating compressor. SAFETY ON INTER COOLER.

Relief valve is fitted to the air outlet of each stage cooler, set to lift at 10% over pressure of the stage pressure. Drains fitted to each stage of inter cooler. Cooling coils are more liable to vibrate, so they are well secured by the lead lined clips. RELIEF DEVICE ON WATER SIDE OF INTERCOOLER CASING Inter cooler tubes generally pass through the water side of the casing for a better cooling effect. The tubes are generally of copper material, for a better heat transfer. In case of failure of the cooler tubes, to protect the water side of the cooler from over pressure relief device is fitted. They are normally relief valve or a bursting disc. COMPRESSOR discharge Line SHOULD BE AS SMOOTH AS POSSIBLE. To prevent the undue resistance developed by the bends, obstruction to the flow of air. This effect the capacity of the compressor, by reducing the mass of air discharge. At bends a shock impulse can set up, by the flow of air. There exist a back pressure to the flow of air which imparts a back pressure on discharge valve. This in turn reduces the volumetric efficiency. Pipelines are more prone to vibration. In serious cases it may damage the pipe due to shock loading or fatigue. Static electricity may be developed, which may causes sparking due to the impulse loading of the air over the pipes, in worse condition it may lead to start line explosion as lot of oil vapor present in the air. REQUIREMENT OF UNLOADER Before stopping and at initial starting the compressor solid be unloaded. The purpose is to reduce the starting torque of the motor. Various methods are employed to do this, throttling of the suction, speed variation, bypassing the discharge to suction, fitting depressors which hold the suction valve plates on their seats, opening 1st and 2nd stage cooler drains. The last method is frequently used, solid is used for the automatic drain operation. . 'valve loss' relative to reciprocating air compressors The suction and delivery valves of an air compressor allow the air to flow in only one direction. The suction valves allow air flow into the cylinder and prevent back flow out. The delivery valve similarly allows air to flow out of the cylinder and prevents now back. To make the action of the valves more positive the valves are spring loaded. When the piston is making a suction stroke, the pressure within the cylinder space is lowered to the point where the air pressure behind the suction valve overcomes the spring load and causes the valve to open. When the suction valve opens, the external air flows into the cylinder by virtue of the greater air pressure outside the cylinder. During the suction stroke the air within the cylinder clearance volume expands to some value lower than outside. Once the air commences to flow through the suction valve the pressure in the cylinder rises slightly but remains slightly lower than the pressure outside. This pressure difference is necessary to get air to flow into the cylinder. Thl' difference in pressure is the suction valve loss. Similarly on the discharge stroke of the piston the pressure in the cylinder rises to some point at which the discharge valve opens. After the valve opens the pressure in the cylinder falls slightly, then remains approximately constant, and falls again just before the discharge valve closes. This approximately constant pressure would be slightly higher than the pressure into which the compressor is discharging. This pressure difference comes about due to flow 'resistance set up within the valve. These valve losses lower the mechanical efficiency of the air compressor. From this it can be seen that careful attention must be given to suction and delivery valves when they are overhauled and that it is essential that the correct type and weight of springs be fitted.

From the manuals of INGERSOLL-RAND, model SSR-2000

Screw compressor
Compression in screw type compressor is created by meshing two helical rotors on parallel shafts, enclosed in heavy duty cast iron housing, with air inlet & outlet ports located in opposite ends. Angular contact ball bearings at the discharge end prevent axial movement of rotors. Coolant lubricant is injected during the compression phase & takes up the heat of compression, lubricating the rotors, seals the rotor clearances against the leakage. Coolant lubricating circulation system Bottom of receiver separator unit gear pump (direct drive from splined shaft) thermostatic valve cooler / bypass the cooler coolant filter through a valve positioner sprays into the compressor. Before entering the positioner the filtered coolant passes through a load solenoid valve for capacity control. There is a coolant lubricant air separation system consist of a coalescing type separator element. To provide a manual& or automatic unloaded compressor start the components coordinated in a system is (a) a normal no load selector switch. (b) star delta time delay for unloading. Capacity control of air compressor Capacity control is of 2 types (1) online-off line control (2) upper range modulation. THE ONLINE OFF LINE CONTROL will delivery air at pressure such that at full capacity or at low capacity. The operation is controlled by the pressure switch responding to the changes in plant air pressure. This switch energizes the load solenoid valve & the blow down solenoid valve whenever the plant air pressure drops below the lower set point & keeps these solenoid valve energized until the upper point is reached. These energizing in turn makes the pressurized coolant to the inlet valve positioner through the load solenoid valve forcing the inlet valve to open fully. The blow down solenoid valve closes off the atmosphere vent. The compressor now operates at full capacity. Once the system pressure rises to the rated value both solenoid valve de-energized, hence load solenoid valve will shut off the flow of pressurized coolant to the inlet valve positioner, allowing the inlet valve to close. The blow down solenoid valve will open receiver vent line to the atmosphere. Here the compressor is continue to run but since most pressure is relieved, it will run with low power draw. UPPER RANGE MODULATION CONTROL (URM). This control system retains the feature of the OLOL control , but provides for throttling of the inlet air flow as the line pressure rises to the upper set point of the pressure switch. By applying line pressure to a spring loaded diaphragm valve, that is, the modulator, the throttling of the inlet valve is controlled. The intake valve positioner is a part of the linkage, but does not act to diesel oil other than move the intake valve to the open position, allowing the modulator to trim the intake valve position as dictated by the line pressure. The modulating line pressure range is about 7psi(0.5 bar). Modulation begins when the line pressure reaches about 96% of the compressor rated pressure & continues as/ if the line pressure rises. Modulation becomes stable when the compressor output equals to the plant air demand. When the modulation has the setting with the maximum capacity reduction will be down to approximately 60% of the compressor rated capacity . if the air demand is decreased a level below the rated setting value the line pressure will slightly increase to actuate the pressure switch. The compressor then shift to the OLOL condition with the receiver vented. Coolant lubricant Rotary screw compressor fluids have the function as such:----(1) They lubricate the bearings & the contacting surfaces of the rotors. (2) They seal internal clearance with in the rotor chamber.

(3) They provide for the cooling of the compression process. The bulk of fluid is actually used for cooling. (4) The viscosity range is such that they provide excellent sealing of internal clearance over a broad range of operating temperature. In fact the viscosity change with temperature is small enough to permit the coolant lubricant to be used over a wide range of ambient conditions. (5) It should have a property of high thermal stability. (6) It should have high oxidation stability to provide a long life. (7) Due to large volume of liquid circulated & its direct contact with air & compression & pressure release; foaming is a regular problem. Hence it should have quick air release character. (8) They should have little affinity towards water as well as quick air release character. HPCLs TURBINOLL 77 or IOCs servo marine CT76 grade of oil used. Various safety items (1) Remote shut down alarm. (2) Low coolant flow shut down. (3) Space heaters. (4) Dual pressure switch. (5) Air end filter & pre filter. (6) Low noise enclosures.