Ch.

1: The Microbial World and You

Microbes in our lives y Microbes, called microorganisms, are living things that individually are usually too small to be seen with the unaided eye. y Only minorities of microorganisms are pathogenic (disease-producing). Naming and classifying microorganisms y The system of nomenclature (naming) for organisms was established in 1735 by Carolus Linnaeus. y The genus is the first name and is always capitalized, and the species name follows and is not capitalized. Types of Microorganisms y Bacteria are relatively simple, single-celled (unicellular) organisms. They are called prokaryotes because their genetic material is not enclosed in a nucleus. y Bacterial cells appear in one of several shapes: bacillus (rod-like), coccus (spherical or ovoid), and spiral (corkscrew or curved). They may form in pairs, chains, clusters, or other groupings. y Enclosed in cell walls that are largely composed of a carbohydrate and protein complex called peptidoglycan. y Reproduce by dividing into two equal cells; a process called binary fission. y Most can swim by using moving appendages called flagella. Archaea y Consist of prokaryotic cells, but if they have cell walls, the walls lack peptidoglycan. y Found in extreme environments, and are divided into three main groups. o Methanogens produce methane as a waste product from respiration. o Extreme halophiles live in extremely salty environments. Ex: Great Salt Lake and the Dead Sea. o Extreme thermophiles live in hot sulfurous water. Ex: hot springs at Yellowstone National Park. y Not known to cause diseases in humans. Fungi y Eukaryotic organisms whose cells have a distinct nucleus thats surrounded by a special envelope called the nuclear membrane. y Consists of unicellular or multicellular organisms. Large multicellular fungi, such as mushrooms cannot carry out photosynthesis like plants. y True fungi have cell walls composed primarily of a substance called chitin. The unicellular forms of fungi, yeasts, are oval microorganisms that are larger than bacteria. The most typical fungi are molds. y Molds form visible masses called mycelia are composed of long filaments (hyphae) that branch and intertwine. y Reproduce sexually and asexually. y Obtain nourishment by absorbing solutions of organic matter from their environmentwhether soil, seawater, fresh water, or an animal or plant host. Organisms called slime molds have characteristics of both fungi and amoebas. Protozoa y Unicellular eukaryotic microbes y Move by pseudopods, flagella, or cilia y Amoebas move by using extensions of their cytoplasm called pseudopods (false feet). Other protozoa have long flagella or numerous shorter appendages for locomotion called cilia. y Live either as entities or as parasites (organisms that derive nutrients from living hosts) that absorb or ingest organic compounds from their environments. y Reproduce sexually or asexually. Algae y y y y y Photosynthetic eukaryotes Cell walls consists of cellulose Abundant in fresh and salt water, in soil, and in association with plants As photosynthesizers, algae need light, water, and carbon dioxide for food production and growth, but they do not generally require organic compounds from the environment. Produce oxygen and carbohydrates that are then utilized by other organisms, including animals.

Viruses y Small enough to be seen only with an electron microscope y Acellular y A virus particle consists of core made of only one type of nucleic acid. This core is surrounded by a protein coat. The coat is sometimes encased by an additional layer, a lipid membrane called an envelope. y Viruses reproduce only by using the cellular machinery of other organisms. Thus, they are only considered to be living when they multiply within the host cells they infect. y On the other hand, they are not living because outside living hosts, they are inert. Multicellular Animal Parasites y Two major groups of parasitic worms are flatworms and roundworms, collectively called helminthes. y During some stages of their life cycle, they are microscopic in size. Classifying Microorganisms y In 1978, Carl Woese devised a system of classification based on the cellular organization of organisms. Groups all organisms in 3 domains: o Bacteria: cell walls consist of a protein-carbohydrate complex called peptidoglycan o Archaea: cell walls, if present, lack peptidoglycan o Eukarya  Protists: slime molds, protozoa, and algae  Fungi: unicellular yeasts, multicellular molds, and mushrooms  Plants: include mosses, ferns, conifers, and flowering plants  Animals: includes sponges, worms, insects, and vertebrates Brief History of Microbiology y After observing thin slice of cork, Robert Hooke, reported that lifes smallest structural units were little boxes, or cells. y Hookes discovery of observing individual cells marked the beginning of cell theory which states that all living things are composed of cells. y Dutch scientist Anton Van Leeuwenhoek was the first one to actually observe live microorganisms through magnifying lenses of more than 400 microscopes. y During the second half of the 19th century, most scientists and philosophers believed that some forms of life could arise spontaneously from nonliving matter; otherwise known as spontaneous generation. y In 1858, German scientist Rudolf Virchow challenged the case for spontaneous generation with the concept of biogenesis, claiming that living cells can only arise from preexisting living cells. y Louis Pasteur demonstrated that microorganisms are present in the air and can contaminate sterile solutions, but that air itself does not create microbes. o Filled short-necked flasks with beef broth and boiled their contents. o Those that were left open were found to be contaminated with microbes and the sealed flasks were free of microorganisms. o Reasoned that microbes in the air were agents responsible for contaminating nonliving matter such as broths in Needhams flasks. o Showed that microorganisms can be present in nonliving matteron solids, in liquids, and in the air. o Demonstrated that microbial life can be destroyed by heat and by aseptic techniques, which prevent contamination by unwanted microorganism. Fermentation and Pasteurization y Many scientists believed that air converted sugars in wine and beer into alcohol. y Pasteur found instead that microorganisms called yeasts convert the sugars to alcohol in absence of air. o This was known as fermentation, which was used to make wine and beer. o Souring and spoilage are caused by two different microorganisms called bacteria. In presence of air, bacteria changes alcohol in the beverage into vinegar (acetic acid). y Pasteurs solution to the spoilage problem was heating the beer and wine just enough to kill most of the bacteria. o This process was known as pasteurization, which is used to reduce spoilage and kill potentially harmful bacteria in milk as well as some alcoholic drinks.

The germ theory of disease y Principle that microorganisms cause disease y 1860; Joseph Lister, an English surgeon, applied germ theory to medical procedures. o Lister was aware that in 1840s, physician Ignaz Semmelweiz demonstrated that physicians, who at the time did not disinfect their hands, routinely transmitted infections (child birth fever) from one patient to another. o Though disinfectants were not used at the time, Lister knew a phenol (carbolic acid) that killed bacteria. So, he began treating surgical wounds with a phenol solution.  Reduced the incidence of infections and deaths y In 1876, Robert Koch was the first one to prove that bacteria cause diseases: Germ Theory of Disease o Established a sequence of experimental steps for directly relating a specific microbe to a specific disease, also known as Kochs postulates. Vaccination y On May 4, 1796, Edward Jenner embarked on an experiment to find a treatment for smallpox. o Jenner collected scrapings from cowpox blisters. o Inoculated a healthy 8-year-old with the cowpox material by scratching the persons arm. o Scratch turned into a raised bump o Volunteer became mildly sick but recovered and never again contracted either cowpox or smallpox. o This process was called vaccination y Protection from disease provided by vaccination (or by recovery from the disease itself) is called immunity. Magic Bullet y Treatment of disease by using chemical substances is called chemotherapy. o Term refers to chemical treatment of non-infectious disease, such as cancer. y Chemical produced naturally by bacteria and fungi to act against other microorganisms are called antibiotics. y Chemotherapeutic agents prepared from chemicals in the laboratory are called synthetic drugs. y Paul Ehrlich speculated about a magic bullet that could hunt down and destroy a pathogen without harming the infected host. o In 1910, after testing hundreds of substances, he found a chemotherapeutic agent called salvarsan, an arsenic derivative effective against syphilis. Antibiotics y Alexander Fleming made some culture plates that had been contaminated by a mold. o After taking a second look at them, he saw curious pattern of growth on the contaminated plates. o Around the mold was a clear area where bacterial growth had been inhibited. o Mold was later identified as Penicillium notatum, later renamed Penicillium chrysogenum.  Molds active inhibitor was named penicillin. y A problem with antibiotics and other chemotherapeutic drugs is that they cause toxicity to humans. o Toxicity to humans is a particular problem in development of drugs for treating viral diseases. y Another problem with antimicrobial drugs is the emergence and spread of new strains of microorganisms that are resistant to antibiotics. o Drug resistance results from genetic changes in microbes that enable them to withstand antibiotics that at one time were effective against them. o These changes might include production of microbes by chemicals (enzymes) that inactivate antibiotics, changes in their surface that prevent an antibiotic from attaching to it, and prevention of an antibiotic from entering the microbe. Bacteriology, mycology, and parasitology y Bacteriology- study of bacteria. y Mycology- study of fungi includes medical, agricultural, and ecological branches. y Parasitology- study of protozoa and parasitic worms. o Speculated for the medical symbol, caduceus represents removal of parasitic guinea worms. y Recent advances in genomics, the study of all of an organisms genes, have allowed scientists to classify bacteria and fungi according to their genetic relationships with other bacteria, fungi, and protozoa. Immunology y Immunology- study of immunity o Vaccines now available for numerous diseases, including measles, rubella, mumps, chickenpox, pneumococcal pneumonia, tetanus, tuberculosis, influenza, whooping cough, polio, and hepatitis B. o 1960; interferons, substances generated by the bodys own immune system were discovered.

Inhibit replication of viruses and have triggered research related to the treatment of viral diseases and cancer.

Virology y Virology- study of viruses. o 1892; Dmitri Iwanowski reported that organism that caused mosaic disease of tobacco was so small that it passed through filters fine enough to stop all bacteria. Recombinant DNA technology y Microorganisms can now be genetically modified to manufacture large amounts of human hormones. o Late 1960s, Paul Berg showed fragments of human or animal DNA that code for important proteins attached to bacterial DNA. o Resulting hybrid was first example of recombinant DNA o When its inserted into bacteria, it can be used to make large amount of desired protein. o Technology that developed from this technique is called recombinant DNA technology.  Microbial genetics studies mechanisms where microorganisms inherit traits  Molecular biology studies how genetic information is carried in molecules of DNA and how DNA directs synthesis of proteins. How microbes are effective to human life? y Microbial ecology- study of the relationship between microorganisms and their environment. y Chemical elements carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur, and phosphorus are essential for life and abundant, but not in forms that organisms can use. y Bioremediation- toxins can be removed from underground wells, chemical spills, toxic waste sites, and oil spills. y Gene therapy- inserting a missing gene or replacing a defective one in human cells. o Uses a harmless virus to carry the missing or new gene into certain host cells, where gene is picked up and inserted into the appropriate chromosome. Microbes and Human Disease y Normal microbiota- microorganisms that are on and inside our bodies and that are completely harmless. y Resistance- ability to ward off disease. o Importance resistance is provided by:  Barrier of skin  Mucous membranes  Cilia  Stomach acid  Antimicrobial chemicals such as interferons y Infectious disease- disease in which pathogen invades a susceptible host, such as a human or an animal. y Emerging infectious disease (EIDs) - diseases that are new or changing and are increasing or have the potential to increase in incidence in the near future.