Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Review of Basics
Types of Loads
Resistive Inductive Capacitive
Resistive Circuit
Inductive Loads
V
Capacitive Loads
I
+
V Pi
Active power
Reactive power
Inductive Load
Inductive Load
Capacitor
Reactive power
Inductive Load
1
P(kW)
Q(kVAr)
1 2
P(kW) -QC
QC = P (Tan 1 - Tan 2) Cos 1 = Initial Power Factor Cos 2 = Final Power Factor Partially compensated Load
I2
I1
Resonance Analogy-1
Definition:Resonance is defined as a condition where Capacitive Reactance becomes equal to Inductive Reactance in magnitude. The frequency at which this occurs is called the Resonance Frequency.
| XL| = |XC |
Inductor
| XL| = |XC |
Inductor
|Z| = 0
Zeq = Z1 + Z2
Series Resonance
Parallel Resonance
Resonance Analogy-2
Uncompensated load
Inductive Load
Compensated Load
Inductive Load
If you make |XL| of Load = |XC| of Capacitor at Fundamental Frequency, then the PF will be Unity due to Parallel resonance b/w capacitor & load inductor.
Inductor
Inductor
Resistor
Resistor
Resistor
Practical Example
40 W Fluorescent Tube Light
Choke P N
Apparent Power = Active Power/ PF = 83.33 VA. Reactive Pr.= (VA)2-(W)2 = (83.33)2-(50)2 = 66.67 VAr. Capacitive VAr. req. for UPF = 66.67=V2(2f)C Hence Capacitor req. for UPF=106x66.67/2302/100 = 4.01 F.
230V
L = XL/(2f) = 793.5/100 = 2.526 H. The value of capacitive reactance required to Resonate with the inductive reactance at the R fundamental frequency is given by, |XC| = |XL| = 793.5 = 1/100C C = 106/(793.5x100) = 4.01F.
Inductor
Resistor
230V C
Mathematical expression of PF
Displacement Power factor = P/(V1I1) Where P = watts and V1 and I1 are fundamental voltage and current THDV 2 THDI 2 V = V rms 1 1+ 1+ 100 100 True Power factor = P/ (VrmsIrms) P = THDV 2 V1I1 1 + THDI 2 1+ 100 100 True Power factor = Displacement PF x Distortion PF Irms= I1
(
1+
) (
1
Where Distortion PF =
THDI 100
) 1 + (
2
THDV 100
Effect of harmonics on PF
%THD(V) 0 1 2 3 4 5 %THD(I) 0 20 40 60 80 100 Distortion PF 1.00 0.98 0.93 0.86 0.78 0.71
kW2+kVAr2
kW True PF = kW2+kVAr2+kdVA2
Electric Power
Apparent Power kVA
wer Po
Po we r Re ac tiv e
tive Ac
Power Triangle
Reactive Power
Ap pa r en tP
kVA =
ow er
kW2 + kVAr2
kW kVA
P.F. =
Active Power
PF of various Industries
Industry
Textiles Chemical Machine shop Arc Welding Arc Furnaces Coreless induction furnaces and heaters Cement plants Garment factories Breweries Steel Plants Collieries Brick Works Cold Storage Foundries Plastic moulding plants Printing Quarries Rolling Mills (i.e. ,Paper, Steel , etc.)
Power Factor
0.65/0.75 0.75/0.85 0.4 / 0.65 0.35/ 0.4 0.7 / 0.9 0.15/0.4 0.78/0.8 0.35/0.6 0.75/0.8 0.6 / 0.85 0.65/0.85 0.6 / 0.75 0.7 / 0.8 0.5 / 0.7 0.6 / 0.75 0.55/0.7 0.5 / 0.7 0.3 / 0.75
Inductive Loads
Induction Motor 0.8 P.F Arc Furnace 0.8 P.F
Floursent Lamp 0.5 P.F. Induction Furnace 0.8 P.F Welding Transformer 0.5 P.F.
Session 2
Benefits of Power factor improvement
. KW
KVA 1 = KVA2 =
KVAR
KV A
KVAR1 = =
KW2
. KW
KVAR 2 =
3 V I
1000 KVA x 1000 3 x 415 1500 x 1000
3 x 415
2087 Amp 978 x 1000
I2
= =
3 x 415
1361 Amp
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
P.F .
Cable Losses
% of saving in losses =
1-
Cos1 Cos2
X 100
1-
0.6 0.92
X 100
= 57.46
P.F.
1.0 0.95 0.9
0.8
0.6 0.7
0.85
0.8
0.9
Initial P.F.
Transformer Losses
Saving in losses = Wr x K1
1 Cos
1 Cos
Wr = Full load copper loss of the transformer connected load in Kw k1 KVA rating of the transformer
Transformer Losses
40000 35000 30000 cu Loss 25000 20000 15000 10000 5000 0 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 Transformer KVA
Copper losses
Transformer Losses
Saving in losses = Wr x K1
1 Cos
1 Cos
1 0.6
1 0.92
Power Savings
3000 2500 2000
1500 1500 1000 2500 2086 1360 1600
CURRENT AT 0.92 PF
AT 0.6 PF
ACB RATNG
Workshop - I
1.
Calculate the pf and kVA demand at the secondary of a 1000kVA, 11/0.44 kVA transformer supplying the following loads:
100kW 150kW 250kW 100kW UPF 0.9 lag 0.8 lag 0.9 lead
2.
A 50HP 440V, 3ph, 50Hz, 1500rpm Induction motor has the following operating conditions: PF = 0.9lag, & efficiency = 90% under full load. PF = 0.6lag, & efficiency = 70% under half load. If a 3ph. 440V capacitor of rating 12.5kVAr is connected at the motor terminals, find the pf of the motor and capacitor combination, under: a) Full load b) Half load.
(Use 1HP = 0.746 kW for HP to kW conversion).
Session 3
Evaluating PF from Electricity Bill
ELECTRICITY TARIFFS - I
In India, there are broadly 4 types of Electricity Tariffs.
Single part tariff
Measurement of kWh only - Energy charges Generally applicable for LT installations only.
ELECTRICITY TARIFFS II
Three part tariff
kWh - Energy charges kVArh - Reactive Energy charges kVA or kW - Maximum demand charges PF Penalty- vary from region to region Applicable for HT installations
PF PENALTIES
Different structures are followed - Some common features
Minimum monthly PF limit - Varies from 0.85 upwards If PF falls below minimum limit then penalty is levied The penalty is normally calculated as a %age of the Energy charges or the full value of the Electricity Bill. The %age of penalty is normally linked to the difference between actual monthly PF as calculated by Electricity supply authorities and the minimum PF limit specified.
For Ex: Minimum PF limit - 0.90 Actual monthly PF as per calculated by Electricity Supply authorities - 0.82 Penalty is 1% for every 0.01 difference between above PF values Hence penalty will be 8% in this case.
Monthly PF should be assumed as Initial PF - 0.80 Fix target PF as Final PF - Let us assume - 0.96 Note down multiplying factor from table 4.2 on Page 6 of RPM catalogue This multiplying factor is 0.458
Always recommend fixed compensation for the transformer in the installation - the kVAr required can be estimated from table 4.3 on Page 7 of RPM Catalogue
For ex: If in the above installation the transformer is 500 kVA then fixed compensation required is 6% of 500 kVA which works out to 30 kVAr
Out of 150 kVAr we can now subtract this 30 kVAr i.e., leaving a balance of 120 kVAr
Workshop-2
Calculate the kVAr required to improve the pf of an LT installation to 0.95 lag. You have the following details from the Bill. Billing date = 01.07.2001 to 31.07.2001 Units consumed = 13500 kWh. Avg. PF = 0.8 lag. Calculate the kVAr required to improve the pf of an HT installation to 0.97 lag. You have the following details from the Bill. Contract Demand = 300 kVA Recorded Demand = 270 kVA Avg. PF = 0.8 lag. Units consumed = 75600 kWh
Session 4
Evaluating kVAr for new installations
M
30 HP, 415V, 3ph, motor
M
75 HP, Other loads, 415V, total of 25 3ph, kW compressor 50 kVA, 440V, 3ph, UPS
M
75 HP, 415V, 3ph, compressor
Hence, we must calculate the above savings as given in the workshop 3 problems.
Workshop-3
1. In problem 1 of workshop-2, if the PF penalty is 5% of kWh charges, calculate the savings when the PF is improved to 0.95 lag. Unit charges = Rs. 3.5/ kWh. Unit consumed = 13500 kWh. In problem 2 of workshop-2, the penalty clause is as follows: kVA charges = Rs. 180/kVA (if Demand < CD) = Rs. 180 x 3 ( if Demand > CD) Unit charges = Rs. 3.4 / kWh. Units consumed = 56700 kWh PF penalty = 5% on energy consumed
2.
Variable Compensation
For Varying Loads
Selection of Capacitor
1. Individual Compensation 2. Group Compensation 3. Central Compensation
Central Compensation Providing compensation at the main incomer of the installation is called central compensation (pos. No. 1). This is suitable for installations where the loads are few and situated close to the main supply. (Refer Fig. 3.1) Supply Bus
Fig. 3.3
Session 6
Selection of capacitors
POLYPROPELENE METALISATION HAS BEEN DONE ON ONE SIDE OF POLY PROPELENE FILM AND USED FOR CAPACITOR WINDING ECNOMICAL AND COMPETITIVE DESIGN MPP-S - NORMAL DUTY MPP-H - MEDIUM DUTY
PP FILM
SELF HEALING
DURING INTERNAL FAULTS
MIXED DIELECTRIC
MD - MIXED DIELECTRIC
PAPER
PP FILM
FOIL
Mixed dielectric
High dielectric watt loss Paper impregnable less prone to Self healing Superior long term stability Good harmonic overload capability
MDXL
Lowest dielectric watt loss Combines plus points of MD and APP types Excellent long term stability Superior harmonic overload capability
Comparison of Technologies
MPP-S Rating MPP-H Long life Rating MD Long life Rating MD-XL Long life Rating FF Long life Rating
Life
Optimum
10
10
10
Up to 10 %
Up to 15 %
Up to 25 %
10
Up to 25 %
10
Up to 25 %
10
Initial cost
Lowest
10
Medium
Highest
High
Highest
Operating cost
Lowest
10
Lowest
10
Highest
Lowest
10
high
Total
24
25
22
31
25
Compact Size Better heat dissipation Discharge resistor in Minimal internal wires Suitable only for panels MPP-S,MPP-H,MDXL Not repairable
Bulky Inferior heat dissipation Two resistor configuration More Internal wires Robust construction Available in all types Elements can be replaced
Session 7
Some basic formulae capacitance,capacitor currents
Capacitor Connection
R
IL
Capacitance
6 f C VL2 KVAR = C CM = = 10 9 KVAR X 10 9 6f 1.5. C VL2
*
F
C
CM
and VL in Volts
Ip Ir MVAsc kVArc
= Peak inrush Current in Amps = Capacitor Rated Current in Amps. = Short circuit MVA of the System = Capacitor Rating in kVAr.
= =
ACB
Transformer = impedance =
0.00861 Ohm
Ip= 34.78. 2
22.0 X 103 25
= 1459.1 Amp
Ip =
2 3
1 VL
X C XL
Q V = S V V = 415 x 0.025 22
= 0.47 volts
Discharge Time
Discharge Time < = 60 sec for LT capacitors < = 10 min for HT capacitors Voltage at the end of Discharge time should be < = 50 volts taking into account the plus side tolerances of the Capacitance value and supply voltage. C
Discharge Time
t R< K C log e
R = t =
Vn.2 VR
Discharge Resistance in M Ohm Discharge Time in Sec. 1/3 or 1 or 3 depending upon discharge resistor Configuration. Capacitance in F Capacitor Rated Voltage Permissible Residual Voltage
K =
C = Vn = VR =
K = 1/3
R C
R C
R
K=3
C K=1
USEFUL FORMULAE AND TABLES 1. Capacitance in parallel C = C1 + C2 + C3 Where C = equivalent capacitance of parallel circuit. 2. Capacitance in Series 1 1 1 1 = + + C C1 C2 C3 Where C = equivalent capacitance of series circuit.
PF1 and PF2 are initial and final power factor respectively.
kVAr =
fCV2 109
kVAr . 103 IC = V
XC =
106 2 fC
C XC V kVAr IC
= Measured capacitance across terminals 1 &2 in F = Capacitive Reactance in ohms = Voltage in Volts = Rated output of capacitor = Capacitor Current in Amps.
CM is the measured capacitance across any two terminals with the other terminal left open circuited.
106 XC / ph = 2fc
IL =
Where
XC V kVAr IL
= Capacitive Reactance per phase in ohms = Voltage (line to line) in volts = Rated output of capacitor = Line current in Amps
IL
>
C
Vph
CM
V C
2 3
Vph = V/ 3 C C= 2CM
CM is the measured capacitance across any two terminals with the other terminal left open circuited.
XC/Ph
Where XC = Capacitive Reactance per phase in ohms V = Voltage (line to line) in volts kVAr = Rated output of capacitor
3 Ph kVAr =
IL
3 ph kVAr X 3 V
= The peak value of Inrush Capacitor current in Amps = The rated capacitor current (rms) in Amps = the short circuit power in MVA at the point where the capacitor is connected = kVAr of the capacitor
IP =
2 . V 3 . XcXL
= the crest value of Capacitors inrush current in Amps = Rated voltage in volts (line to line)
Where IP V
XC = Capacitive reactance per phase in (ohms) XL = the inductive reactance per phase between the capacitors in (ohms)
fS = fN .
Xc XL
Where fS fN XC XL
= the frequency of inrush current in Hz = the Rated frequency in Hz = Capacitive Reactance per phase in (ohms) = the inductive reactance per phase between the capacitors in (ohms)
C1,C2,C3 are the capacitance measured as indicated with the third line open-circuited. Ca,Cb,Cc are the cell capacitance, internal to the three phase capacitor. Using following formulae we can calculate cell capacitance, without opening and de-soldering/cutting the capacitor units.
1
Ca =
1 1 1 + C1 C3 C2
Cb =
1 1 1 + C1 C2 C3
Cc = 1
1 1 - 1 + C2 C3 C1
where
= C1+C2+C3 C1C2C3 1 2
1 1 1 + 2+ 2 C12 C2 C3
These are derived from the following basic relationships. C cC a CaCb C3 = Cb+ C 1 = C c+ C + C C c+ C a a b CbCc C2 = Ca+ Cb+ Cc
C1,C2,C3 are measured capacitances across any line and other two lines short circuited. Full line to line voltages are applied across the cells. C1 = Ca+Cb C2 = Ca+Cc C3 = Cb+Cc 1 (C +C -C ) 2 3 1 2
While purchase cost is easy to estimate it is necessary to also evaluate operating cost The operating cost of a capacitor is a function of the total losses & the operating time of the capacitor.
Ex: An installation requires 1000 kVAr which will be operated for about 6000 hrs per year. Calculate the operating cost of MD-XL Capacitors verses MD type Capacitors assuming a life expectancy of 15 years for the Capacitors. The total energy consumed by the Capacitors for its on operation is calculated as follows
MD Capacitors
Energy Consumed = (Loss per kVAr x Total kVAr x Operating time)/1000 = (1.5 x 1000 x 6000 x 15) / 1000 = 1,35,000 kWh Consequently, the excess energy consumption due to the MD Capacitor shall be = 1,35,000 45,000 = 90,000 kWh This energy consumed can be converted into cost using a weighted average cost of Rs.5 per kWh. Consequently, the extra cost shall be Rs.5 x 90,000 = Rs.4,50,000. On a per kVAr base this can work out to Rs.450/-per kVAr. It is obvious that operating cost must be evaluated carefully before taking the final decision on the type of capacitor to be used. It is also self explanatory that lower the losses, lower will be the operating cost.
Session 8
Automatic Power Factor Correction (APFC)
Session 9
Intelligent APFC Relay
PFCR
MEASURING UNIT OUTPUT RELAYS CAPACITOR BANKS
TO LOAD
8 STAGE 14 STAGE
1 : 1 : 1 : 1 : 1 : . 1 : 2 : 2 : 2 : 2 : . 1 : 2 : 4 : 4 : 4 : . 1 : 2 : 4 : 8 : 8 : .
Features
Controls power factor Protects capacitor banks Measures & displays various parameters Records
Top-up Facility
Constantly monitors the actual pf & compares with target value. Any spare capacitor bank is utilized to push up the pf to unity even after the target value is met. Ensures reactive power consumption is kept to the minimum. Feature can be enabled or disabled.
Provides alarm for fault conditions & for 5th & 7th harmonics
Multi-parameter Display
Voltage Current Reactive power Accurate display of power factor even in presence of harmonics.
Records
Keeps updated (every two hours) records for each bank. Number of times each bank is switched on for pf compensation. Configuration with respect to lowest bank size.
Session 10
Issues in Power Quality
Momentary voltage sag , which is a momentary decrease in voltage outside normal tolerance.
Momentary Voltage swell , which is a corresponding voltage increase often caused by the sudden de energizing of heavy equipment.
Voltage Loss
Voltage transient or impulse , which is a very short duration voltage, whose amplitude will be in the range of several tens to thousand volts.
Voltage Spike
Voltage Spike ,which can destroy electronic equipment and damage transformer and motor insulation. They also cause failures in capacitors and indicators.
Voltage Waveform
Current Waveform
Voltage Waveform
Current Waveform
Scope
Improvement of power quality in LV networks To enhance network reliability To reduce failure of electrical & electronic equipment To increase profitability by saving on energy costs To achieve energy conservation
Problems ! - I
Reactive power flow
Lower PF & Increased kVA Demand. Overloading of transformers, cables & switchgear. Increased energy consumption due to higher losses. Financial penalties for low PF. Loss of financial incentives for high PF.
PROBLEMS ! - II
Harmonic currents & voltages
Overheating & failure of
Electrical equipment
Motors, transformers, switchgear Capacitors
Malfunction/failure of
Protective relays Control & Automation equipment
PROBLEMS ! - III
Voltage dips & flicker
Failure of power electronic equipment Malfunction/failure of
Protective relays Control & Automation equipment
PROBLEMS ! - IV
Unbalanced loads
Over & under voltage in the network. Increased energy consumption by motors
Due to reduced efficiency.
PROBLEMS ! - V
High neutral current
Overheating of neutral conductors Increased energy consumption If neutral becomes open high voltages will occur, resulting in
Malfunction/failure of
Single phase loads Protective relays Control & Automation equipment
Time.
Third harmonic currents of R,Y&B phases are in phase with each other and hence adds up, without cancellation in the neutral conductor.
SOLUTIONS - I
Networks with <20% non linear load Improve PF, reduce voltage dips/flicker by the use of
Power capacitors APFC systems
Contactor switched Thyristor switched
Open loop systems Closed loop systems
SOLUTIONS - II
Networks with >20% non-linear load Improve PF, reduce harmonics & voltage dips/flicker by the use of
Fixed detuned filters Detuned filters + APFC systems
Contactor switched Thyristor switched
Open loop systems Closed loop systems
SOLUTIONS - III
Networks with unbalanced loads. Improve PF, reduce harmonics & voltage dips/flicker by the use of
Phase balancing circuits Electronic VAr Compensation Systems. AHF - Active Harmonic Filters
SOLUTIONS - IV
Networks with high neutral current / excessive neutral to earth voltages
Ensure proper EARTHING quality Oversize all neutral conductors to reduce neutral heating If OVERSIZING is not possible, reduce harmonics by the use of
AHF - active harmonic filters in 4 line configuration
+
( T im e Do ma in )
+
( F requ en cy D oma in )
Session 11
Dynamic Compensation
Scope
Need for Dynamic Compensation
Applications
When switching transients are to be eliminated. For Optimizing performance & fuel consumption of DG sets.
SWITCHING TRANSIENTS
Capacitor switching by contactors results in transients These transients may interfere with operation of modern relays, control & automation equipment
For ex: digital relays, PLCs etc. can malfunction
Thyristor switching is a must for eliminating switching transients Hence, dynamic compensation
APPLICATIONS - I
Industrial networks
Automobile & automobile component Mfrg. Plants Metal working
Fabrication & press shops Rolling mills Forging
APPLICATIONS - II
Industrial networks
Paper, wood & particle board Mfrg. plants Plants with CNC machines
By-pass contactors.
It is necessary to use a dynamic power factor correction system in which the switching and controlling devices used have a response time in milliseconds.
Session 12
Power factor improvement of DG sets
Prime mover
Alternator
Case 2
DG Set fundamentals
As load kW (Output) increases, input power from prime mover has to be increased. Diesel engines can be overloaded by 10 %, for half an hour, within a span of 12 hours. Prime movers are matched with alternator to operate at specific P.F. Lagging P.F. weakens the flux which links with alternator stator and leading P.F. strengthens it.
DG Set fundamentals
At low lagging P.F, it is not possible to reach the nominal operating voltage of the alternator, even at low load. With leading P.F, even with low excitation, there could be rise in voltage, causing damages to the connected equipment. At leading P.F. generator becomes unstable. If generator is operated with purely capacitive load voltage increases by 33.33 %
Short duration peak loads like starting of induction motors. Allowance for extra kVA for harmonic generating loads. Allowance for accommodating future additional loads. Hence DG sets are always oversized for a given application and operate at relatively lower percentage loading.
Improve % loading by operating at higher power factor Higher PF reduces current output from DG at a given load. Loads can now be added without violating the Golden Rules. Operating at highest feasible PF, enables higher loading, resulting in better yield from DG set.
Effect of PF improvement
OUTPUT CURRENT FROM DG WITH /WITHOUT COMPENSATION 600 500 CURRENT IN AMPS 400 300 200 100 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 WITH COMPENSATION
WITHOUT COMPENSATION
TIME IN SECONDS
= 7260 liters per year Potential savings in Rs @ Rs. 35/liter = 2,54,100 per year
Method of P.F. improvement Conventional fixed capacitors, should not be used with DG sets. This is because, by using fixed capacitors, there is a danger that the PF can become leading under lightly loaded condition, which is highly undesirable in DG set operation. Hence only Automatic Power factor Correction system (APFC) should be used with DG sets. The target power factor can be set to 0.93 to 0.95 for optimum performance.
APFC Selection
The appropriate APFC system can be selected based upon the harmonic content of the load. If the harmonic generating load is less than 20%, the APFC should be used as mentioned in section-8. If the Harmonic load is greater than 20% then reactor protected APFC should be used as mentioned in section 9.5 The rating of the APFC has to be selected depending upon the kW of the load connected and the minimum power factor in the installation.
F I G .3 - B L O C K D I A G R A M O F C O N T A C T O R S W I T C H E D A P F C S Y S T E M
G
C T ..../ 5 A V a r ia b l e L o a d s
F .S .U
F 1 ......F
Pow er F a c to r C o n tr o lle r
K 1 .....K
C 1......C
= = = = = = =
CT
Variable Load
F.S.U
f2 F1 F2 Fn
Thy 1
Thy 2
Thy n
S1
Sn
= No. of Steps S 1......S n Thy 1......Thy n = Thyristor Switches = Capacitor Step Protection Fuses F1......F n = Control Fuses f2 = Fuse Switch Unit (Optional) F.S.U = Diesel Generator G CT = Main Supply Current Transformer
Conclusions
The efficiency of the DG set is maximum at UPF. The yield of the DG set is maximum at its peak loading. By proper use of reactive power management the efficiency of DG set can be improved. The loads can be transferred so as to optimize the loading of DG for better yield output. The output voltage of DG set can be stabilized under rapidly fluctuating loads by use of Dynamic compensation systems Saving in fuel is possible resulting in economic benefit to user.
Session 13
Harmonics & Effect of Adding Capacitors in the System
POWER FACTOR CORRECTION IN HARMONIC RICH ENVIRONMENT A harmonic rich environment is said to exist when the percentage of non linear loads in an installation becomes greater than 20% of transformer rating. Power factor correction by the use of capacitors, in such an environment, must therefore be carried out with certain precaution. This is due to the fact that parallel resonance conditions can occur, I.e. the magnitude of the Capacitive reactance of capacitors installed and the inductive reactance of the network can tend to be come equal. If such resonance occurs near to a frequency which is present in the network, current amplification takes place.
lh
XC
XL
POWER FACTOR CORRECTION IN HARMONIC RICH ENVIRONMENT This current amplification can lead to overloading of capacitors and an increase of the voltage distortion in the network. Capacitors drawing higher current i.e. more than the rated current at normal operating voltages is a typical indication of presence of harmonics. While it is possible to design the capacitors to withstand the overload conditions, the increase in distortion will cause other ill effects such as : Capacitors installed being subjected to severe harmonic overloading, leading to premature failure
Total harmonic distortion in the network increasing beyond the permissible levels, which is harmful to various equipments within the installation. The use of capacitors in the conventional manner is therefore not recommended in such situations.
Case 1
Type of industry - paperboard Manufacturing industry. Brief description of installation. Primary power source = grid supply at 33kv. Distribution voltage = 440V. Load details: The total induction motor load was 800HP.
Case 1
There were no non-linear loads installed in this plant. 300kvar, 3ph, 440V MPP-H capacitor banks were installed for power factor correction. Some capacitors were connected across the motor terminals and remaining used as central compensation.
Problem experienced:
Frequent failure of capacitors.
Case 1- Analysis
The system voltage was around 435 440V. The capacitors installed were subjected to severe and intermittent overload. For ex:- A 25 kVAr, 440V capacitor was drawing a current of 90 - 120A for certain periods of time. Compared to its rated current of 33 amps, the capacitors were subjected to an overload greater than 250%. This abnormal overloading resulted in frequent capacitor failure.
Case 1- Analysis
Following observations were made on the 33kV grid : Only two industries were found to be connected to 33kV line, one of them being the paperboard manufacturing industry and the other was a steel rolling mill. The length of the 33 kV transmission line between the two plants was approximately10kms. The steel rolling mill had installed a high frequency induction furnace.
Case 1- Analysis
It was observed that, whenever the high frequency induction furnace installed in steel rolling mill was operated, the harmonic distortion on the grid abnormally increased and during this period the capacitors were getting severely over loaded.
Case 1- Conclusion
Thus the use of conventional capacitors in the network, where the harmonic voltage distortion at the grid was abnormally high resulted in the following: Over loading of capacitors due to series resonance. Frequent failure of capacitor banks Increased harmonic distortion at the LV bus Inability of the customer to maintain the desired power factor. Financial losses incurred by customer.
Case 2
Type of industry Cement industry Brief description of installation. Primary power source = grid at 220kV. Distribution voltage = 6.6kv and 440V. The LV power factor correction is done as follows: At 440V bus, around 2000 kVAr APFC panels with conventional capacitors were installed.The APFC panels were distributed on several 6.6/0.440 kV distribution transformers installed in the plant.
Case 2
Problem experienced at LV bus: Malfunction of 350kW, 440V DC drive used for kiln motor installed at cement plant substation, when capacitors are connected in the network.
Case 2: Analysis
The cement plant sub station was fed by a 1600kVA, 6.6/0.440 kV transformer. The 350kW, 440V DC drive, was connected to this transformer, consequently the % non-linear load exceeded 22%. A 475kVAr, 440V APFC panel with conventional capacitors, was also connected to this transformer for power factor correction. Other linear loads such as compressors, pumps etc were also connected to this transformer. Malfunctioning of the DC drive was co-related to a situation when specific combination of capacitor steps in the APFC were ON.
Case 2: Conclusion
The use of conventional capacitor in harmonic rich environment led to high total harmonic distortion on the LV bus. As the same distorted sine wave is applied to the 350kW DC drive, sensitive electronic devices used in this drive were mal-functioning.
Case 3
Type of industry Steel rolling mill. Brief description on installation. Primary power source = grid at 33kV. Distribution voltage = 440V. The plant was installed with 2 x 2000 kVA + 1 x 1000 kVA, 33/0.440 kV distribution transformers. At the secondary of one of the 2MVA transformer following loads were connected: 1000HP AC induction motor. 500HP DC drive.
Case 3
Around 900 kVAr of conventional capacitors were connected to this transformer for power factor improvement as shown in the fig.
Case 3
33kV supply from Grid.
500HP DC Drive
900kVAr Capacitor
Case 3
Problem experienced: Frequent failure of capacitors installed for power factor correction.
Case 3- Analysis
A team of engineers from MEHER made an analysis at the site. The result of the analysis is as follows: The capacitors installed were drawing more than its rated current. A 50 kVAr, 440V capacitor was drawing a current of 200A against the rated value of 65amps, thus constituting an overload greater than 300%. This abnormal over load resulted in frequent capacitor failure. The total harmonic voltage distortion at the secondary of this 2000 kVA transformer with all the capacitors switched on was more than 25%. This value is higher than acceptable levels.
Case 3- Conclusion
Thus the use of conventional capacitor in harmonic rich environment resulted in: Over loading of capacitors due to parallel resonance. Increased harmonic distortion at the LV bus. Frequent failure of capacitor banks. Inability of the customer to maintain the desired power factor. Financial losses incurred by customer.
Sources of Harmonics
Following are some of the non-linear loads which generates harmonics: Static Power Converters and Rectifiers, which are used in UPS, Battery chargers, etc. Arc furnaces. Power Electronics for motor controls (AC/DC Drives) Computers. Television receivers Saturated Transformers Fluorescent Lighting with electronic ballast. Telecommunication equipment.
Type of Harmonics
Characteristic harmonics
- Related to circuit configuration. - Fairly predictable frequency spectrum. - Frequency spectrum given by k*p+1 ; k = 1,2,3. - For ex. 5&7 for 6 pulse, 11 & 13 for 12 pulse. - Magnitude inversely proportional to order.
Non-characteristic harmonics
- Caused by frequency converters. - System imbalance (voltage & impedance)
Triplen harmonics
- 3.(2n+1) order n = 0,1,2 i.E 3,9,15,21.. Etc. - Zero sequence in nature. - Accumulates as neutral current.
Phase Sequence of RYB (+ Seq.) For Fundamental Component R Fundamental +120o Second Harmonic +240o -120o Y 0o 0o 0o B -120o -240o +120o
Positive Sequence
Y
B B
Negative Sequence
Y
R Y +1200 00
B -1200
+3600 00
Positive Sequence
Y
Time.
Third harmonic currents of R,Y&B phases are in phase with each other and hence adds up, without cancellation in the neutral conductor.
1 +
2 -
3 0
4 +
5 -
6 0
7 +
8 -
9 0
Positive Sequence Fundamental 4th Harmonic 7th Harmonic 10th Harmonic 3n+1 Div. by 3 Rem. 1
Negative Sequence 2nd Harmonic 5th Harmonic 8th Harmonic 11th Harmonic 3n+2 Div. by 3 Rem. 2
Zero Sequence 3rd Harmonic 6th Harmonic 9th Harmonic 12th Harmonic 3n+3 Divisible by 3
Characteristics of Harmonics
Positive Sequence
Causes over heating due to Skin effect Aids the fundamental Moderate heating Relatively less harmful
Negative Sequence
Causes over heating due to Skin effect Opposes the fundamental Excessive heating Most harmful
Zero Sequence
Causes over heating due to Skin effect Accumulates in the neutral Creates hot neutral Responsible for neutral to earth voltage and open neutral condition.
Skin effect
Cross-section of current carrying conductor
DC current flow
The effective area of the conductor, available for current flow, reduces as the frequency of the AC current increases. Hence, the resistance of the conductor increases, at higher frequencies, as it is inversely proportional to its area of cross-section.
R =
L A
Effect of Harmonics
Type of equipment Rotating machines Effect of harmonics Increased losses, over heating due to skin effect. Pulsating torque Over heating, increased power consumption Mal-operation, nuisance tripping Mal-operation, failure Erratic operation High currents & failure due to overload
Transformer, switch-gear, power cables Protective relays Power electronics Control & automation Power capacitors
Trip level set lower than the fundamental value. The relay should trip as the fundamental value is higher than the trip level. But the presence of harmonics has reduced the peak value. Hence the protective relay will not trip.
Trip level set higher than the fundamental value. The relay should not trip as the fundamental value is lower than the trip level. But the presence of harmonics has increased the peak value. Hence the protective relay will trip.
Current spectrum of six pulse drive for star-star & star-delta configuration
Harmonic currents flow towards Grid. Min. Import of Harmonics from Grid. No Resonance at harmonic frequencies.
BUS
Non Linear Load
Harmonic currents flow towards Capacitors , due to parallel resonance with load ZL Import of Harmonics from Grid towards Capacitors , due to series resonance with network & transformer impedances ZN &ZT Increase of THD(V) in the Bus Harmonic overloading of Capacitors, leading to its failure Improvement in Power Factor With Harmonic overload
M
Non Linear Load
Session 14
Harmonic Filters
Capacitors should be replaced by harmonic suppression filters (series combination of suitable series reactor & capacitors) so that,
It offers capacitive reactance at fundamental frequency for necessary power factor correction. It offers inductive reactance at all higher order dominant harmonic frequencies to avoid resonance. Its self series resonance frequency fR do not coincide with predominant harmonics.
No resonance at harmonic frequencies as filter is inductive at such frequencies Harmonic currents flow towards Grid , as it offers least impedance compared to filter
M
Non Linear Load
Predominantly fundamental current flows through Capacitors Moderate THD(V) in the Bus No harmonic overloading of Capacitors Improvement in Power Factor without Harmonic overload
Harmonic Filter
Harmonic filter comprises of a reactor (L) in series with a capacitor (C) Such a filter has a unique self series resonance frequency fR at which inductive reactance of reactor equals capacitive reactance of capacitor. Fr = 1/(2LC) Below fR the filter is capacitive Above fR the filter is inductive
Inductive
fR= Resonant
Frequency
fR
Frequency
Detuned Filters
Tuned Filters
7%
14 %
VC = I XC = V/ (1-p/100)
Allowing 10% for over voltage, the rated voltage of the capacitor is given by
415 415
7% 14%
490.86 530.81
500 V 550 V
CY
CY
Section 15 Exercise
Parallel Resonance
Harmonic Spectrum
Harmonic spectrum of 100kW, 6 pulse, 0.7 PF DC drive is given by the relation: Ih =i1/h, where h is the harmonic order. Since the drive is 6 pulse, h = 5,7,11,13,17,19. I1 = = 100x1000 / (3 x 415 x 0.7) 200 A (Approx.).
Harmonic Spectrum
h 5 7 11 13 17 19 Ih Amps 40 28.6 18.2 15.4 11.8 10.5
Estimation of kVAr
kVAr required to improve the PF above 0.99 lag. kVAr =kW x (tan (cos-1 (PF1)) - tan (cos-1 (PF2)) =100 x (tan (cos-1 (0.7)) - tan (cos-1 (0.99)) =87.8 kVAr. kVAr =100 kVAr. (standard available)
XT
Ih
Ih
Xt
XC
Ih
40.0 28.6 18.2 15.4 11.8 10.5
Xth=Xt*h Xch=Xc/h
Vh = 3*Ih*Xtotal
Ic = Vh/(3* Xch)
0.08611 5.9659 0.15863 7.8501 4.73619 149.151 0.50885 13.5593 0.17853 3.6379 0.13866 2.5281
Overloading of Capacitors
Ich = 554 Amps. Ic1 =139 Amps. Iceff=571 Amps. Overload = 411 %
= 36.18%
Ih
Xt
XLF
XCF
Harmonic Simulation
Transformer reactance. Xt = = Xt = V2 x (%Z / 100 ) / (kVA x 1000) ohms. 4152 x (4 / 100) / (500 x 1000). 0.013778 ohms.
Ih
40 28.6 18.2 15.4 11.8 10.5
Xth = Xt*h
XLFH = XLF*h
XCFH = XCF/h
Xtotal = Xfilter*Xth
( XFilter+Xth)
Vh = 3*Ih* Xtotal
0.0689 0.6476 0.3701 0.2776 0.0552 3.8238 0.0964 0.9067 0.2643 0.6424 0.0839 4.1498 0.1516 1.4248 0.1682 1.2566 0.1353 4.2591 0.1791 1.6839 0.1423 1.5415 0.1605 4.2760 0.2342 2.2020 0.1088 2.0931 0.2107 4.2925 0.2618 2.4610 0.0974 2.3636 0.2357 4.2969
THDV% = 2.47%
Summary
It is seen that the introduction of capacitors into a network with non-linear loads not only leads to very high overloading of the capacitors but also increases the harmonic voltage distortion in the network due to parallel resonance. If the same capacitors are supplemented with detuned filters, the overloading is prevented and also the voltage distortion in the network is reduced to acceptable limits.
Conclusion
Detuned filter is a safe and proven solution to improve power factor in harmonic rich environment.
Session 15
Active Compensation
SCOPE
ACTIVE COMPENSATION NEED PRINCIPLE BENEFITS SOLUTIONS AHF - ACTIVE HARMONIC FILTER INTELLVAr - E Electronic VAr Compensation
Voltage Stabilty
Extremely Flexible
SOLUTIONS - I
ACTIVE HARMONIC FILTERS - for 3 Phase, 415/440 V, 50 Hz. NETWORKS - In Current Ratings from 32 to 630 Amps - Optional Reactive Power Compensation
SOLUTIONS - II
INTELLVAr - E - Hybrid ELECTRONIC VAr COMPENSATION - for 3 Phase, 415/440 V, 50 Hz. NETWORKS - Output from 50 to 1000 kVAr
Supply System
Compensating Current
Active Filter
+
(Time Domain)
+
(Frequency Domain)
Suitable for installations having high harmonic distortion (cement, sugar & steel plants, etc.)
Hybrid Filters
Tuned Filters
14% Detuned Filters Suitable for installations having 3rd harmonics and above (IT parks, corporate banks & establishments) 7% Detuned Filters Most common, Base end product suitable for majority of industries having 5th and above harmonics