Art Power Guide

EDITION
2011 2012
ART
Art in the Age of Imperial Power
POWER GUIDE
AUTHOR
ART
Anna Hainsworth
EDITOR
YE
17
AR S
DO
IN
OU
BE
ST ,S O
YO U
CA N
DO
YO U
RS
Sophy Lee
ALPACA-IN-CHIEF
Daniel Berdichevsky
the World
Scholars Cup
ART
POWER GUIDE
I. WHAT IS A POWER GUIDE?..............................................................2 II. AUTHORS NOTE ON USAGE............................................................ 3 III. CURRICULUM OVERVIEW................................................................. 5 IV. INTRODUCTION................................................................................... 6 V. FUNDAMENTALS OF ART........ 8 VI. AFRICA AND EUROPE..........................................................................72 VII. ART AND IMPERIAL POWER............................................................. 103 VIII. ARCHITECTURE AND POWER.116 IX. EUROPE ENVISIONS THE EMPIRE. 128 X. SECTION SUMMARIES AND CONCLUSION.. 158 XI. POWER LISTS.........................................................................................168 XII. POWER TABLES.....................................................................................243 XIII. ABOUT THE AUTHOR......................................................................... 272 XV. ABOUT THE EDITOR............................................................................273 XVI. ABOUT THE BETA TESTERS...............................................................274 BY EDITED BY
ANNA HAINSWORTH
NORTHERN ARIZONA UNIVERSITY CANYON DEL ORO HIGH SCHOOL
SOPHY LEE
HARVARD UNIVERSITY PEARLAND HIGH SCHOOL
DEDICATED TO CHOCOLATE MY FAITHFUL COMPANION FOR THE ENTIRETY OF THIS PROJECT
2011 DEMIDEC
DemiDec, The World Scholars Cup, Power Guide, and Cram Kit are registered trademarks of the DemiDec Corporation. Academic Decathlon and USAD are registered trademarks of the United States Academic Decathlon Association. DemiDec is not affiliated with the United States Academic Decathlon .
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WHAT IS A POWER GUIDE?

There you are, standing on the Edge of Glory. You see your name projected at the front of the auditorium under the words Gold Medal Art. The announcer at the podium is butchering names shamelessly, pronouncing Alejandro with a hard J. But you dont care. You are a Gold Medalist. While your serious teammate stands beside you, attempting to maintain a Poker Face, you want to Just Dance. You can already imagine the Paparazzi lining up to interview you for the local, state, and national newspapers. You, the Gold Medalist. You, the champion. Suddenly, without warning, the power in the auditorium snaps off. Thats OK, you think. Ill just Dance in the Dark.1 Someone turns on the backup power a few moments later. You put away the Telephone that you were planning to use as a flashlight to illuminate your way across the awards stage. This is your moment. You hear your name, jump slightly, and start to make your way up the stairs. Do. Not. Trip. You begin to walk across the stage, where a beaming woman is holding your Gold Medal. Then, you tripin front of everyone. The crowd goes silent. And you wake up. It was all a dream. As a former National Champion, I firmly believe that anyone can win a Gold Medal in Academic Decathlon. The first step is to make Goldnot Silver, not Bronze, not Honorable Mentionyour goal. The second step is to pick up a Power Guide. The third step is to make this Power Guide yours. Mark all over it, draw diagrams on it, highlight it, underline it. Power Guides completely dissect each subject. They make dense curriculum easy to learn in a straightforward bullet format. Whats more, every Power Guide is written by a Gold Medalist former Decathlete who has scored at least 8,000 points in competition. All of our writers have competed at Nationals and know exactly what it takes to win a Gold Medal. They have included every testable fact and explained every USAD ambiguity. No one is more qualified to guide you to your own Gold Medal. Anna Hainsworth, your Art Power Guide author, has broken down art theory and historical facts into a simple, easy-to-absorb format. Every date, color, and artist will be crystal clear in your mind and memory by the end of this Power Guide. With that, I am happy to leave you in Annas capable hands. Youll be Gaga for Art by the end of this Power Guide or maybe just Gaga. Go for Gold,
This actually happened at the Nationals awards ceremony in 2008. Sophy
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AUTHORS NOTE ON USAGE

In a world of whirling dates, facts, and far too many names to remember, this Power Guide lays the art curriculum out for you clearly and concisely. Feel free to peruse, highlight, mangle, burn, sleep on, or eat this Power Guide. There are some handy aspects of the document, though, that might be helpful to know. Bold items are important dates, items, names, or locations. These also appear in the Power Lists and Tables at the end of the guide. Feel free to cover up one column of the Power Lists and quiz yourself. Picture frames organize the multitude of pictures in this guide. Decorative frames with a friendly alpaca drawing, like that surrounding the super cool Sleep of Reason Produces Monsters (Asia), denote one of the 18 USAD-selected artworks.2 Remember to focus on these. Pictures with black borders, like Symphony in White, No.2: The Little White Girl, are mentioned in the resource by name. Pictures with gray borders, like the slightly frightening drawing of Louis XIV as the Sun King, are not mentioned in the USAD Resource Guide. Rather, I put these pictures in just for funsies.
This Power Guide contains many footnotes. Enrichment Facts share what I learned by researching interesting things in the Resource Guide. This way, you can satisfy your curiosity, keep studying, and not be as distracted a Decathlete as I was.3 Some of the other footnotes contain USAD corrections. The rest of the footnotes are goofy comments by me, an editor, or a beta tester. Finally, this guide does stray from the organization of the USAD resource occasionally in order to optimize learning. For example, I placed the section on art techniques first so you may learn some
There are four exceptions to this framing rule: three maps and a picture of an Asafo posuban. I had to order these illustrations, so they also have the DemiDec border. 3 I spent many productive hours reading about plate tectonics, Darwins lizards, and the construction of the guillotine on Wikipedia.
2
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terminology to help you understand the art history section. In addition, I placed all of the section summaries and the conclusion at the end of the guide, directly before the Power Lists, to provide you with a comprehensive summary. Good luck! Im sure you all will be marvelous.
Anna Hainsworth
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CURRICULUM OVERVIEW
Art Fundamentals comprise approximately 45% of the art curriculum. Thematic material covering Europe, Africa, and Imperialism takes up the remaining 55% The pie chart below illustrates the percentage of test questions per section, according to the USAD outline. Data listed below will help you prioritize sections for studying. Art Fundamentals: 20% of the test (10 questions) and 44% of USADs Art Resource (38 pages) Africa and Europe: 30% of the test (15 questions) and 20% of USADs Art Resource (17 pages) Art and Imperial Power: 25% of the test (12-13 questions) and 16% of USADs Art Resource (14 pages) Europe Envisions the Empire: 25% of the test (12-13 questions) and 20% of USADs Art Resource (18 pages) If you have a limited time, you may find it useful not to read the Sections in order. First, read Section III (Art and Imperial Power). This strategy will allow you to cover the material for 12 or 13 questions by only reading 14 pages. Next, read Section II (Africa and Europe) since this section covers the largest proportion of the test (30%). By reading those two, you will have covered over half of the content on the exam. Save Art Fundamentals for last. This section contains a large amount of content but will prepare you for only 10 questions.
Europe Envisions the Empire 25%
Art Fundamentals 20%
Art and Imperial Power 25%
Africa and Europe 30%
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INTRODUCTION
POWER PREVIEW
The introduction provides a brief outline of the Art curriculum. This information is not testable but is helpful toward understanding the big picture.
POWER NOTES
According to the USAD outline, 0 questions should come from the Introduction No questions (0%) come from the Introduction on the USAD Art Practice Test This section covers page 4 of the USAD Art Resource
Before We Begin
Purpose This years Art curriculum emphasizes the art of imperialism Imperialism refers to the practice of extending the rule of an empire over foreign countries The selected artworks come from a variety of locations Africa Australia Europe North America South America These artworks also come in many forms Paintings Sculptures Photographs Textiles Decorative arts Architecture Art history encompasses the study of the formal qualities and historical context of an artwork to understand its meaning Societal context affects artwork just as art influences society Imperialistic art often bridges two cultures The sections Section I (Art Fundamentals) provides basic background information It provides familiarity with basic art terms and techniques This section also includes a brief overview of western and nonwestern art history from the prehistoric period to the present Section II (Africa and Europe) describes the relationship between Africa and Europe from the time of initial contact to the present Six artworks illustrate this relationship
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Section III (Art and Imperial Power) includes six artworks from across the British Empire
with the exception of Africa These artworks focus on trade between Britain and her colonies Section IV (Europe Envisions the Empire) portrays European opinions and perceptions of imperialism This section includes six artworks from the time of first contact to post-colonialism
Section I: Art Fundamentals

Basic background information Art history Terms and processes
Section II: Africa and Europe

Six artworks on the relationship between Africa and Europe
Section III: Art and Imperial Power

Six artworks about trade between Britain and her colonies
Section IV: Europe Envisions the Empire

Six artworks portraying European opinions and perceptions of imperialism
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ELEMENTS OF ART AND PRINCIPLES OF COMPOSITION

POWER PREVIEW
Elements of art include the rudimentary aspects of an artwork, while the principles of composition describe how elements of art interact. In their method of formal analysis, art historians study a works usage of the elements of art and principles of composition.
POWER NOTES
According to the USAD outline, 10 questions (20%) should come from Section I 10 questions (20%) come from Section I on the USAD Art Practice Test This section covers pgs. 32 - 36 of the USAD Art Resource
Elements of Art
Definition Art historical formal analysis studies the visual qualities of an artwork, or the elements of art
Line Shape Form Space Color Texture
Elements of art
Line Line comprises the most fundamental element of art Fingers, pencils, paint, or any other line-forming tool can create this element on a surface The formal definition of line is one points path through space Examples of lines include the border between two colors and edges of objects such as room corners or door edges Lines may differ in direction or several other aspects Variable
Weight Length Visibility Width Width uniformity
Extremes
Hard or soft Long or short Bold or faint Thick or thin Consistent or uneven
Paths of dots or dashes may qualify as lines
-----Implied line refers to this type of non-solid line Implied line Footprints in sand or snow exemplify implied lines In art, lines may represent emotions or ideas Horizontal lines and vertical lines relate to stable and static feelings
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Vertical lines draw the viewers eye upward Lofty arched ceilings in medieval churches direct attention heavenward Visitors feel spiritual wonder Straight horizontal lines such as the horizon appear peaceful 4 Curved or jagged lines appear active All artists employ the element of line Line is most prominent in drawing and several types of printmaking Shape and form Two related elements of art include three-dimensional form and two-dimensional shape Pyramids, cubes, architecture, and sculptures represent forms Triangles, squares, paintings, and drawings exemplify shapes Several techniques, however, may make a shape appear three-dimensional Shading Foreshortening5 Perspective Geometric or organic describes the appearance of a form or A: without foreshortening shape B: with foreshortening
Geometric
From mathematics Precise Regular Add order and stability
Organic
From nature Freeform Irregular Add movement and rhythm
Positively spacing out Space describes the arrangement of positive space and negative space in an artwork Positive space refers to the subjects of a composition Some artists term these objects, forms, and shapes the figure Negative space entails space around the figure or open space inside the figure Interesting perspective Two-dimensional artists use many techniques to create perspective, the impression of depth
Positive space
Negative space
I've seen this fact appear in at least three USAD tests during competition. Memorize it and don't hesitate to collect your free 20 points! 5 In foreshortening, artists shorten lines so as to create an illustration of depth (Princeton WordWeb).
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Technique
Overlapping Picture plane location Size Detail
Less Distant Figures

In front Lower in the picture Larger More detailed
Distant Figures
In back Higher in the picture Smaller Less detailed
Example
Another perspective method shades or highlights the contours of shapes to imitate the effects
of light on forms Contours refer to the visible edges of objects Aerial perspective, or atmospheric perspective, emulates the visual effects of fog, smoke, and airborne particles on a distant figures appearance The application of aerial perspective involves using lighter, more neutral colors A lower degree of contrast in color or shade also mimics distance Mathematical linear perspective originated during the Renaissance This approach remains the most well-known perspective technique for its realism Multiple lines terminate at the same point on the horizon Lines of highways, railroads, or fence posts Satire of perspective techniques by Hogarth: overlapping, contour shading, size, lighting, stretching into the distance exemplify this vertical location on the picture plane, and phenomenon level of detail all suggest distance. Linear perspective artists first place a vanishing point on the horizon where lines converge Afterwards, they carefully add lines that lead away from the vanishing point Checkerboard floors popular in Renaissance interior scenes use linear perspective Parallel horizontal lines intersect vertical lines converging towards a distant wall, even though the same scene in real life would form a regular grid Renaissance artist Pietro Peruginos fresco in the Sistine Chapel (1481 1482) features linear perspective The Renaissance entered Rome partly because of Peruginos example Colorful language Linear perspective fresco by Pietro Perugino Color constitutes a potent element of art Another name for color is hue All colors derive from a combination of the primary colors: red, yellow, and blue Two primary colors produce one of the three secondary colors
Orange Red Yellow
Green Yellow Blue
Violet Blue Red
A secondary color and a primary color produce one of the six tertiary colors
Redviolet
Blueviolet
Bluegreen
Yellowgreen
Yelloworange
Redorange
In the 17th century, Sir Isaac Newton made breakthroughs in color science
The final product, the color wheel, dates to the 18th century and organizes the primary, secondary, and tertiary hues into an array of 12 colors This diagram shows the results of combining hues
The color wheel
Value quantifies the tint (lightness) or shade (darkness) of gray or a hue6 Like lines, shapes, and forms, different values alter the mood of an artwork A colors value ranges between the extremes of white and black Mixing red and white produces lighter red or pink Combining red and black makes darker red or brown The colors black and white are neutrals, not hues A spectrum of grays results from mixing black and white Values of red between
the neutrals black and white
Don't mix up "tint" in this context with "tinting your windows." In art, "tint" actually means a lighter, not darker, color.
Intensity labels a colors brightness or purity
Unmixed primary colors have the highest intensity Adding black, gray, or a complementary color reduces this intensity Complementary colors stand directly opposite each other on the color wheel7 Mixing complementary colors, such as purple and yellow, creates dull brown th In the 19 century, scientists formulated color relativity Colors appear more or less intense depending on other colors in their proximity Complementary colors induce brighter intensity Adjacent colors simulate darker intensity Adjacent colors such as green and blue-green are neighbors on the color wheel Due to color relativity, colors lack a fixed quality Color schemes may enhance mood or visual effects The configuration of warm color and cool color schemes vary between cultures In western art, warm colors encompass red, orange, and yellow Warm colors recall heat, fire, the sun, or dry summer grass Cool colors refer to green, blue, and violet Blue, green, and violet hues echo coolness, forests, mountain lakes, and snow These color schemes also alter space in an artwork Objects featuring warm colors appear to move towards the viewer Conversely, objects featuring cool colors appear to move away from the viewer A combination of warm and cool colors creates dynamism, or movement Artists select colors based on the choice to use local color, optical color8, or arbitrary color
Local Color
Normal daylight lighting No distance effects or reflections
Optical Color
Special lighting effects Moonlit or candlelit colors, for example
Arbitrary Color
Reflects emotions or aesthetic taste
Arbitrary colors popularity skyrocketed in art during the 20th century Texture Texture describes the surface feel of an object The human brain retains new tactile memories
Shading contrasts suggest rough texture and smooth shading implies even texture
When I learned this concept, I was taught that these colors, being kind and complimentary, or complementary, reach across the wheel to shake hands with each other. 8 I always remembered the difference between these two because the locals in an area see things the way they really are. So, local color is the true color of an object. And looks can be deceiving, so optical color is swayed by appearances.
Upon viewing a previously experienced texture, humans form expectations Artists distinguish between tangible actual texture or imaginary visual textures Three-dimensional artworks feature actual texture based on their medium Additions to a ceramic surface and objects in collages represent actual texture Two-dimensional artworks rely on visual texture For instance, paintings of a straw hat, glass vase, or orange may feature realistic surfaces Patterns of lines or shapes mimic texture Contrasts of light and dark convey rough texture Consistent lighting emulates smooth texture Brushstrokes may add actual texture to a painting
Principles of Composition
Composition An artists usage of the elements of art determines her composition In two-dimensional art, composition occurs on the picture plane Three-dimensional composition organizes elements of art in space Rhythm Movements or patterns in an artwork create rhythm These patterns repeat one of the elements of art, such as line, shape, color, or texture Motif refers to the element repeated in the pattern For instance, quilters stitch together squares representing one or more motifs Quilts and checkerboards exemplify regular patterns, which follow a grid Rhythm may direct the path of the viewers eye Artists create either smooth or dynamic, everchanging rhythms Balance Balance describes the arrangement of visual weight in an artwork The most simple type of balance, symmetrical balance, precisely repeats the same elements on either side of a central axis Either a horizontal or vertical line can serve as the central axis Architects tend to use symmetrical balance Many buildings contain columns, wings, and windows placed equally on either side of a central entrance
Symmetrical balance
Approximate symmetry
Asymmetrical balance
Approximate symmetry resolves the monotony and rigidity of some symmetrical compositions Slightly different elements on either side of the central axis create approximate symmetry Changes in color, detail, position, or other aspects distinguish these elements The human face features approximate symmetry Asymmetrical balance unites dissimilar objects This method is more complex than symmetrical balance but versatile A lighter person and a heavier person sitting on a seesaw exemplify asymmetrical balance To balance the seesaw, the heavier person must sit closer to the center than the lighter person Similar positioning of large objects and small objects in an artwork also creates asymmetrical balance Contrast Multiple contrasting instances of one element of art create visual interest The element at the focal point stands out from the rest of the composition A viewers eye usually rests on the focal point The focal point may present an artworks meaning Proportion and scale Proportion concerns the relative sizes of parts of an artwork The fountain contrasts with Human scale determines our sense of proportion other elements, creating a 2,500 years ago, Classical Greek sculptors standardized realistic focal point human proportions 9 Ancient Greeks measured everything using the human figure The proportions of Greeces building designs even match human proportions According to Greek standards, the human figure is 7.5 heads tall The Greeks also conceived specific measurements for the human face The corners of the eyes mark the point halfway between the chin and the top of the head The nose marks the point halfway between the chin and the corners of the eyes The bottom of the lips mark the point halfway between the chin and the bottom of the nose Many artists, however, modify proportions according to new ideals of beauty Exaggerated or distorted human proportions may also alter an Greek artworks overall effect measurements Scale refers to an elements size relative to the entire work for the human Scale may also describe the entire works size face
Today, the stubborn Americans still measure distance in feet.
For instance, the large scale of the Sistine Chapels ceiling or the small scale of details in miniature paintings as well as medieval book illuminations attract attention Artists decide the scale of their artwork based on its location and purpose Elements of art in history More traditional artworks than modern artworks apply the elements of art and principles of composition Several modern artistic styles center on the rejection of these concepts
PROCESSES AND TECHNIQUES

POWER PREVIEW
Processes and Techniques delve into traditional two- and three- dimensional art mediums as well as several more recent art forms. Each art medium features a storied history and different techniques as well as materials. To correctly answer test questions from this subsection, understand precisely how each medium works in addition to memorizing the definitions of technical terms.
POWER NOTES
Two-Dimensional Art
Definition Drawing, printmaking, painting, photography, and some mixed media define twodimensional art These artworks exist on a picture plane Two-dimensional artworks attributes include height and width, but not depth Drawing conclusions Drawing uses the element of line and defines the most fundamental art process Lines vary with different drawing mediums10
Pencil Pen and ink Charcoal
Popular mediums for drawing
Crayon
Felt-tip pen
Charcoal or pencil artists apply more or less pressure to create darker or lighter values, respectively Hard pencils produce thin and light lines Soft pencils make thick lines and may create lighter or very dark values When lightly applied, charcoals soft point produces faint lines that expose the surface underneath Pen and ink artists use thin, transparent wash ink or undiluted opaque ink to affect the visibility of the drawing surface, which determines value Artists may mix different drawing mediums to change the shading of lines Unlike black drawing media, pastels and colored pencils generate colorful lines Black and colored mediums use identical techniques Artists, however, must contemplate the effects of color th Pastels, or soft sticks of color, entered the art world in the 18 century Portraitists favor pastel as a medium
10
I emphasize groups of four items or more by placing them in lists or graphics to prepare you for USADs NOT or EXCEPT format questions. Prioritize facts if they appear in sets of four or more.
Effortless color blending allows subtle tints or shades This versatility, however, comes at the cost of easy smearing Many artists spray fixatives to strengthen the bonds of the pastel Pastels are also extremely fragile Colored pencils do not smear as often as pastels Pastel and colored pencil artists draw multiple layers to mix colors Most modern artists draw on paper Many variations of paper exist, including white sketchbook paper and manufactured as well as handmade versions Smooth, rough, white, and colorful paper are all commercially available Shading techniques alter the value of a drawing Hatching adds shade using a mass of parallel lines Crosshatching is similar but uses crisscrossing lines Hatching and crosshatching add the illusion of form Hatching Crosshatching Stippling In stippling, massed dots provide shade Dense dots result in darker shades while sparse dots make lighter shades Printmaking Machines supplement the two-dimensional printmaking techniques of copying artworks11
Relief prints
Intaglio prints
Lithographs
Screen prints
Primary printmaking processes
Printmaking technology can yield multiple copies, making prints much cheaper than paintings Many low-cost prints bearing social protests circulated during the Mexican Revolution Printmaking has executed book and newspaper illustrations since the invention of the printing press in the 15th century Initially, the artist creates the original image on a printing plate, or matrix After ink saturates this image, paper or another material copies Relief printmakers the matrix design cut away negative In relief printmaking, the artist first gouges out parts of the matrix space (the white Woodcarving knives, linoleum knives, and gouges allow the surface areas) from the matrix and ink the incisions remaining positive A plate of wood, linoleum, or another synthetic material may act as space (the black the matrix area) that stands out
in relief
11
These videos of the primary printmaking processes may be helpful: http://tinyurl.com/SilkscreenVideo, http://tinyurl.com/IntaglioVideo, http://tinyurl.com/LithographyVideo, and http://tinyurl.com/ReliefVideo.
After cutting, the remaining positive space12 for the final image stands out in relief
The artist rolls a brayer over the plate, inking the relief area The ink does not color the cut-away area, or the negative space Finally, the relief printmaker places the matrix and paper into a press 13 Alternatively, she uses a burnisher to rub the paper onto the matrix The inked area colors the paper, creating a copy of the plate image Intaglio printmaking follows the opposite approach of relief printmaking The process centers on the element of line In the intaglio technique of engraving, the artist carves lines into the surface of a wood or soft metal plate Etching, another intaglio process, uses a wax- or varnish-coated plate Lines incised through the wax or varnish layer form the image These incisions expose areas of the metal plate, the designs positive space Immersion in acid then etches away the exposed metal Shorter exposure to acid creates lighter lines while longer exposure to acid creates deeper lines The artist then removes surplus wax or varnish and squeezes ink into the etched areas Afterwards, she wipes ink off the negative space, the area in In etching, artists etch relief away positive space In the final step of etching, a press forces paper into the inked (the white area), force ink into this positive grooves space, and then The inked area on the paper actually protrudes from the remove remaining ink papers surface, implying form instead of just shape from the negative In lithography, the artist uses a waxy pencil or crayon to outline the space (the black area) image on the printing plate A stone, zinc, or aluminum plate may serve as the matrix The lithographer solidifies the greasy image and then adds water to the plate Oil resists water, so inking the matrix only saturates the greasy positive space A press forces the inked area onto paper, creating a copy of the image Lithography is a complex and arduous task The skill of drawing alone, however, is sufficient enough to create a lithograph Woodcutters and engravers need professional training Most T-shirt designers use screen printing This approach, also known as silk-screening, uses a photograph or other image as a stencil The artist inks silk or another synthetic fabric stretched across a frame using this stencil A squeegee forces ink through holes (representing positive space) in the stencil, recreating the image on the fabric or paper Painting The ingredients of pigments, binders, and solvents produce paint
12
Recall that positive space forms the subject of an artwork in this case, the ice skate. Negative space refers to the background in this case, the white space. 13 Remember the difference between "brayer" and "burnisher" these two words frequently appear in USAD Art Exams.
Artists grind natural or synthetic materials into powder to yield pigments A binder synthesizes pigment grains and the paint surface Solvents adjust the consistency or drying time of paint
Pigments Binders Solvents Clay Wax Oil Minerals Egg yolks Water Gemstones Linseed oils Plant or insect materials
Common substances for the three ingredients in painting

Fresco painting for walls or ceilings dates back thousands of years
In a buon fresco (true fresco), artists apply a mixture of pure pigment and water to wet plaster covering the wall or ceiling Paint bound to wet plaster is permanent, so artists cannot make changes The fresco secco technique uses dried plaster instead of wet plaster The Roman ruins of Pompeii and medieval churches as well as Renaissance churches contain frescoes th In the early 20 century, the reputed Mexican muralist Diego Rivera created frescoes in Mexico and the United States Oil paint gained popularity in the 15th century and remains the most common type of paint Pompeii fresco Many artists favor oil paints versatility and easy blending Oil paints dry very slowly, allowing an artist to blend paints on the actual artwork This feature also permits the artist to continue to work on a piece for weeks In addition, thinned oil paint creates transparent or semi-transparent layers called glazes Glazes tweak the color of an artwork For instance, a yellow glaze over a crimson painting creates resplendent effects Impasto paintings feature lumps of thickly applied paint Before oil paint, most artists employed water-based tempera Tempera use, however, continued throughout history and is common in elementary schools today Egg serves as the binder in traditional tempera paint Drawbacks of tempera include a short drying time and a minimal tonal range Due to the quick drying time, tempera artists must blend colors before painting Unlike oil paint, temperas restriction to light or dark tones prevents natural depictions Tempera also requires a high level of skill and cannot recreate the effect of oil paint glazes Ancient tempera paintings, however, signify the mediums advantages of clarity, brilliance, and durability
Water-based gouache paint resembles school-quality tempera but offers improved paint
quality Many designers and fine artists prefer gouache for its bright colors and precision Watercolor paint lacks the consistency of gouache but dries faster This transparent medium is the most popular water-based paint The color of the underlying paper surface strongly affects watercolors value Instead of mixing in white paint to create tints, most watercolor artists add water In watercolor painting, lighter colors, background areas, and broad spaces come first Darker colors, foreground areas, and detailed spaces come last Watercolor requires careful planning and practice because mistakes can easily ruin a work Acrylic paint combines synthetic materials, plastics, and polymers This highly versatile medium was invented after World War II Compared to oil paint, acrylic dries faster and creates layers more easily Acrylic, however, lacks the fine distinctions possible with oil paint Many artists allergic to oil paint and turpentine turn to acrylic paint Wax-based encaustic paint identified tomb markers in ancient Egypt These encaustic markers still survive, proving encaustics durability Hot irons fuse colored molten wax to a surface, creating encaustic Some modern painters have revived encaustic
From left: Easily blended oil paint, clear tempera, precise gouache, light watercolor, versatile acrylic, and waxbased encaustic
Photography The advent of photography occurred in the mid-19th century This technology first gained popularity as a documentary tool Artists initially felt compelled to paint works appearing more realistic than photographs Painters, however, ultimately abandoned competition with the camera and expanded into abstract art At first, the fine art world disregarded photography th st This media, however, has gradually earned prestige in the 20 and 21 centuries Film also recently entered the fine art world New technologies constantly change photography
Three-Dimensional Art
Definition Three-dimensional art encompasses sculpture, architecture, other types of mixed media, and environmental art These artworks exist in space and have the additional attribute of depth Sculpture Visibility distinguishes the two types of sculpture: freestanding and relief Freestanding, or in the round, sculptures are visible from all angles Examples include the Venus de Milo or Michelangelos Pieta Relief sculptures project from a carrier surface, such as doors, sarcophagi, altars, or church walls They are only visible from a limited range Sculptors attach the cast metal work to the carrier surface or carve the work out of the carrier surfaces stone or wood Michelangelos freestanding Pieta Artists may craft high relief or low relief (bas relief) sculptures High relief sculptures protrude further from the surface than low relief sculptures
High relief sculpture
Low (bas) relief sculpture
All sculptures come from four basic methods
Carving
Modeling
Casting
Construction
The subtractive approach of carving removes original material The artist uses chisels, hammers, and files to flesh out her stone or wood artwork Additive modeling uses a soft, pliable material such as clay, wax, plaster, or papier-mch A sculptor adds material to or shapes the surface Casting creates copies, or casts, of an unfired clay or wax sculpture The artist encloses this sculpture in plaster and then allows the plaster to harden Hardened plaster serves as a mold into which sculptors can pour materials to duplicate the original sculpture These materials include plaster and metal Synthetic materials such as plastic or polyester resins Alexander Calder recently became available for casting
Construction involves various methods such as sculpting metal Welded pieces of sheet metal or bent wire may create a metal sculpture Construction artists also combine paper, board, wood, or found objects to create sculptures In mobile sculptures, the entire sculpture or parts of the sculpture are movable Alexander Calders (1898 1976) mobiles hang elements from wires Wind or air currents move Calders mobiles Other artists make mobile sculptures using motors, pulleys, ropes, pumps, or other machines Architecture Architecture encompasses artistic and scientific building design Early architects used local materials such as sticks, mud, grass, animal skins, ice, or wood depending on their home climate Brick and stone later became common building materials Post-and-lintel construction remains a valuable architectural development Post-and-lintel Two vertical posts support one horizontal crosspiece, or lintel construction The Greek Parthenon features post-and-lintel construction Today, architects favor steel and wood when using this method The arch, another crucial invention, supported wider and taller buildings 14 Vaults and domes are extensions of this same concept The Roman Colosseum utilizes vaults The Industrial Revolution introduced numerous new building materials and techniques For example, the Crystal Palaces (1851) skeleton of thin iron rods supported an exterior consisting mainly of glass walls This structure in London housed the Worlds Fair Wrought iron frameworks also enabled the Eiffel Tower in Paris Alongside concrete, steel remains the standard building material for large, public, and commercial buildings as well as apartments Painting of the Worlds Fair in the Crystal Palace Residential architects frequently use brick and wood Many architects challenge the notions of geometrically structured buildings th th In the late 19 and early 20 centuries, Antonio Gaudi (1852 1926) designed organicshaped cut stone buildings in Spain15 Gaudis architecture lacks flat surfaces or straight lines Architects like Gaudi seek aesthetically appealing new materials and designs
14 15
Vaults are tunnels of arches. Embarrassing memory trick # whatever number this is: As buildings made out of stone, Gaudis artworks are the opposite of gaudy. (which makes sense because its spelled differently)
Environmental art Environmental art, or Earthworks, This medium overlaps with sculpture but distorts traditional ideas about the function of art Environmental artists expanded art outside of art museums Large scale and impermanence characterize Earthworks Environmental artists can design their work to change over time These artists build their works on-site and often involve the viewer in the work and installation 16 Environmental art redefines the space it occupies Christo (1935 ) and his wife Jeanne-Claude (1935 2009) popularized Earthworks This artist couple introduced the concept of packaging landscapes and architecture Christo first worked in Europe but later created Earthworks on the international stage
A 24-mile long fence of cloth in California
Fabric wrapping around famed monuments
Gates of orange fabric on Central Park's pathways
Pink plastic wrapping around 11 Florida islands
These ambitious projects took years or decades to complete Jeanne-Claude coordinated the creation of the Earthworks Environmental artists need to secure government and community approval Jeanne-Claudes role was just as important as Christos job in designing the original projects Their dual creation process questions the definition of artistic genius and traditional artist roles Michael Heizer (1944 present) and Robert Smithson (1938 1973) also produced Earthworks
Other Art Forms
Partial view of Christos Surrounded Islands
Mixed media Mixed media artists combine several mediums and objects to execute two- or threedimensional art These found objects include materials such as fabric, rope, broken dishes, newspaper, or childrens toys Collage, a mixed media art form, involves any objects that adhere to a surface, such as photographs, distinct papers, or theater tickets Symbolism, texture, color, or another aesthetic aspect unites the elements of a collage Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque established the collage as a fine art form c. 1912 Assemblages of both two- and three-dimensional objects also qualify as mixed media Joseph Cornells (1903 1972) assemblages involve open boxes containing various objects that deliver symbolic and metaphoric messages
16
USAD loves this fact.
Mixed media also appears in the masks, costumes, or other artworks of nonwestern or
nontraditional cultures For instance, grass, beads, and paint ornament several tribal masks Performance art Performance art combines theater and art, challenging the definition of art In this style, the artwork comprises the artist herself Like music, theater, and Earthworks, performance art lacks the permanence of traditional art Performance artists create unmarketable events open to interaction with viewers Several individuals perceive performance art as an escape from the commercialized art world The Guerilla Girls exemplify performance art aimed at social change This circle of artists first assembled in New Living Statues performers are York City in 1985 examples of performance art In public, Guerilla Girls don gorilla masks to remain anonymous The group employs guerilla-warfare strategies Posters, flyers, and public speeches voice their discontent with a supposedly white male-dominated art world Craft and folk art The disputed terms craft, folk art, and popular art apply to innumerable types of art forms worldwide Attempts to beautify utilitarian objects such as pottery, jewelry, fibers, and glass as well as wood objects result in these art forms Human hands or simple tools shape pottery, which uses clay dug from the earth In creating a basic pot, artists press their thumbs into the center of a ball of clay Potters hold the outside of the clay ball and shape the hollow interior with their fingers Coil pottery involves the palm of the hand kneading clay into long coils A stack of these coils forms the pot In slab pottery, liquid clay, or slip, binds together precisely measured slabs of clay Ancient cultures invented the modern potters wheel As the wheel spins malleable clay, the artist shapes the pot using her hands The potters wheel permits thin-walled pots and a large repertoire of shapes Potters wheel Thrown pottery refers to ceramics produced on a potters wheel Potters can combine thrown pottery and hand-built pottery
After the shaping and drying of pottery, artists place the clay in a special oven called a kiln The heat completely dries the clay and chemically hardens the pot This change is permanent Artists then color the pots surface using glazes made from clay and pigment Another heating in the kiln melts these glazes Melted glazes form a glassy, waterproof surface, which is both artistic and useful Potters may use molded clay, carved decorations, or ornaments to adorn the surface of a pot Fiber arts encompass woven and nonwoven fibers Beautiful, nonwoven quilts can fulfill primarily utilitarian or primarily artistic purposes Weavers create clothes and other household fabrics These weavers use a loom or braiding, knitting, or crocheting Archaeology indicates that Middle Eastern civilizations invented glass in the 3rd millennium Display of blown glass sculptures B.C.E. Glass production combines silica, raw materials, and possibly minerals to add color Sand, flint, or quartz creates silica Glassblowing equipped artists to fashion vases, drinking glasses, perfume bottles, and other glass vessels Medieval art popularized stained glass Residential lampshades and windows also used stained glass by the late 19th century Wood appears as a primary material in furniture, boxes, boats, and houses Northwest Coast Indians inscribe traditional designs in boxes and house boards Wooden boats functional and artistic designs vary between Northwest Coast Indian world cultures house pole of carved
wood
ART HISTORY
POWER PREVIEW
The first few pages of Art Fundamentals delve into highly specific definitions of art history and its methods. Although this section sometimes seems excessive, the detailed terms provide good fodder for picky questions. Later on, the background story of art historys evolution from ancient Rome to the present mentions several key individuals and historical moments.
POWER NOTES
Overview of Art History

Definition Art history explores an artworks social, cultural, and economic contexts This field aims to interpret artworks and their original meaning Art historians ask many questions to achieve this understanding
The artwork's The artwork's original function formal qualities
The original audience's social class and perspective
The artist's goal and intention
The patron's goal and intention
Common art historical areas of study
Related studies Art historys sister disciplines include anthropology, history, and sociology This field may also intersect with aesthetics and art criticism The philosophy of aesthetics explores beauty and its expression Art criticism informs the public of events in the art world through news media What is art? The first art historians only examined fine art Art historians now study a broad range of art Fine art
An audience must appreciate the object and perceive it as an artwork Paintings Prints Drawings Sculptures
Modern art
The object may take any form endowed with special meaning and/or aesthetic value Fine art Objects sometimes not regarded as art, including mass-produced posters and advertisements
Crafts: pottery, textiles, or Architecture body art (like tattoos) Common household designs such as those seen on a telephone, fork, or sofa
Art historians accept that an artworks meaning may change over time
Historical context tends to influence the interpretation of art
New viewers perceptions may also change an artworks meaning
For instance, Pope Julius II and a chapel floor cleaner might perceive Michelangelos Sistine Chapel ceiling paintings differently Chapel floor cleaner No role in the works creation Only enters the area to clean Perhaps illiterate
Pope Julius II Patron of the work Enjoys access to this secluded Vatican area Understands the works theology
Likewise, present-day Protestants, Muslims, or atheists would judge the ceiling differently than a Catholic living in the 16th century All of the above viewers, however, may find the ceiling aesthetically pleasing on equal levels The level of access to an artwork affects interpretation of the work Other demographic factors affect each viewers perception
Social status
Education
Religion
Race
Gender
Art History Do-It-Yourself Kit

Analysis methods and human history Most art historians employ two types of analysis to find an artworks meaning Formal analysis involves the study of an artworks visual elements These qualities may reveal the artist's intended meaning The elements of art describe a works formal qualities Formal analysis relies on careful examination and description of an artwork Contextual analysis considers past and present cultural, social, and economic influences on the artwork
Contexts contemporary to the artwork Subject compared to popular subjects at the time of creation
Contexts contemporary to the artwork's later audiences Physical location Viewer access
Patronage
Cost
Contextual analysis relates artworks to their times literature, music, theater, and history Art historians often study art chronologically Each development or style of art influences the next generation Comparative study is another fashionable art historical practice
For instance, the comparative study of Gothic and Renaissance works can highlight their differences This technique can also reveal stylistic changes between the two eras Art historians can then identify the historical events that caused these changes Information sources Art historians practicing formal analysis prefer the original artwork to reproductions Even the best reproductions rarely capture every detail from the original Photographs cannot convey the scale and form of a sculpture Pictures also fail to capture a paintings texture and rich colors Textbook images of photographs that are artworks lack the originals transitions from light to dark and appear flatter Art historians, however, sometimes study reproductions for practical reasons The original may be damaged or lost In this case, available descriptions of a work allow formal and contextual analysis Art historians practicing contextual analysis employ several types of sources Written sources, for example, usually come from archives or libraries
Visual sources
Preparatory sketches and models for an artwork The artists other works Works by the artists contemporaries
Archival sources Exchanges between the artist and patron Commission-related documents Art criticism Other written sources Information about the materials and function in the artwork such as their cost and source Writings about the function of the artwork - for instance, the ritual purpose of a sculpture
Written sources
Other sources
Interviews with artists and art viewers (commonplace in cultures that use oral history) Participant observation, an anthropology method - for example, an art historian may engage in masquerade performances to document the Western African masquerade tradition
Development of Art History

Pre-modern art history Art history became an academic field in the mid-18th century Art commentary, however, evolved earlier with the work of several writers The ancient Roman historian Pliny the Elder (23 79 C.E.) wrote Natural History His text analyzes art from both past eras and Plinys time Renaissance author and artist Giorgio Vasari (1511 1574) compiled The Lives of the Artists His work features biographies of illustrious Italian artists Pliny the Elder from before or during the Renaissance Today, Vasaris book illustrates artists changing social roles in the Renaissance He also shows how this period promoted the new idea of artistic genius 17 Vasari also painted a self-portrait in c. 1567 German Enlightenment scholar Johann Joachim Winckelmann (1717 1768) helped set the trend of context-centric art history th 18 century Enlightenment philosophy shaped modern art history Art historians began to study parallels between human history and the maturation of artistic styles Vasaris biography-centric art history lost favor th th 19 - and 20 - century art historians continued the new trend of studying formal qualities in relation to historical context Art historical studies follow a chronological order because each generation of artists influences successive generations Modern art history Bias affects art history Feminist historians recently singled out a hegemony of white male artists and patrons These feminists have amended art history to recognize female artists Feminist revisions opened the gates to a much broader breadth of art history Johann Joachim This new international, multicultural, and inclusive art history Winckelmann encompasses diverse viewpoints Feminism Marxism 18 Psychoanalysis
17
Details like these may seem random and awkward, but the Power Guide includes every testable fact in a USAD guide, including captions in pictures (this one comes from the right column of page 6). 18 Psychoanalysis is a method of analyzing psychic phenomena and treating emotional disorders that involves treatment sessions during which the patient is encouraged to talk freely about personal experiences and especially about early childhood and dreams (Merriam-Webster Dictionary).
Art history also includes visual culture, or modern media Advertisement posters Film Photography Television Visual culture has diluted art historys traditional values of artistic geniuses and masterpieces
WESTERN ART
POWER PREVIEW
This summary of Western art details key periods and groundbreaking moments in the art history of Europe and the United States. Examples of artworks and their artists illustrate these innovations. Questions will most likely test techniques and the history of major styles.
POWER NOTES
Introduction
Preservation of artifacts Extant artifacts from early cultures inform us about the origins of human civilization Most of these objects consist of stone, metal, fired clay, or another durable material Objects made of wood, fiber, or another perishable material often deteriorate Environmental factors also affect the preservation of artifacts For instance, Egypts hot and dry desert preserves even frail materials like papyrus paper The sealing of Egyptian caves and tombs also helps preserve even more artifacts West Africas humid climate causes items made of perishable materials to decay quickly Exposed wood masks, for example, rarely survive for decades, let alone centuries Art history focuses on Western society and de-emphasizes Nonwestern society partly due to varying levels of preservation in different world cultures Art historys most prominent civilizations do not necessarily produce the best artworks Rather, art historians have simply discovered the most artworks from these civilizations For instance, Egypts environment favors art preservation Art historians have learned much about ancient Egypt through extant artifacts Many known ancient civilization centers in Central America and South America remain unexplored Thieves and merchants, however, have ruined scores of cities in their search for antiquities to sell on the international market
The Stone Age

Old Stone Age art Ancient cave paintings in southwestern Frances Chauvet Cave date to c. 30,000 B.C.E. Explorers uncovered these paintings in 1994 They originated in the Old Stone Age The Old Stone Age is also called the Upper Paleolithic Period
Horses in Chauvet Cave
Chauvet Caves artists used red ochre and black charcoal The paintings also feature a minimal use of yellow ochre These artists painted only animals, such as horses, rhinoceroses, lions, buffalos, and mammoths Younger cave paintings elsewhere in France and Spain date from c. 15,000 to 10,000 B.C.E. Altamira and Lascaux contain the most well-known of these paintings These caves sizable artworks contain colorful depictions of animals like horses, bears, lions, bison, and mammoths Outlines of human hands appear in Lascaux and Altamira, but not Chauvet Cave Early art historians deemed these cavemens artworks random scribbles Detailed study, however, reveals a visual tradition connecting these drawings Skilled artists first created elegant outlines of charcoal Afterwards, they colored their figures with red and yellow ochre pigments The drawings original function remains uncertain They may have served in rituals such as hunting ceremonies Other renowned artworks from the Old Stone Age include small stone female statuettes Oversized bellies, breasts, and pubic areas distinguish these figures The Venus of Willendorf (Woman of Willendorf) is the best known of these sculptures This statuette dates from c. 28,000 to 25,000 B.C.E It stands 4 1/8 inches tall The figure has minimal arms and completely lacks feet or facial details These aspects contradict the figurines inflated female features Scholars theorize that these statuettes may have served as fertility figures The Middle Stone Age The Middle Stone Age refers to the Mesolithic Period Venus of During this era, a warmer climate lured cave dwellers outside Willendorf Rock shelters housed a growing new culture Mesolithic artworks on rock shelters in eastern Spain prove humans lived there These paintings resemble Paleolithic cave drawings in their skillful depiction of animal figures The existence of humans figures, however, distinguishes Mesolithic art from Paleolithic art One figure at Lascaux is the only human to appear in cave paintings By contrast, rock shelter art shows humans, either alone or in groups Mesolithic artists seemed to favor scenes of humans conquering animals Scholars debate the dating of these artworks Most historians, however, agree they originated in c. 7,000 to 4,000 B.C.E The New Stone Age The New Stone Age is also known as the Neolithic Period The defining artworks of this era are stone formations in Western Europe The first formations date to 4,000 B.C.E.
Rows or rings of tremendous, rough-hewn stones comprise these formations The stones weigh up to 50 tons and measure up to 17 feet in height Accordingly, historians term these stones megaliths (great stones) The megalithic culture fashioned the megaliths Stonehenge at Salisbury Plain in Wiltshire, England remains the most famous megalith construct This formation arose through several building phases around 2100 B.C.E. The builders employed post-and-lintel construction Stonehenges main layout consists of three concentric rings that use two types of stones Bluestone is a type of rock native to England Sarsen is a type of sandstone
Stonehenges main layout
Stonehenges biggest rocks are the sarsen stones in the innermost five posts and lintels Some of these sarsen stones weigh 50 tons A vertical heel-stone stands to the east of Stonehenge From the very center of the horseshoe ring, the midsummer solstice sunrise appears directly behind the heel-stone Stone Age art versus later art The above Stone Age artworks were isolated from each other They have survived thousands of years More art remains from later cultures due to conditions favorable to creation and preservation Art creation increases in societies organized into stable cities The rulers of these cities provide patronage These population centers are often great cities such as Babylonia Art preservation increases in cultures that traditionally place art in mostly inaccessible locations such as burials, caves, and tombs These artworks are more likely to survive until art historians secure them
The Near East

Ancient Mesopotamian art Mesopotamia, the valley between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, gave birth to several civilizations Like their contemporaries, the Egyptians, these civilizations innovated in writing and the arts Unlike Egypt, Mesopotamia lacked natural barriers such as deserts or mountains Mesopotamia was more susceptible to frequent invasion Conquest, destruction, and a lack of durable materials in Mesopotamian art have reduced the number of surviving Mesopotamian artworks Sumer grew as the first Mesopotamian civilization from c. 4,000 to 2,334 B.C.E. Remarkable Sumerian sculptures and buildings arose during this time period Enormous temples mark city centers and reflect the importance of religion in Sumer Simple platform structures formed the earlier temples Eventually, temples developed into ziggurats, or stepped pyramids In c. 2,334 B.C.E., Sargon of Akkad subjugated Sumers cities Despite a language barrier, Akkadian society assimilated the Sumerians While Sumer valued loyalty to the city-state, Akkad coveted monarchical loyalty Akkadian art centers on the dynastys kings These monarchs appear in freestanding (visible from all sides) and relief (protruding from a Relief sculpture of an Akkadian surface) sculptures king trampling enemies Mountainous Guti barbarians invaded Akkad in c. 2,150 B.C.E.19 Sumers cities, however, regained power just 50 years later, in c. 2,100 B.C.E. The King of Ur became the first Neo-Sumerian monarch Neo-Sumerian artists most noteworthy works are urban ziggurats Administrative and economic activity revolved around these structures Ziggurats, however, were still primarily temples One example is the Great Ziggurat of Ur This structure stands near Nasiriyah, Iraq In c. 1,792 B.C.E., the city-state of Babylonia rose to Hammurabi (left) and Shamash power Babylonian king Hammurabi centralized several Mesopotamian city states that had remained independent for centuries He then recorded Babylonian law in the first-ever legal code: the Code of Hammurabi
19
Enrichment Fact: The Guti entered Mesopotamia from the Zargos Mountains in present-day Iran.
The most acclaimed early Babylonian artwork is a stone stele 20 inscribed with Hammurabis code The Louvre Museum houses this stele Atop the code, in a high-relief sculpture, the sun-god Shamash inspires Hammurabi to write the code The above periods of Sumerian, Akkadian, and Babylonian history occurred in southern Mesopotamia At the same time, the civilization of Assyria reigned over northern Mesopotamia
Then from c. 900 to 600 B.C.E., Assyria conquered the entire Near Assyrian relief carving East Relief carvings stand out among Assyrian artworks They illustrate battles, sieges, and other significant moments Through the 7th century B.C.E., Babylonia gradually usurped Assyria During the Neo-Babylonian period from c. 612 to 538 B.C.E., Babylonia ruled over Mesopotamia Ishtar Gate detail Neo-Babylonians constructed the wondrous hanging gardens of Babylon 21 They also built the Ishtar Gate, an entrance to the Temple of Bel The Temple of Bel is a giant ziggurat This temples Ishtar Gate is one of the most famous pieces of architecture to position figures on a wall surface The Ishtar Gate features animals22
c. 4,000 B.C.E. Sumerians c. 2,150 B.C.E Guti barbarians c. 2,334 B.C.E. Akkadians
c. 2,100 B.C.E. NeoSumerians
c. 900 B.C.E. Assyrians
c. 1,792 B.C.E. Babylonians
c. 612 - 538 B.C.E. Neo-Babylonians
Persia The region of modern Iran gave rise to the Persian Empire (c. 538 330 B.C.E.) Persian artists expressed the most skill in architecture The Palace at Persepolis epitomizes these artworks Stone, brick, and wood form this palace
20 21
A stele is an upright, carved pillar or piece of stone that serves as a marker or monument. I only provide a picture of an animal on the Ishtar Gate because USAD emphasizes the animals, but if you want to see the full structure, hop on over to http://tinyurl.com/TheIshtarGate. 22 This image from the Ishtar Gate is the inspiration for Disneys The Lion King.

The design borrows from Egyptian architecture Ancient Egyptian art The birth of Ancient Egypt and the predynastic period occurred in c. 3,500 B.C.E. Alexander the Greats conquest ended Ancient Egyptian civilization in 332 B.C.E. A plethora of legendary artworks comes from Ancient Egypt
Larger than life pharaoh statues The portrait bust of Queen Nefertiti
The Sphinx
The Great Pyramids at Giza
Many Egyptian artworks feature hierarchical scale: status determines size
The Palette of King Narmer (c. 3,000 B.C.E.) employs hierarchical scale This stone tablet dates to between Dynasties III and VI of Egypts Old Kingdom Egyptians may have used the palette to mix cosmetics for rituals In the palette center, King Narmer towers over other figures He hoists a vanquished enemy by the hair His raised arm prepares to strike a fatal blow Two diminutive fallen enemies languish in the lower section below Narmer Most subsequent ancient Egyptian art emulates the palettes hierarchical scale These works also reuse the organization and poses of the figures in the palette The fractional representation technique derives from several poses
Head in profile Eye in frontal view Torso in frontal view Lower body in profile Including the legs and feet
Centuries of Egyptian art follow the standard of depicting individuals in fractional representation23 Preservation of Egyptian artifacts and images increased with the cultures burial customs The ancient Egyptian elite buried their dead as mummies in tombs full of furnishings, jewelry, and symbolic servants The crypt of the boy king Tutankhamen (1,361 1,352 B.C.E.) remains the most famous Egyptian tomb th Thieves had plundered most pharaohs tombs by the 20 century
23
And now, Walk like an Egyptian is officially stuck in my head.
A well-hidden site, however, ensured the nearly perfect preservation of Tutankhamens tomb until 1922 In this year, archaeologists extracted a wealth of treasures fashioned out of precious materials Tutankhamens burial mask is one of the most exalted treasures This work of art is an idealistic portrait of the king Excavators retrieved this artifact from the interior of Tutankhamens stone coffin Ancient Egyptians had placed the mask atop the mummys head and shoulders Blue glass and semi-precious stones adorn this gold mask Tutankhamens burial Nubian art mask The Nubian kingdom spanned a wide area of Africa to the south of Egypt Only modern scholars interested in diversifying art history have begun studying this civilization Historians recently learned that Nubia controlled Egypt for a period of time During this era, Nubians fulfilled the role of pharaoh Nubian works rarely appear in art collections Additional exploration of Nubian civilization, however, will update these collections as well as the body of art history
Greek Art
Cycladic, Minoan and Mycenaean art The Cycladic, Minoan, and Mycenaean cultures thrived in the region of the Aegean islands These three civilizations artistic advances were instrumental in later Greek art From c. 3,200 B.C.E. to c. 2,000 B.C.E., the Cycladic culture blossomed on the Cyclades archipelago in the Aegean Sea Much remains unknown about the Cycladic civilization Cycladic nude female figures, however, have attracted the interest of modern society These figurines express simple, geometric forms Cycladic artists also crafted decorative pottery alongside marble bowls and jars Over time, the Minoan civilization on the island of Crete superseded that of the Cycladics nd The Minoan golden age occurred in the 2 millennium B.C.E. Minoan culture revolved around Knossos, a city on Crete Cycladic nude female figurine Knossos royal palace consists of a sprawling labyrinth The legend of the Minotaur centers on this palace This half-man, half-bull lorded over the maze and consumed intruders Archaeologists have exposed the site of Knossoss palace Sea life recurs as the dominant theme in Minoan art Minoans even crafted statues of a female snake goddess The Minoan style favors naturalism
Palace wall frescoes and pottery designs form the majority of Minoan artworks This civilization, however, also showed proficiency in architecture Four large Minoan palaces stand on Crete None of these palaces contain defensive elements24 Light, flexible, and organic designs define this Minoan architecture
From left: Knossos palace reproduction, a statue of the snake goddess, and a palace fresco of sea life Minoan culture declined at the same time Mycenaean civilization peaked
Historical consensus theorizes that the Mycenaeans obliterated the Minoans Mycenae, a Greek mainland city, was the hub of Mycenaean society This culture built elegant tombs Their burial customs sustained a wealth of artifacts The most acclaimed Mycenaean treasures consist of gold These items prove the cultures superb goldsmithing skills Mycenaean artists were also adept in creating relief sculptures Mycenaean gold Greek Archaic Period earring The Greek Archaic Period occurred from c. 660 to 475 B.C.E. Archaic Greek sculptors sculpted freestanding figures in marble and limestone Mesopotamian and Egyptian stone sculptures inspired these creations Indeed, Egyptian arts frontal poses recur in Greek figures Greek art, however, delves further into realistic features and dynamic movement Greek temples also arose during this period New temples employed the Doric and Ionic column orders These styles and the later Corinthian style differ in the extent of their ornamentation For example, the Greek Doric order lacks a base and the Tuscan order lacks a detailed shaft The Composite column order combines the Ionic and Corinthian styles
24
Enrichment Fact: The Minoan civilizations island location protected them from enemy invasions.
Classical Greek and Roman column orders
Vase painting became fashionable in Greece and featured countless styles
Black silhouette: Simplistic black figures Athenian style: Includes black figures, but also a linear style
Corinthian style: Floral and ornate background Red figure: Includes a black background
Greek Classical Period The city-state of Athens created ancient Greeces most acclaimed art during the Classical Period (475 323 B.C.E.) The Early Classical Period dates from c. 475 to 448 B.C.E. Thin Doric columns characterize temples from this period This eras sculptures feature strong, solemn, and simple forms Most sculptors captured figures poised directly before or after a significant action, as seen in the picture to the right The Early Classical age marked major sculptural innovations Greek sculptors renounced rigid Archaic frontal poses This positioning derived from Egyptian art Sculptors explored realistic, complex forms and poses Early Classical Among these new poses were contrapposto sculpture poised to Contrapposto means counter positioning fire an arrow In this pose, a standing figure shifts it weight to one leg The position appears relaxed and naturalistic Western artists emulated Greek sculptures for thousands of years th th From the 15 to the early 19 centuries, Renaissance, Baroque, and Neoclassical artists strove to match the idealism of extant Greek statues Architectural breakthroughs distinguish the Middle Classical Period (c. 448 400 B.C.E.) Middle Classical temples exemplify these architectural advances
For instance, the restored Parthenon temple (447 B.C.E.) remains one of the most acclaimed artworks in history Persian annihilation of the temple in 480 B.C.E. compelled the restoration The Parthenons example of column construction remains a central model in Western architecture today, over 2,000 years later This structure also portrays post-and-lintel construction, a fundamental development in architecture Parthenon faade plan Due to Athens loss in the Peloponnesian War, architectural advances subsided during the Late Classical Period (c. 400 323 B.C.E.) Plain Doric columns continued to support new temples Ornate Corinthian columns, however, gained popularity Greek Hellenistic Period Hellenistic Period (c. 331 23 B.C.E.) art fused the styles of Greece and Asia Minor 25 In short, eastern civilizations impacted this periods artworks Two acclaimed Hellenistic masterworks are the Venus de Milo and the Laocon Group These freestanding sculptures express ideals of beauty
Etruscan and Roman Art

Etruscan art In the 1st millennium B.C.E., the Etruscan civilization emerged in modern Italy This groups art bridges idealistic Greek art and pragmatic Roman art The Etruscans short-lived brick and wood buildings left behind no traces Fortunately, ceramic models, presumably of Etruscan temples, have survived These building models incorporate columnsupported gables26 and tiled roofs This style borrows from Greek architecture Other remaining Etruscan artifacts are works of bronze and baked clay Some of the baked clay objects serve as sarcophagus Etruscan tomb painting lids The bronze items demonstrate the Etruscans proficiency in this art form Tomb decorations supply most art historical knowledge of the Etruscans Studies of several aforementioned cultures also rely on this source The walls and ceilings of these crypts contain the only enduring Etruscan paintings Bright and flat colors characterize these paintings The subjects engage in funeral festivities featuring music and dancing
25 26
Enrichment Fact: Alexander the Greats conquests in the east merged the cultures of Greece and Asia Minor. A gable is a triangle-shaped wall between two sloping roofs. The Pantheon picture from earlier provides an example.
Roman art Military conquests and the formation of an empire define Roman history Etruscan influences permeated early Roman art But by the 2nd century B.C.E., sculptors and legions of other Roman artists had turned to adapting Greek art Idealized portraits of Roman rulers derived standards from Greek art Rome invented several groundbreaking engineering and architecture techniques, including concrete Concrete mixed with rocks and rubble served as a strong mortar to bind stone walls This invention enabled the construction of massive domed buildings, aqueducts, and baths as well as other civic buildings Roman architects also introduced the curved arch With the curved arch, stronger bridges and aqueducts became possible A new paved road network included these bridges The empires roads facilitated widespread communication and control The Colosseum (70 80 C.E.) and the Pantheon (118 125 C.E.) still stand in Rome today and exhibit the ingenuity of Roman engineering For example, vaulted construction features in the Colosseum Giovanni Battista Piranesi engraved an image of the Colosseum in 1757 Roman art also includes a wealth of sculptures
Massive triumphal arches: Many include relief sculptures of emperors towards the top of the structure The reliefs may also celebrate military victories
Funerary relief sculptures: Appear on tombs or sarcophagi Tomb reliefs may consist of non-figurative decorations Other reliefs are narratives
Small portrait busts: A Roman Republic funeral tradition developed in which the procession carried small sculptures of the deceased Some busts served this purpose
Large statues: Commemorate honorable statesmen or nobles Stand in public locations
The examples of portrait busts and large statues only present two extremes Roman portrait sculptors explored a myriad of different sizes for their portraits This civilizations sculptures center on Roman ideals Both the funerary sculptures and public statues use idealism None of these works sculptors attempted to execute realistic portraits
Roman art strongly influenced the art of the Middle Ages
In addition, Romes artworks inspired Renaissance artworks and countless later artworks
Byzantine and Medieval Art

Byzantine art The decline of the vast Roman empire reduced the domains regions to warring kingdoms Rome collapsed in Western Europe, but the empires eastern half endured as Byzantium Mosaic work remains the most renowned Byzantine art form Mosaic artists cobble surfaces with compact ceramic tiles, glass shards, or stones The resulting large murals often feature Christian subjects Exemplary Byzantine mosaics appear on the brilliant walls of reputed churches in Ravenna, Italy Despite Ravennas Italian location, Byzantium ruled this city after Romes downfall Hagia Sophia Byzantium also achieved one of historys most wondrous architectural feats, the Hagia Sophia (532 537 C.E.) This structure stands in Constantinople Medieval art The early medieval period spans the years c. 375 to 1025 A highlight of this time period is Nomadic Germanic art This culture excelled in abstract, decorative, and geometric metalwork Many Nomadic Germanic metalworkers crafted small ornaments or jewels of bronze, silver, or gold Patterns of jewels adorn these trinkets Scandinavias Viking culture preferred the medium of wood Viking carvers added designs and sculptures to wooden ships Viking invasions produced a Hiberno-Saxon artistic style combining Viking, Anglo-Saxon English, and Celtic Irish influences Throughout the medieval age, wars diverted large portions of medieval Europes population from creating art The Catholic Church preserved most of this periods artworks In addition, most of the population lacked the ability to read In general, only nobles and clergymen enjoyed the Jesus in the Book of Kells privilege of an education In the medieval era, Latin remained the international language of Europe Book preservation and production revolved around monasteries
Monks wrote and illustrated vellum27 or parchment28 copies of books by hand The original books from which the monks drew copies were extremely valuable Indeed, monks chained these tomes to tables in their monasteries Monks brilliant illuminated manuscripts qualify as fine art These books brought artistic ideas from northern to southern Europe and vice versa The Book of Kells (c. 800) and the Coronation Gospels (c. 800 810) exemplify illuminated manuscripts The late medieval period dates from c. 900 to 1,500 During this age, church architecture became the prevailing art form A church stood at the heart of each city, town, and village Several church designers pulled out all the stops on size The construction of these churches often exceeded a century but resulted in artistic masterpieces The first church architects of the late medieval age based their plans on Roman arches Saint-Sernin Basilica As a result, the Romanesque style refers to this design method Saint-Sernin (1070 1120) is a renowned Romanesque basilica in Toulouse, France A barrel vault, or tunnel of arches, served as a churchs underlying structure Vault structures are arched ceilings or roof supports
Types of arches and vaults
Romanesque churches utilize stone vaults These churches replaced earlier buildings with wood roofing Wooden roof churches caught fire easily Hefty stone arches, however, required huge walls Romanesque architects minimized the sizes of windows and doors Carvings and relief sculptures usually adorned these doors Gothic art matured in the early 12th century and endured into the 16th century Some secular buildings exhibit Gothic traits Church construction, however, was the forte of the Gothic style
27
Vellum is a fine-grained unsplit lambskin, kidskin, or calfskin prepared especially for writing on or for binding books. (Merriam-Webster Dictionary) 28 Parchment is the skin of a sheep or goat prepared for writing. (Merriam-Webster Dictionary)
Three popular architectural techniques feature in Gothic buildings

Ribbed vaults Two lean stone arches (ribs) cross and support the intersection of two vaults Flying buttresses Exterior half-arches reinforce walls to offset barrel vaults' downward and outward thrust
Pointed arches Crested arches enhance the vertical, lofty mood of Gothic interiors
An imperative early Gothic invention, flying buttresses strengthened exterior walls enough to permit bigger windows and loftier ceilings Gothic architects placed resplendent stained glass in these windows, adding light and color to the interior These architectural changes resulted in the skeletal, thinwalled style which characterizes Gothic buildings Frances Chartres Cathedral epitomizes Gothic churches in its towering arches and iridescent stained glass light These elements draw visitors gazes to the heavens Architects initiated this cathedral in 1134 and rebuilt it after 1194
Chartres Cathedral
Southern European Renaissance

Seeds of the Renaissance The shift from the late medieval period to the Renaissance serves as a reminder of historys complexity and subtlety History is not a chronology of distinct styles and events For instance, a transitional period of mixed styles separates Gothic and Renaissance art Florentine Giotto di Bondone (1267 1337) remains this periods most noteworthy artist Giottos most esteemed artworks are frescoes His crucial contribution to art, simple perspective, overlaps subjects to imply depth 29 He also drew his figures from in-the-round models to achieve simple perspective Giottos method hints at a stage setting Viewers feel as if they are witnessing an event Contrary to Gothic artists, Giotto endowed his subjects with emotions and meaningful gestures Today, his depictions may appear unrealistic Giottos departure from flat, stylized, and unemotional Gothic art, however, must have surprised his original viewers Renaissance and ancient Greek art share a strong influence on present-day art Fresco using simple perspective, Interestingly, economic change was a key instigator of possibly by Giotto the Renaissance
29
In the round is another term for freestanding (visible from all sides) sculpture.
The invention and circulation of paper money allowed notables such as the Medici family to hoard their wealth These figures were instrumental in Renaissance art patronage Italian artists access to specimens of Greek and Roman art was also influential in the beginning of the Renaissance Artists receive invitations to dinner parties As art history delves into post-Gothic styles, artist biographies receive much more attention Individual-centric Renaissance society afforded this tendency Society began to value a new concept of individual genius Previously, painters and sculptors lived in the artisan class due to Greek artistic traditions This lesser status seemed proper because artists worked with their hands Renaissance culture, however, established artistic masters as reputable intellectuals All artists ascended to the higher echelons of society Early Italian Renaissance The city of Florences design competition in 1400 was a vital event in the early Renaissance 30 Upon the completion of a new baptistery, Florence held this competition to determine which artist would design the structures doors Lorenzo Ghibertis (c. 1381 1455) door panel proposal won the contest Ghiberti designed an image of the sacrifice of Isaac31 He portrayed Isaac with classical Greek features After Ghiberti concluded his work on the door panels, he received another door sculpture commission for a different entrance to the baptistery Ghiberti spent over 25 years crafting these doors His final product, however, was so extravagant that Michelangelo dubbed the doors the Gates of Paradise This name has stuck to this day Filippo Brunelleschi (1377 1446) was the runner-up in the baptistery door competition This loss compelled Brunelleschi to absorb himself in architecture Fortunately, he triumphed in a competition to build Florence Cathedrals dome Earlier architects failures to conceive a wide enough vault had placed construction at a standstill for many years Masaccio's linear perspective Brunelleschi, however, achieved enormous success when he employed a double-shelled dome Generations of subsequent architects adopted this design Brunelleschi invented linear perspective, or single vanishing point perspective
30
A baptistery is a part of a church or formerly a separate building used for baptism, which is a Christian sacrament marked by ritual use of water and admitting the recipient to the Christian community (Merriam-Webster Dictionary). 31 Enrichment Fact: In this biblical tale, God orders Abraham to sacrifice his son, Isaac. Abraham reluctantly obliges. Right before the father thrusts a dagger into his sons throat, an angel intervenes and reveals that God merely meant to test Abrahams loyalty; Isaac is free to live.
Renaissance painter Masaccio (1401 1428), however, first applied linear perspective Masaccios frescoes employ both linear and aerial perspective The advent of linear perspective exerted a profound, enduring influence on art Donatello (c. 1386 1466) is one of the giants of Renaissance art The majority of art historians deem him the founder of modern sculpture He drew largely from classical art This tendency appears in his bronze statue masterpiece, David (c. 1430 1432) No known freestanding nude statues exist between the classical period and Donatellos creation of David Donatellos later works lean towards naturalism, character, and theatricality Botticelli (c. 1444 1510) worked a generation after Donatello His work implemented an ideal of female beauty that remained for centuries Botticellis most celebrated painting, The Birth of Venus (c. 1482) reflects his work Except for several Renaissance painters, no other artist had painted a full-length female nude since the classical period Venus most alluring aspects include a long neck, loose hair, and a relaxed pose
From left: Detail of Ghibertis Sacrifice of Isaac, the Gates of Paradise, Donatellos bronze David, and Botticellis The Birth of Venus Photo of Donatellos David by Patrick A. Rodgers
The High Renaissance The High Renaissance generation of artists succeeded Botticellis generation Leonardo da Vinci (1452 1519) and Michelangelo di Buonarroti (1475 1564) were illustrious High Renaissance artists who inspired the term Renaissance Man32 Leonardo earned prestige for his work in several different occupations:
Inventor
Architect
Engineer
Painter
Sculptor
Scientist
Musician
He invented modern-day canal locks that allow ships to move between levels of water In addition, Leonardos submarine and helicopter sketches are functional designs His legendary paintings, The Last Supper (c. 1495 1498) and Mona Lisa (c. 1503 1505), have even attained popular culture icon status
32
A Renaissance man is a person who has wide interests and is expert in several areas (Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary).
Mona Lisa demonstrates Leonardos groundbreaking painting technique, sfumato This term derives from the Italian word for smoke, fumo In sfumato, soft colors and outlines blur transitions between forms Michelangelo and Leonardo worked in Florence at the same time At this time, Michelangelo was sculpting David (1504) Florence obtained the source marble and Michelangelo won the Sfumato in the citys competition for the right to sculpt a statue out of the Mona Lisa marble The city discovered too late that this marble contained a sizable crack inside Michelangelo, however, surpassed this difficulty to create David This statue guaranteed Michelangelos fame as a sculptor Davids form exceeds human scale because an early plan positioned it high above ground on the faade of Florence Cathedral This statue needed a large form to remain visible from below but was never placed on the cathedral Davids carving, pose, and smooth marble texture all attract viewers At the time of its creation, it symbolized the spirit of the Florentine republic Michelangelo produced a plethora of noteworthy sculptures but led a chaotic career In 1505, he received a commission from Pope Julius II to plan the popes tomb To fill this massive tomb, Michelangelo initiated work on a collection of outstanding statues Moses (c. 1513 1515) The Dying Slave (1513 1516) The Bound Slave (1513 1516) Pope Julius II, however, suddenly retracted his commission His reasons for cancelling the tomb project remain unknown Michelangelos despair at the wasted effort marked one of the lowest points of his career Today, Michelangelo is more renowned for painting than sculpture Soon after the tomb project fell through, Julius II issued Michelangelo a new commission to paint the Sistine Chapels ceiling Michelangelo was reluctant to accept the popes commission He ultimately acquiesced and spent four years painting the 700 square yard ceiling This endeavor lasted from 1508 to 1512 33 The finished Sistine Chapel ceiling frescoes remain one of historys most celebrated creative masterpieces In recent decades, attempts to restore this work attracted publicity The restoration purged centuries-old layers of oil, wax, and grime from the frescoes Michelangelos original brilliant colors reappeared The cleaning, however, generated controversy because some individuals felt that altering an artwork reduces its original integrity
33
If you have time, visit the Sistine Chapel panorama at http://tinyurl.com/ygspf5h. And if youre like me, you can leave the page up for a few hours to listen to the music.
Debates surround other art restorations for this same reason
Raphael Sanzio (1483 1520) was another highly influential High Renaissance artist
The painter Raphael traveled to Rome in his youth There, he received several commissions from Pope Julius II Raphael also studied Michelangelos work, despite a rivalry between the two This study proved instrumental in Raphaels education While Michelangelo lived as a recluse, Raphael recruited many assistants in painting dazzling frescoes on the walls of Julius IIs official chambers The most esteemed of these works, School of Athens, (1509 1511) commemorates Greeces most exalted philosophers and scientists Raphael also produced historys most acclaimed paintings of the Virgin Mary Religious artworks from the Renaissance to the present emulate his masterpieces depicting the Virgin, including Sistine Madonna (c. 1513 1514)
From left: David, Moses, Dying Slave, and Bound Slave by Michelangelo, School of Athens and Sistine Madonna by Raphael
The Renaissance in Venice Venice and many other cities joined Florence and Rome in contributing to the Renaissance influx of creative art The Venetian painter Giorgione (c. 1477 1510) pioneered landscape painting His scenes signify a new independence from Biblical, allegorical, or classical references Giorgiones The Tempest (c. 1508) established the landscape as a painting subject Previously, most artists had painted human figures before adding the background In The Tempest, a potential storm imperils the humans The weather overshadows the humans in importance Titian Vecelli (1488 1576) worked in portraiture
The Tempest by Giorgione
Titian surpassed all of his Renaissance contemporaries in his talent for coloring34 His prolific career also stands out among those of Venetian Renaissance painters Creativity in portraiture earned Titian formidable fame Titian departed from the convention of neutral portrait backgrounds He presented his patrons in front of various settings, such as columns or curtains This revolutionary technique impacted portraiture well into the 20th century Tintoretto (1518 1594) ranked among the prominent Venetian painters Art historians generally categorize his work in the Mannerist style Mannerism peaked in popularity in the late 16th century and featured distinct stylistic traits
Warped perspective
Toxic colors
Subjects in twisted poses
Distorted scale
Mannerist artists freely deformed all elements of art, not just scale and perspective While Tintoretto branched into Mannerist illustration methods, he worked with a different color palette He also sought theatricality in his art through dramatic angles and shading contrasts Tintoretto employed dramatic angles, Tintoretto supposedly experimented chiaroscuro, and twisted poses with numerous different arrangements of small models before finally settling on the most dramatic angle for a painting His juxtaposition of light and dark, or chiaroscuro, intensifies emotions Religious subject matter determines much of Tintorettos late work His chiaroscuro and carefully honed perspectives prelude Baroque art Reformation and Counter Reformation art The Reformation was significant in molding 16th-century art In this movement, Protestants railed against perceived excessive luxury and corruption in the Catholic Church Artists began to abandon the Renaissances elaborate El Grecos dramatic poses church decoration and religious imagery embody the Counter Reformation The Churchs retaliation involved a Counter Reformation Counter Reformation art further pushed upscale church decoration and theatrical, emotional subjects An eminent Mannerist painter, El Greco, symbolizes the Counter Reformation
34
USAD loves testing on somewhat opinion-based facts such as this. Just remember, Titian was the greatest colorist of the Renaissance and Donatello was the founder of modern sculpture.
His birth name was Dominikos Theotokopoulos Tintorettos paintings held a powerful influence over El Greco El Grecos experience also included a stint working in Titians Venetian workshop In 1576, he traveled from Italy to Toledo, Spain El Greco stretched his figures into dramatic positions This technique expressed the Counter Reformations zeal Tintoretto and El Greco embody the transition between the Renaissance and Baroque eras

Northern European Renaissance

History Relative to southern European artists, northern European artists produced smaller but much more realistic art during the 15th century The advent of oil paint empowered this realism At the time of the Italian Renaissance, art north of the Alps was still predominantly Gothic The classical craze did not captivate northern artists because they lacked their Italian contemporaries proximity to classical art and ancient Roman inspirations In the 16th century, however, Italian Renaissance ideas proliferated in northern European art
Northern artists visit Italy and study Renaissance masterpieces
Italian artists travel in Northern Europe
Italian Renaissance art influences Northern European art
Commerce connects Venetian traders and rich German merchants
Engravings of famous Italian artworks circulate through Europe
These ideas, however, did not hold sway over all northern artists Several northern artists adhered to traditional styles Even artists who accepted Renaissance colors and linear perspective retained some traditional methods
Artists Southern Germany prospered artistically in the 15th and early 16th centuries Germans Matthias Grnewald (c. 1475 1528) and Albrecht Drer (1471 1528) remain the most eminent Northern European Renaissance artists Only 10 works by Grnewald survive, but his influence was The Four Horsemen of the extensive Apocalypse by Albrecht Grnewald specialized in religious scenes, especially Christs Drer crucifixion 35 His magnum opus, the Isenheim Altarpiece (c. 1510 1515) spans nine panels Double sets of folding wings hold these panels Drer stands above all other artists from Reformation Germany in his fame His first artistic studies centered on late Gothic works
35
A magnum opus is a great work, especially the chief work of a writer or artist (Dictionary.com).
Italian Renaissance ideas, however, permeated northern Europe in the 16th century and affected Drers work Drer visited Italy to peruse the artworks of present Italian artists As a result, his style merges Italys art theories with northern Europes naturalism and sharp detail Drer also shared his newfound knowledge back in Germany Drer produced discourses on art theories and serial woodcut as well as copper engravings These engravings include The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse (c. 1498) and Veronica Veronica uses hatching in lighter areas such as the background and crosshatching in darker areas Another distinguished Northern Renaissance artist was Hans Holbein the Younger (1497 1593) His fame stems from his portraits, which rank among the greatest of the Renaissance Though a native of Germany, Holbein earned the most recognition in England English King Henry VIII employed Holbein as a court painter Holbein painted a portrait of his sovereign The portrait exhibits Holbeins gift for reproducing both details and sitters personalities English painters modeled their work after Holbeins standard well into the 19th century Portrait of Henry
The Baroque Era
VIII by Hans Holbein the Younger
Baroque history and style Between the Renaissance and Baroque eras, Europe changed politically Wars now pitted empires, not city-states, against each other The Catholic Church poured its energy into retaining power over Spain and Italy Jesuits and other missionary orders arose during the Baroque era to convert natives of new colonies These Counter Reformation goals shaped Baroque arts theatrical and emotionally moving calls to faith To meet these aims, Baroque artists abandoned the simple classical style In the 17th and 18th centuries, European society submitted to the ruling class Monarchs justified their power as divinely ordained Some Baroque monarchs stand among the most powerful rulers in history Utter control over subjects lives characterized the reigns of several rulers
Peter the Great of Russia King Louis XIV of France Empress Maria Theresa of Austria Catherine the Great of Russia
Throughout the Baroque period, rulers continued to amass wealth and power until the
poverty of the lower classes reached a breaking point The average European lived a challenging life while his or her ruler basked in luxury Several individuals spoke out against the exorbitant rich-poor gap Forms of protest included Enlightenment writings, especially those of JeanJacques Rousseau The monarchy, however, supplied the patronage behind Baroque masterpieces Baroque usually describes art created between the late 16th and mid-18th centuries This time period cultivated a style distinct from Renaissance art
Renaissance Static Calm Simple
Baroque Dynamic Energetic Ornamental
As a term, baroque also refers to majestic coloring and ornamentation These elements imbued the energy and emotion common in Baroque masterpieces Baroque artists strove to maximize dramatic impact They frequently applied the chiaroscuro technique to enhance theatricality Chiaroscuro amplifies contrasts of light and dark to immerse a subject in a theatrical spotlight Italian Baroque artists The Italian Baroque painter Caravaggio (157136 1610) Caravaggios art shows earned fame for his chiaroscuro extreme contrasts between Centuries worth of subsequent artists emulated his light and dark technique Caravaggesque even describes artworks juxtaposing harsh light and dark tones This new term shows the extent of Caravaggios influence Caravaggios paintings also took naturalism to a whole new level Traditional art depicts the Virgin and the apostles as regal characters draped in classical attire Caravaggios art illustrates these subjects as simple paupers in tattered clothes He even recruited the poor as models to fulfill his goal of naturalism Some of his patrons took offense and cast aside their purchased paintings Feminist art historians have recently placed Artemisia Gentileschi (c. 1593 c. 1652) among noteworthy Baroque artists Social norms rarely permitted women to study art
36
USAD Error: Caravaggio was born in 1571 not 1573.
Gentileschi, however, was born to a painter and worked in her fathers studio She tailored and reapplied Caravaggios methods which brought her artistic prestige Gentileschi painted women from the Old Testament and self-portraits37 Gianlorenzo Bernini (1598 1680) was the most important Baroque artist He first demonstrated artistic virtuosity as a child The Pope formally recognized Bernini when the artist was only 17 As the son of a sculptor, Bernini executed most of his masterworks in sculpture His talent, however, also manifested itself in architecture,

painting, and drawing Ecstasy of Saint Teresa One of Berninis careers involved theater design by Bernini This line of work affected much of his art Berninis primary masterpiece is the Ecstasy of Saint Teresa (1647 1652) He created this sculpture as part of the altar in the Cornaro Chapel Above the altar, a stained glass window shines dramatic gold lighting onto Saint Theresa The overall effect resembles a theatrical stage Bernini also followed a new approach in the sculpture itself Traditional sculptors carved calm, classical, and naturally flowing drapery Saint Theresas drapery devolves into a more realistic maze of creases Bernini also sculpted clouds around Saint Theresa, a groundbreaking use of marble38 Northern European Baroque artists Baroque arts significance transcended Italy For instance, Peter Paul Rubens (1577 1640) worked as a Baroque painter in Flanders Fall of Phaeton by Peter Paul Rubens He established a sizable workshop in his home country His early paintings exude energy and color Numerous later artists looked up to Rubens Dutch artist Rembrandt van Rijn (1606 1669) produced some of the most esteemed Baroque artworks
37
If you have time, compare Gentileschis Judith to http://tinyurl.com/CaravaggioJudith. Gentileschis and Caravaggios versions share the chiaroscuro technique, but differ in their portrayal of women. 38 She actually reclines on a single large cloud.
Rembrandts prestige lay in both painting and printmaking He was also one of the most adept draftsmen in history The Night Watch (1642) is likely Rembrandts most acclaimed artwork The proper title is Sortie of Captain Banning Cocqs Company of the Civic Guard In the contemporary group portrait tradition, each guard paid Rembrandt a specific amount to appear in The Night Rembrandt's The Night Watch Watch Rembrandt applied a highly untraditional arrangement for a group portrait Some guards appear in more visible positions than others Rembrandts departure from convention compounded various other problems, sending his career downhill He died a poor man but spent his final years painting self portraits These paintings rank among the most exceptional personality studies in history French and Spanish Baroque art The long reign of Louis XIV in France may mark the pinnacle of the Baroque era This ruler united modern France and presided over a flourishing of French culture In 1669, he initiated the construction of the extravagant Palace of Versailles This chateau sprawled across 200 acres in Versailles, France and incorporated multiple smaller structures A stable with a full capacity of hundreds of horses Multiple majestic buildings and gardens A stately orangerie (greenhouse) to shelter Louis XIVs orange trees Later, the king added three other elements to the palace A zoo Palace of Versailles A network of fountains and waterfalls A gigantic canal The canals size accommodated mock sea battles Louis XIVs court dispensed art patronage through the Salon system The annual Salon exhibition enacted art judging regulations These rules still influence present-day art criticism th Salons remained influential in France throughout the 19 century The king also founded the Acadmie Royale de Peinture et de Sculpture The Academy is a common name for this institution Upper classes soon used the Academy as a tool for standardizing artistic tastes and styles
Louis XIV even styled himself the Sun King, or the earthly courts center of revolution
Other European rulers strove to duplicate the French monarchys power and splendor King Philip IV, the sovereign of Spain, also aspired to match his northern neighbors court Berninis contemporary, Diego Velzquez, (1599 1660) worked as Philip IVs court painter Velzquez first applied fields of color to the canvas and then detailed his figures Most other artists based paintings on underlying sketches Velzquezs unorthodox style, however, inspired generations of later artists The artistic movement of Impressionism also borrowed this method
Rococo art
Baroque versus Rococo art Some may consider Rococo art an offshoot of Baroque art Artists working in the two schools, however, pursued different styles and subjects Baroque artists worked towards striking emotional appeal Rococo artists reveled in good cheer, romance, and lighthearted court life Versailles court often served as the setting for the third subject Ebullient decorations in creamy colors and gold characterize Rococo art Artists Since aristocrats commissioned Rococo art, the style centered on witticism and grace Three artists mastered these two principles and stood at the forefront of the Rococo movement Jean-Antoine Watteau (1684 1721) spearheaded the first Rococo generation 39 He concocted fte galante , a new painting genre In most fte galante paintings, nobles luxuriate in the countryside The nobles don elegant and modern clothes Franois Boucher (1703 1770) drew inspiration from Watteaus delicacy Archetypal Rococo painting of frolicking nobles His works place characters from classical myths in nobles grand celebrations Most of these characters appear as comely nudes Madame Pompadour favored Boucher above all other artists Pompadour was a mistress of Louis XV Jean-Honor Fragonard (1732 1806) also enjoyed Pompadours patronage Fragonards works parallel those of his mentor, Franois Boucher
39
The term fte galante literally translates to gallant feast or festival.
Neoclassicism
Ideology Frances Revolution of 1789 ignited change across the European continent This periods artworks reflect the growing popularity of democracy Patrons promoted a people's republic Interest in Greco-Roman democratic ideas spurred a resurgence in classical art Neoclassicism refers to artworks which follow this trend Enlightenment philosophy cultivated Neoclassicism as it matured in the decades before the Revolution of 1789 Artists Neoclassical art attacked Rococo art and its aristocratic ties Jacques Louis David (1748 1825) led the Neoclassicists in touting classical virtues Davids Oath of the Horatii (1784) encapsulates these virtues After the French Revolution, David worked under the new government Oath of the Horatii He served as master of ceremonies for proby Jacques Louis David revolution mass rallies Napoleon Bonaparte then employed David as a propaganda painter Davids propaganda may seem to contradict his earlier classical paintings Changes in his career and patronage explain these contradictions Jean Dominique Ingres (1780 1867) studied under David Four elements of Ingress art typify the Neoclassical style
Sharp linear style Unemotional subjects Precise geometric composition Rationality
Romanticism
Style The artistic approach of Romanticism diverged from its predecessor, Neoclassicism The linear style, order, and lack of passion define Neoclassicism Romanticism favored imaginative, dreamlike, and passionate art The divide between emotion and reason also distinguished the two styles Romantics stressed the former and Neoclassicists the latter Both Romanticism and Baroque art stressed emotion The two styles shared other similarities Romantics, however, introduced new subject matter Exotic, theatrical subjects pervaded Romanticism For instance, wonder at the power of nature frequently features in this style Artists Romantic artist Eugne Delacroix (1798 1863) and Ingres were rivals Delacroixs exotic themes and favorite art subjects represent Romantic tastes
Foreign locales
Animals engaged in violence
Historical events
Other prominent Romantics included Thodore Gericault (1791 1824) and William
Blake (1757 1827)
Realism
Style Realism mainly responded to Neoclassicism and Romanticism This movement promoted a lack of bias in portrayal or subject matter Unbiased portrayal referred to completely accurate images including even negative details Unbiased subject matter meant that a painting of a commoner equaled a historical or religious painting in importance Artists Gustave Courbet (1819 1877) led the Realists charge with an extroverted and flamboyant personality Courbet exhibited The Stonebreakers (1849 1850) at a government-funded Salon Historical and religious painters controlled exhibitions before the advent of Realism Courbets painting, however, illustrates common laborers repairing a road This revolution in subject matter infuriated conservative Salon viewers The Stonebreaker also delivers a political message in the wake of the year 1848 A surge of uprisings across Europe began in this year Honor Daumier (1808 1879) and Jean Franois Millet (1814 1875) also worked in the Courbet's The Stonebreakers Realist style
Impressionism
History In Paris, the Acadmie des Beaux-Arts controlled the annual Salon exhibitions through stringent rules Salons publicized the works of select artists Frustration resulting from Salon rules resulted in the Impressionist movement Artists Most art historians identify douard Manet (1832 1883) as the first Impressionist Manet, however, claimed he was not part of the Luncheon on the Grass movement
by Edouard Manet
Regardless, the Impressionists revered his artworks lighting methods Disparities between different bright colors define light in Manets work Manet painted Le Dejuner sur Lherbe (Luncheon on the Grass; 1863) This piece surfaced in public at the Salon des Refuss of 1863 The Salon des Refuss displayed works that the Salon rejected This piece borrows from a classical-inspired engraving Manet, however, portrayed two clothed men with a nude woman At the time, only classical characters or women in exotic locations appeared as nudes in art Manets violation of this convention ensued in tremendous mockery and controversy Nevertheless, Manet continued submitting artworks to Salons Meanwhile, other artists frustrated with the Salon cultivated Impressionism as a style The movement takes its name from Claude Monets (1840 1926) Impression Sunrise (1873) When Monet exhibited this work, critics quickly Impression Sunrise adapted impression as a derogatory term by Claude Monet Monet pressured Impressionists to work outdoors New paint and paintbrush technologies allowed this approach Impressionists quick brushstrokes reflect the transient nature of light Scientific discoveries at the time proved that an objects shadow represents the objects complementary40 color Camille Pissarro (1830 1903) and Alfred Sisley (1839 1899) also represented the Impressionist movement41
Post-Impressionism
Artists Artists working in Post-Impressionism altered various elements of Impressionism Paul Czanne (1839 1906) was the most influential PostImpressionist Impressionisms lack of solid forms inspired him to revolutionize form in art He claimed that every object in art consists of simple geometric forms Cubes, spheres, or cones exemplify geometric forms Georges Seurats Cubism mirrors Czannes philosophy optical mixing in action This style matured in the early 20th century Czanne also proposed dividing paintings into sets of three
40 41
Or opposite color (red versus green; yellow versus purple; orange versus blue). My team told me I should share with you all some of my memory tricks. Theyre all pretty weird, so please bear with me. For the impressionists, Manets sister has a mohawk. Thats pretty bizarre. (Manet, Sisley (sister), Monet (mohawk), Pissarro (bizarre))
planes Foreground Middle ground Background Georges Seurat (1859 1891) typified the countless Post-Impressionists who sought vivid colors His art applied the scientific properties of color 42 Seurats method of optical mixing combined small dots of complementary colors These dots formed brilliant colors Prioritizing technique over subjects, however, drained artworks of their energy During the peak of Seurats and Czannes careers, Vincent van Gogh (1853 1890) was an art student He used color contrast theories and thickly applied impasto43 paint to replicate southern Frances brightly lit landscapes Van Gogh also applied his own idea of depicting emotions through intensified, not realistic, colors Night Caf (1888) reflects van Goghs perception of poolrooms as immoral Shrill yellows, greens, and reds exude decadence Night Caf by Vincent Van Gogh The idea of emotionally based coloring exerted a huge influence Van Gogh also used energetic brushwork and convoluted forms His technique aimed to evoke potent reactions Despite van Goghs brief career, his works have achieved legendary status Paul Gauguins (184844 1903) biography draws just as much interest as his art45 He abandoned a thriving career as a stockbroker, his family, and his wife to explore art Van Gogh briefly mentored Gauguin in southern France Like other Impressionists, Gauguin aimed for powerful light and clear colors Dissatisfied with van Goghs color, Gauguin left his mentor and traveled to Tahiti He hoped painting the tropical island would bring striking color and nature into his art Gauguins work in Tahiti portrays the verdant tropical landscape and natives Colonialism affected the perspective of these works
Other 19th-century Influences and Styles

Inventions and imports External influences transformed the art world in the 19th century After the advent of the camera, some artists doubted the purpose of reproducing reality
42 43
Embarrassing memory trick #2: Seurat paints with a syringe. (He drops paint onto the canvas, one drop at a time.) Recall that some artists add texture to their paintings through a lumpy surface called impasto. 44 USAD Error: Gaugin was born in 1848, not 1843. 45 Embarrassing memory trick #3: Gaugin had a rather scandalous and intriguing life. I imagine someone reading about it and saying Gawsh! (as in gosh, except how Goofy says it) Anyway, gawsh = Gaugin.
Impressionists became the first artists to paint outdoors after the inventions of the paint tube and chemical paint Colonialism produced an influx of exotic objects in Europe These items shaped Impressionist art and countless subsequent works African masks and Japanese prints exemplify the influence of foreign items Japanese merchants used prints as packaging material in their exports to Europe Impressionist artist Edgar Degas (1834 1917) applied a snapshot style and a perspective from just above his subject His approaches reflect the influence of photography and Japanese prints, respectively
Edgar Degas applied the slight
Styles overhead perspective of The English Pre-Raphaelite art movement objected to Japanese prints Industrial Revolution influences Pre-Raphaelites revived simplistic pre-Renaissance art Romantic, archaic, and moralizing elements lend Pre-Raphaelite art a religious semblance Art Nouveau drew from the Pre-Raphaelites broad curves and depiction of nature This style of decoration, architecture, and design came into fashion during the late 19th and early 20th centuries Art Nouveau favors the motif of flowing, serpentine lines representing leaves and flowers
Modernism
Early styles Many new artistic styles blossomed at the turn of the 20th century Henri Matisse (1869 1954) led a group of artists in continuing the Post-Impressionists quest to increase the scope of color Like Vincent van Gogh, Matisse and his contemporaries disregarded realistic color Instead, they freely applied intense arbitrary color Disgruntled art critics dubbed Matisse and his contemporaries fauves, or wild beasts The style of Cubism followed suit, but attacked form rather than color In c. 1908, Pablo Picasso (1881 1973) and Georges Braque (1882 1963) collaborated in Paris to invent a new system of art Cubism reflects psychology, which explains that human experience consists of multiple mental images These images vary in their angle of view and setting in time Braque and Picasso cobbled together multiple perspectives into single figures to imitate human experience Cubists borrowed from African rather than European art
Art Nouveau stained glass window
They valued intuition and nature over intellect Abstraction also replaced naturalism in Cubist works Dislike for realistic and sentimental artworks popular in the late 19th and early 20th centuries motivated Cubism The Expressionist style manifested in two German artist groups 46 Die Brcke adapted the Fauvists bright arbitrary colors and Edvard Munchs powerful emotions Norwegian artist Edvard Munch lived from 1863 to 1944 As a Die Brcke artist, Ernst Ludwig Kirchner used Die Brcke invented Expressionism in their effort to arbitrary color and strong illustrate the inner mind emotions Ernst Ludwig Kirchner (1880 1938) and Emil Nolde (1867 1956) joined this circle of artists 47 48 Der Blaue Reiter followed their founder, Russian artist Wassily Kandinsky (1866 1944) Kandinsky abandoned traditional subjects and created completely abstract paintings beginning in c. 1913 Other early abstract artists included Russian artist Kazimir Malevich (1878 1935) and Dutch artist Piet Mondrian (1872 1944) 49 Mondrian executed De Stijl paintings of flat fields of primary color Many modern artists follow the De Stijl style Modernism in the United States De Stijl painting by Piet Mondrian World War I and The Armory Show contributed to New York City replacing Paris as the center of the art world Until the 1913 Armory Show, America remained unexposed to the modern art movements in Paris The Barnes Foundation organized this event, which took place from February 17 to March 15, 1913 Controversy raged around this first major exhibition of modern art in the United States Several artworks that later became icons of European art movements appeared in the Armory Show

Picassos Les Demoiselles d Avignon (1907)
Marcel Duchamps (1887 1968) Nude Descending a Staircase (1912)
Brancusis (1876 1957)
The Kiss
Kandinskys nonrepresentative paintings
46 47
German for The Bridge. German for The Blue Rider. 48 Minor USAD Error: Kandinskys first name is Wassily, not Vasily. 49 Dutch for The Style.
Picasso 50 and Duchamps unorthodox figures and space appalled American viewers Brancusis abstract, blocky figures and Kandinskys work also infuriated their audiences The exhibition, however, propagated European modernism through the United States The advent of modernism coincided with the Harlem Renaissance of the 1920s African-American fine arts blossomed in Harlem during this movement The popularity of African-American jazz musicians inspired black writers and artists to contribute their works Nude Descending a Staircase After just a decade, the Harlem Renaissance stagnated by Marcel Duchamp The next generation, however, included several famous black artists such as Romare Bearden and Jacob Lawrence who reflected the influence of the Harlem Renaissance Dada The modernist art movement of Dada grew during and after World War I This movements artists defied traditional ideas about art The first Dadaists included dissident intellectuals in the city of Zurich51 As World War I rankled more artists, the Dadaist movement grew Dada channeled the artists frustrations and ridiculed all of
society Fountain by Marcel Duchamp This art embraced satires of traditional values and norms For instance, Marcel Duchamp painted a mustachioed Mona Lisa in the offensively titled LHOOQ52 (1919) Duchamp also attempted to pass off Fountain (1917), a porcelain urinal, as art Fountain exemplifies Duchamps new genre of art, which he called ready-mades Commonplace objects placed in a new context create art Duchamp challenged the traditional role of the artist Instead of manually creating an artwork, he or she simply selected an object to display as art Several of Picassos pieces qualify as ready-mades His Bulls Head (1943) combines bicycle handlebars and a bicycle seat into a makeshift bulls head
50 51
The title of Picassos piece is French for The Young Ladies of Avignon. The largest city in Switzerland. 52 Google LHOOQ translation if you are not easily offended.
Surrealism Psychologist Sigmund Freud inspired a circle of artists to paint the inner mind These Surrealists included Salvador Dal (1904 1989), Ren Magritte (1898 1967), and Joan Mir (1893 1983) Bauhaus Between the world wars, the Bauhaus school in Germany standardized architecture and design This style remains influential in modern architectural plans and curriculums Streamlined furniture and buildings reflect Bauhaus ideas Ambitious Bauhaus standards integrated aesthetical form and industrial function In the Bauhaus school, a buildings form reflected its function and the source material Surrealism In 1933, Nazi Germany dissolved the Bauhaus institution Bauhaus professors, however, moved to the United States and continued teaching These teachers included Josef Albers (1888 1976), an eminent painter, graphic artist, and designer
Abstraction
History World War II paralyzed organized art movements Art production continued, but the war drew far more attention Many artists either served as soldiers or created pro-war propaganda After the war, during Europes recovery, New York City cemented its position as the capital of the art world English, French, Italian, and German artistic centers did not ascend to their former prominence for at least 50 more years In the 1950s, critics like Harold Rosenberg and Clement Greenberg controlled the art scene and stylistic development in New York For instance, Greenbergs support guaranteed the popularity of abstract art Abstract Expressionism Abstract Expressionism grew out of Kandinskys abstraction during and after the 1940s Kandinsky likened his art to non-representational music Artworks in this style fit in one of two categories: action-paintings or color field paintings53
The example of the action-field painting is a detail of Jackson Pollocks No. 5, 1948 and the color field painting is Mark Rothkos No. 3/ No. 13 (Magenta, Black, Green on Orange).
53
Action-paintings
Emotional colors and dramatic, often sweeping brushstrokes represent feelings Jackson Pollock (1912 1956) epitomized this approach in his dripping of paint on the canvas
Color field paintings

Feature large areas of color inside simple, usually geometric forms Mark Rothko and Josef Albers earned fame for their color field paintings
Other Abstract Expressionists included Willem de Kooning (1904 1997), Lee Krasner
(1908 1984), and Franz Kline (1910 1962)54 Reactions Some artists turned against the popularity of abstraction and revived naturalism Though their style may seem to overlap with Abstract Expressionism, these artists adapted consumer objects as subjects Jasper Johnss (1930 present) works include commonplace items such as flags, numbers, maps, and letters Robert Rauschenberg (1925 2008) executed combines using discarded objects or silkscreens and paint In Bed (1955), he treated his bedclothes as a wall canvas In Monogram (1959), he made a collage of found items: a stuffed goat, a tire, a police barrier, a shoe heel, a tennis ball, and paint The entry of everyday objects into art inspired the prominent Pop Art movement
Other 20th-century Influences and Styles
Influences A myriad of new factors shaped 20th century art These influences included atomic power, electronics, and the exponential growth of new technologies Pop Art Pop Art flourished in the 1960s Mass culture entered formal art, breaching subject matter conventions Andy Warhol (1928 1987) symbolized the Pop Art movement His popularity equated that of a rock star Warhol created silkscreens of soup cans, Brillo boxes, and movie stars These images appear mechanically generated, a twist on fine art
54
Silkscreen of a soup can by Andy Warhol
Memory trick #4: Kandinsky, Pollock, Rothko, Kooning, Krasner, and Kline are all Abstract Expressionists. (dont forget Josef Albers is as well)
Roy Lichtensteins (1923 1997) art mimics the stippling of comic book illustrations on a large scale Robert Indiana (1928 - ) used commercial sign stencils to produce his artworks Photorealism Pop Art inspired Photorealism, an art movement centered on extreme realism Photorealist works imitate photographs through their crisp focus Their sharp outlines complement the Renaissances hazy sfumato outline technique Chuck Close (1940 ) created portraits and Duane Hanson (1925 1996) sculpted humorous images of common people Tourists II, two sculptures The advanced realism of Photorealism resembles Gustave by Duane Hanson Courbets style Minimalism Simple forms and monochromatic color ranges characterize Minimalism Minimalists reduced art to its most rudimentary elements This style favors hard-edge paintings of large, abstract images with highly precise lines Two inventions, acrylic paint and the airbrush, permitted these sharp lines Frank Stella (1936 ) remains the most eminent hardedge painter David Smith (1906 1965) and Dan Flavin (1933 1996) sculpted abstract minimalist pieces Smiths sculptures consist of stainless steel and Flavin Hard-edge painting by Frank Stella used neon tubing55
Postmodernist art56 Postmodernism reacts to modernism and manifests in many types of media Extreme modernism sometimes characterizes postmodernist works Postmodernists may also revive earlier art to challenge contemporary values and beliefs Philip Johnson (1906 2005) advocated Postmodernist architecture Johnson once worked as an eminent International Style architect Philip Johnson's Sony Building The Bauhaus ideal of form based on function controlled architecture for decades Almost all skyscrapers featured steel and a glass exterior
55 56
Embarrassing memory trick #5: Flavin adds more flavor to his work by using neon tubing. The section on Processes and Techniques contains information on environmental and performance art, which USAD originally placed in the section on Western Art.
In 1970, however, Johnson reintroduced decorative elements to architecture His design for the AT&T Building (1984), later the Sony Building, included a finial57
57
Finials are elaborate ornaments forming an upper extremity, especially in Gothic architecture (Merriam-Webster Dictionary)
NONWESTERN ART
POWER PREVIEW
In art history, nonwestern cultures encompass Asia, Oceania, Africa, and the civilizations of pre-Columbian America. 58 Due to the globalized nature of the contemporary art styles mentioned earlier in the overview of Western art, this section only explores traditional art stemming from the early histories of nonwestern cultures.
POWER NOTES
Asian Art
Chinese art Chinese civilization and artwork originated thousands of years ago Some excavations in China match those in Mesopotamia and Egypt th For instance, painted Chinese pottery fragments date back to the 4 millennium B.C.E. Ancient Chinas most renowned artwork, the Great Wall, spans 2,000 miles The Great Walls construction stretched across several centuries This structures function has shifted from utilitarian to artistic People now appreciate the engineering and beauty of the Great Wall The structure no longer serves as a defense against invaders As seen in the Great Wall, an artworks Part of the Great Wall of China meaning may change over time The function of many artworks in this section similarly changed over time Long-reigning dynasties influenced Chinese art history These dynasties kings demanded rich tombs, an abundant source of artistic treasures The Emperor of Qin (c. 210 B.C.E.) first united China His tomb houses an entire army of clay soldiers, complete with equipment and horses The Qin sculptors demonstrated extraordinary skill in crafting naturalistic sculptures Successors of the Qin dynasty constructed majestic walled cities, palaces, and tombs Their artists also produced bronze sculptures and ritual vessels Ornate patterns identify these ritual containers The casting method used in these vessels remains unexplained Indias Buddhism later entered China, reshaping the countrys art and culture
58
I have relocated other information from USADs introduction to the previous section on Western art.
The Tang dynasty (618 907 C.E.) marks Chinas Golden Age
Tang dynasty artists crafted several of the most outstanding ceramic sculptures in history Ink drawings also enjoyed tremendous popularity in traditional Chinese art Many Chinese scrolls serve contemplative purposes, a common aspect of Asian art Until 1949, China followed cultural traditions for writing, painting, and sculpture In this year, a communist revolution founded the Peoples Republic of China Chinese art transformed into a political, often propagandistic tool The role of politics in Chinese art, however, has softened since the late 1970s Indian art 1,600 disparate languages and dialects prove the diversity of India The mosaic of India also comprises many different religions and cultures India boasts some of the worlds oldest artworks Early Indian civilizations ruins match those in Egypt and Mesoamerica Sensuous Indian sculptures influenced centuries of subsequent artworks Surprisingly, Greek influences joined Buddhism in shaping Indian art Classical representations of Buddha derive from Greek art Hinduism strongly affected many Indian artworks Artworks based on this polytheistic religion evolved into a Buddha in Classical Greek drapery lively, curvilinear style For example, the Hindu god Shiva performs an elegant dance with his multiple arms in Hindu-inspired artworks Japanese art Japans diminutive size contrasts its profound influence on international art As in China, dynastic rule characterizes Japanese history Japanese stylistic history parallels the art of these dynasties Buddhism spread from China to Japan and molded traditional Japanese art This island state secluded itself from the West throughout most of history Consequently, traditional Japanese art remained steady, even after Western cultures gained access to the country As Impressionism flourished in Europe, Japan organized a band of artists to visit France Western art ideas migrated to Japan through these students th In the late 19 century, linear perspective Japanese print depicting Mount Fuji and Impressionist colors as well as subjects
appeared in some Japanese artworks European art, however, soon fell out of popularity as Japanese artists reiterated the traditional techniques of flat areas of color and isometric (same size) perspective Superb paintings, architecture, crafts, and sculpture populate the body of Japanese art Printmaking, however, earned Japan the most recognition in the Western world th In the late 19 century, French artists gathered Japanese prints and modeled new artworks after their flat colors and overhead perspective
African and Oceanic art

African art Ancient Egyptian art belongs in Western, not African, art history for two reasons Mediterranean civilizations interacted with Egypt The history of Sub-Saharan African civilizations strongly differs from those of Northern African civilizations Africas western, central, eastern, and southern regions refined art traditions early in history Present-day Namibia contains cave paintings that date to c. 23,000 B.C.E. These artworks are likely older than any known European paintings In c. 500 B.C.E, the Nok civilization arose in Western Africa, in modern Nigeria Nok artists crafted highly naturalistic terracotta sculptures Many of these works likely portray political and religious leaders Early Nok culture perhaps influenced later cultures like the Yoruba The Benin Kingdom also matured in Nigeria between the 13th and 18th centuries Nok terracotta Many extant Benin Kingdom artworks functioned in the upscale royal court These pieces include portrait busts cast in bronze and placed on ancestors altars Other items embellished the might of the oba, or Benin King In 1897, British troops sacked Benins royal palace and obliterated many Benin artworks The British, however, merely confiscated several treasures, which is why more Benin artifacts remain in European and American museums than in Nigeria Art historians only recently began perusing African art and artistic Benin bronze traditions A myriad of traditional artworks from this continent only serves utilitarian purposes For instance, many African communities value their baskets, ceramics, and textiles above all other material possessions Poor preservation of African art has limited art historical study African societies produced artworks in many different mediums The regions climate, however, has decimated many fiber and wood items
In addition, European colonists and traders crushed many African artifacts These individuals viewed many African finds as menacing pagan symbols As purported threats to colonialism, African artworks often faced destruction rather than preservation Most remaining African artifacts came from excavations Such archaeological discoveries often lack crucial contextual information Museum settings further diminish this vital information For example, Africas Dan and Bwa communities are known for their masks These masks function in performances featuring full-body costumes, music, dance, jokes, revelry, and communal feasts Art historians have also discovered a wooden fang mask from 19th-century Gabon Gabons culture crafted masks for ngil ceremonies meant to expose sorcerers A museum fails to convey the purpose of the masks to the typical viewer Oceanic art The region of Oceania includes the thousands of islands in Polynesia, Melanesia, and Micronesia Here, non-durable mediums and inhospitable climates create an art historical situation akin to Africa Polynesian body art, including tattoos, formerly identified social status Historians may only view this art through documentary engravings from artists who traveled to Polynesia before the advent of photography The art of Melanesias Asmat group centered on warfare Black, red, and white abstract patterns adorned large wooden Asmat shield Asmat shields Picture by 23 dingen voor Asmat culture originally practiced head-hunting but musea discontinued this tradition Their shields now function as cultural symbols instead of protection in battle Melanesian communities also centered on carved masks Many of these items served in rituals aimed towards summoning ancestors spirits The summoning ceremonies paid tribute to Melanesias dead As in African art, a museum context detracts from the meaning of these masks Present-day Oceania continues to cultivate artistic customs New Zealands Maori and other groups apply older practices to the context of modern civilization hoping to revive their culture Art empowered many traditional groups to retain their heritage in the face of colonialism
Islamic art
History The expansive religion of Islam reaches into many areas of the world Islam grew in the Arabian Peninsula and derived from the edicts of the prophet Muhammad (c. 570 632)
This faith centers on the Quran, the holy book containing Muhammads revelations Many cherished Islamic artworks are elegant copies of the Quran or containers for the text Style and purposes Per the Qurans decrees, representational figures seldom appear in Islamic art Instead, artists employ calligraphic or abstract decoration Their patterns grace the surfaces of religious buildings The Dome of the Rock (687 692) exemplifies Islams prolonged history of religious architecture This building stands in Jerusalem and declares Islams presence in this holy city Jews and Christians also claim Jerusalem as a sacred city of their religion Prayer features in the practice of Islam Communal prayer takes place in mosque structures, which contain qibla walls facing Mecca Today, mosque architecture Phillip Baldensperger published this picture of the appears in various buildings around Dome of the Rock in The Immovable East: Studies the world of the People and Customs of Palestine (1913)
Art of the Americas

Art historical background Until recently, art historians categorized early artworks from North America and South America as simple crafts Only archaeological and anthropological museums housed these artifacts Increased interest and studies in early American art, however, has resulted in more American artifacts entering art museums Several noteworthy civilizations bloomed in Mesoamerica and South America
Olmec
Maya
Toltec
Inca
Aztec
These cultures cities centered on pyramids, most famously Mexicos Pyramid of the Sun Early American pyramids rivaled Egypts Great Pyramids Ornate masonry decorates Mayan ruins Early Americans crafted other notable works Stone and clay statues Jewelry Quality textiles Natives settled in the present-day United States and Canada as early as 12,000 years ago
AFRICA AND EUROPE

POWER PREVIEW
The saga of European influence in Africa begins with the Portuguese in the 15th century. The artworks included in this section draw from both European and African influences and illustrate a bridge between the two cultures.
POWER NOTES
According to the USAD outline, 15 questions should come from Section II 15 questions (30%) come from Section II on the USAD Art Practice Test This section covers pages 43 through 59 of the USAD Art Resource
Early Explorers
Reasons for exploration Centuries before the first explorers arrived in Africa, Europeans participated in the Crusades During the Crusades, Europe conquered new territory in the name of Christianity This movement responded to the spread of Islam to the Mediterranean When Europeans reached Africa, they still claimed to conquer for the good of Christianity Explorers also found the possibility of discovering the fabled land of Prester John especially exciting Prester John supposedly ruled a lost Christian kingdom in Ethiopia Rich resources and plentiful markets also lured Europeans to Africa Drawing of Prester John on a British map A mythical source of African gold intrigued of Africa explorers Merchants traded this gold across the Sahara desert Muslim traders told Europeans of its existence Finally, controlling Africa would allow Europeans to access a trade route from Europe to India India supplied highly valuable spices The Europeans traveled to Africa to Preach Christianity Find Prester John Gain resources and markets Find a trade route from Europe to India
A Portuguese beginning The Portuguese pioneered a longlasting trade relationship with Africa in the 15th century This relationship impacted both cultures for centuries Henry the Navigator, a Portuguese prince, strongly supported exploration The journey began with the challenge to get past Cape Bojador The cape lies on the northwest coast of Africa Ships ventured south of the Cape in 1434 The first ships to reach the Gulf of Guinea59 arrived in 1455 and 1456 Continuing south, explorers reached the Kingdom of Benin in 1484 Making an impact By the mid 15th century, Europe had formed a dependence on African goods Purchasers especially prized ivory and bronze items Africans made their goods skillfully and of high quality materials Eventually, the importance of ivory, bronze, and gold goods paled in contrast to the enormous demand for slaves
Europe and the Origins of the Slave Trade

The slave trade begins The first Portuguese slave-raiding exhibition began in the early 1440s in present-day Mauritania 60 This location lies far north of the area called the Slave Coast The slave trade expanded in the following centuries Large scale production of sugar in Brazil and the Caribbean suddenly ramped up in the 17th century As a result, demand for slave labor increased th th In North America, demand for slaves mounted, especially in the late 17 and 18 centuries
59
Enrichment Fact: The Gulf of Guinea is the indent on the western coast of Africa. It is about level with the equator and interestingly aligns almost perfectly with South America, providing one of the most convincing pieces of evidence for the theory of continental drift. 60 Enrichment Fact: The Slave Coast was an area of the Gulf of Guinea where Britain and Holland carried out extensive trade in slaves and other commodities. It is just north of the Benin Kingdom.
As the slave trade expanded, Britain and Holland gained power and wealth and Portugal lost
its place as the biggest commercial power in Africa
British Slave trade in Americas Dutch
Portuguese
Spanish
Africans already owned slaves before the Europeans arrived
Tribes captured enemies or foreigners and enslaved them Africans afforded their slaves rights and the ability to gain freedom 61 Unlike European slaves, African slaves did not endure the brutality of chattel slavery Participation in the slave trade helped African kingdoms along the coast Kingdoms like Benin, Asante, and Kongo supplied the Europeans with slaves and other resources In exchange, the Europeans provided luxury goods like silk, porcelain, beads, bronze, and firearms African leaders incorporated European goods into regalia,62 extending the power of these already dominant rulers Opposition to the slave trade arises Throughout the history of slavery, many have objected to the practice Slavery dehumanizes and oppresses the enslaved As Great Britain lost her colonies in America, the British economy depended less on slavery England led the charge to end the slave trade The 1807 British Slave Trade Act A Kongo royal complete with regalia abolished the slave trade in the British Empire
61
Enrichment Fact: Chattel literally means any article of movable property. According to www.antislavery.org, chattel slaves in Mauritania (post-European arrival) were used for labor and breeding, were taken advantage of, and were often traded for goods. Even once slaves were freed they were required to pay tribute to their previous owners. Chattel slavery in Mauritania was not abolished until 1980. 62 Regalia: an ensign or emblem of royalty (ex. crown, scepter)
In 1833, the Empire abolished slavery Slavery, however, remained in the Americas for decades West Africa lost a significant number of young men to the slave trade As a result, productive output decreased Demand for imported goods increased, further binding Africa to European trade In addition, West Africa suffered from increased social inequality and ethnic tension The effect of the slave trade, combined with social and ethnic problems, left the area vulnerable to European imperialism

The Scramble for Africa

The Europeans descend63 The scramble for Africa describes a period of intense European colonization of the African continent This frenzy began in the 1880s when the slave trade declined and lasted for two decades Without slave income, Europe sought control over African resources, land, and labor Traders especially valued rubber, coffee, and palm oil Conquering nations also wished to control imports to Africa This control increased demand for and dependency on European goods In 1884 and 1885, the Berlin Conference was held to decide the fate of Africa As colonization was occurring, the meeting of these western powers only formalized an ongoing occurrence The 1880s led to systematic political control of the interior of Africa Before, Europeans were only present along major rivers, the coastline, and in areas involved in the slave trade Before the end of the 19th century, Europeans ruled almost all of Africa Ethiopia, an exception, maintained its independence and has since its founding Another exception was Liberia In 1822, the American Colonization Society founded Liberia as a home for African American settlers Powerful European countries participated in the scramble for Africa
France
Germany
Belgium
Italy
England
By the late 19th century, Portugal still only played a minor role European Rule European rule varied greatly based on the following factors
63
Both literally, from the north, and figuratively, like hawks
the colonized region
the colonizing country
the political organization present before European arrival
the resources in the area
In French West Africa, France chose to enforce assimilation As part of the process of assimilation, European rulers pressured the Africans to speak French in official dealings In addition, the Africans had to abandon Colonial Times Present Day traditional languages, religions and cultural Asante Kingdom Ghana practices In areas dominated by a central power, such as the Benin Kingdom Nigeria Benin or Asante Kingdoms, European conquerors sent the ruler into exile In addition, they destroyed or confiscated symbols of his rule such as palaces and artwork With these actions, Europeans dismantled the existing governments Local rulers became powerless Regalia, a visual way to represent a rulers power, was either completely abandoned or greatly expanded For example, after European conquerors removed local power, the production and importance of royal regalia both soared in Yoruba society New imported materials, such as textiles, arrived and began to play a part in native art and culture Christian missionaries stamped out indigenous religious art 64 One fatality of this practice was the nkisi (plural minkisi) The Kongo groups created and used minkisi in the Western Congo65 Basin Belgian conquerors forbade and eliminated the minkisi
Decolonization and Postcolonial Art

The effect of the European presence Imperialist powers brought roads, railways, and improved communication to a primitive and uncivilized world
64
Kongan nkisi
Enrichment fact: Minkisi are figures used for healing, taking oaths, or sealing agreements. Each nail pushed into the figure is an oath, agreement, or episode in the villages history. 65 Kongo refers to the tribe while Congo refers to the river.
They also believed that they brought progress
Progress came at a great cost, however Africa lost many of its natural resources The continent depended more on European markets and imports Forced assimilation decimated indigenous languages and cultures Africans suffered from ethnic and cultural tensions The plight for independence Imperial control slipped when several countries in northern Africa gained independence in the 1950s Ghana, the first sub-Saharan country to gain independence, threw off British rule in 1957 The process was gradual and relatively free of violence due to the lack of European settlers in this British colony In contrast, Algerians faced violent resistance from many French settlers in the area in their bid for independence West African countries then gained independence in the late 1950s and 1960s
Country
Nigeria Cte dIvoire Sierra Leone
Independence Gained
1960 1960 1961
Post-independence challenges All colonies faced challenges after independence Africa still relied on European goods and markets Nations faced high debts and economic difficulties In a time of great ethnic conflict, leaders of these nations struggled to form a truly national identity and agenda Post-colonial difficulties also affect contemporary artists The most profitable markets for artwork are in Europe and the United States As a result, some African artists choose to expatriate, or abandon Africa to move to Europe or the United States The Western art world perceives African art as fulfilling the following characteristics without outside influences
primitive
tribal
nave
Critics sometimes marginalize or disregard artists who do not fit this stereotype African artwork is often cheaper than American and European art In response, some artists rejected traditional African art in favor of European themes, styles, and materials
Other artists, however, have revived traditional African materials and themes These artworks often critique society Some artists craft traditional and functional art such as textiles or pottery These artists often adapt as they incorporate newly available materials such as factory-produced cloth or other European imports
LIDDED SALTCELLAR
SAPI-PORTUGUESE, SIERRA LEONE TH TH 15 -16 CENTURY
POWER PREVIEW
The Sapi people lived in modern-day Sierra Leone and supplied Portuguese explorers with ivory carvings in the 15th and 16th centuries. Such carvings as Lidded Saltcellar reflected influences from both cultures.
POWER NOTES
The Sapi
Identity The modern-day Temne, Kissi, and Bolum groups descend from the Sapi All of these groups are located in Sierra Leone The Portuguese first encountered this civilization along the coast of Guinea and Sierra Leone Explorers often described the Sapi with admiration A local chief led each small community A paramount chief ruled over the local chiefs This organization greatly differed from that of the highly centralized Benin Kingdom to the south The Benin Kingdom also made ivory luxury items for the Europeans Before the arrival of the Europeans, commissions funded the production of elite art A patron-client structure organized artists into workshops Contrary to common belief, these artisans were not independent and anonymous Although western patrons did not record these artists names, their contemporaries knew them well Relationship with the Europeans Portuguese explorers often purchased ivory carvings as presents for their patrons Ivory represented wealth and prestige in both African and European cultures From the 15th to 16th centuries, the Portuguese collected ivory objects from Sapi carvers Portuguese patrons purchased a variety of objects carved from elephant tusks, including saltcellars, oliphants (horns), spoons, forks, and knife handles By the early 16th century, West African ivory objects were arriving in Portugal and then spreading to the rest of Europe According to records from 1520 to 1521, German artist Albrecht Drer bought two ivory saltcellars This purchase indicates that ivory goods had spread beyond Portugal
Art historians refer to West African
ivory objects as Afro-Portuguese ivories Art expert William Fagg coined the phrase Afro-Portuguese ivories in 1959 He recognized the African origins of the goods Before, most art historians and collectors had mislabeled or forgotten the origins of oliphants in private and public collections Ivory Oliphant picture Portuguese patrons and African by art traveler artisans created the style Indigenous expertise and materials like ivory blended with European motifs In 1550, Mande-speaking groups arrived in the region Political conflict arose between the Sapi and this new ethnic group, limiting Sapi ivory production The Europeans turned to the Benin Kingdom for their ivory carvings
Lidded Saltcellar
General design Saltcellar is a lidded bowl supported by a conical base and topped with a finial66 The base takes up half of the piece Abstract decorative carvings in low relief and figures in medium and high relief cover the base Interlocking ribbons at the bottom of the piece resemble Celtic manuscripts Lidded Saltcellar: A man and a woman stand in stiff, Vital Stats frontal poses Artist: Sapi artisan The man has no shirt but wears a cap, Date: 15th through 16th century shoes, and leggings or tights Medium: Ivory In his left hand, he carries a shield Size: 11 3 4 in (29.8 cm) with a simple floral design In his right, he holds a sword His face appears naturalistic but generalized His expression is calm The woman also has no shirt but wears a cap, a long skirt, and a necklace She folds her hands below her waist The figures alternate with abstract dogs
66
The Merriam-Webster Dictionary defines finials as elaborate ornaments forming an upper extremity, especially in Gothic architecture.
The dogs are alert, with ears back and backs bristling The design of the base conforms with West African stylistic ideals The style also reflects the figurative sculpture of Medieval Europe
The finial adds a Four slightly curved legs surround a thicker sense of lightness central column A decorative floral piece tops the finial
The bowl is divided into two equal halves
Abstracted floral pieces decorate the lid These designs resemble medieval stained glass rose windows
Snakes hang down from a pillow-like tier
The dogs in the level below tilt their heads upward to confront the snakes
The form resembles European cast metal cups
The artist may have looked at these prints or drawings of these cups for inspiration Most Sapi-Portuguese objects favored by foreign collectors had European prototypes Symbolism Art historians do not know the exact significance of the dogs and snakes in Saltcellar because of a lack of written documentation We do know, however, that many African groups considered dogs to be highly attuned to the spiritual world As a result, dogs were often companions to shamans We also know that the Sapi considered snakes to be intermediaries between the earth and the heavens These motifs did not have the same meaning in European cultures Lidded Saltcellar represents the relationship between Africans and European explorers in the early period of contact The piece hybridizes two cultures by mixing indigenous beliefs and styles with a European luxury good Saltcellars held salt, an import that only the wealthy could afford
PLAQUE
BENIN KINGDOM COURT STYLE EDO PEOPLES, NIGERIA 16TH -17TH CENTURY
POWER PREVIEW
The prosperous Benin Kingdom traded with the Europeans and created many beautiful sculptures. When the British invaded the Oba palace, however, the Benin artworks were stripped from their context and the Edo people were deprived of their heritage.
POWER NOTES
The Edo Peoples

The history The Edo peoples live in the Benin Kingdom, to the south of Sierra Leone and the Sapi This kingdom lies along the western coast of Africa in present day Nigeria According to archeology and oral tradition, the Kingdom was founded in 900 C.E. and had become a great political state by the late 13th or early 14th century Rulers called ogiso led the Benin Kingdom Ogiso translates to rulers of the sky At the end of the 14th century, the prince Oranmiyan founded the second dynasty To this day, Benin kings called Oba, believed to be the divine descendants of Oranmiyan, rule the Edo peoples The prince originated from the Yoruba Kingdom in the nearby city of Ife His arrival further strengthened the Benin Kingdom By the 15th century, when the Portuguese arrived, the Benin Kingdom had gained power by conquering other groups At its height, the Benin Kingdom created a large Benin portrait head variety of artworks depicting the Oba The most valued artworks were made of cast metals, ivory, or coral Cast metal sculptures could be relief sculptures or three-dimensional figurative representations of leaders and members of the court

Many of these artworks functioned in rituals or on altars Relationships with the Europeans Portuguese explorers arrived in the Benin Kingdom in 1484 One Portuguese explorer described the kingdom in the 1490s
The Kingdom of Beny is about eighty leagues long and forty wide; it is usually at war with its neighbours and takes many captives, whom we buy at twelve or fifteen brass bracelets each, or for copper bracelets, which they prize more. ~ A Portuguese explorer 1490s Regarding the Benin Kingdom
DemiTranslation
The Portuguese refer to the Benin Kingdom as the Kingdom of Beny. This kingdom is about eighty leagues long and forty leagues wide. It is usually at war with other nations and takes captives, or slaves. The Europeans buy these slaves for a mere twelve or fifteen brass or copper bracelets. The Benin people value copper more than brass. The Benin practice of warfare and desire for European goods, then, fueled the slave trade.
In the late 15th century, during the reign of
Oba Ewuare, the Obas palace compound flourished A wall and a moat surrounded the palace and its acres of land The compound contained buildings for the Oba, the Queen Mother67, and other political figures Artists specializing in metalwork and carving labored in palace workshops The palace particularly impressed European explorers The Benin Kingdom reached its height in the 16th century After a period of decline, the kingdom strengthened again in the 19th century This upturn resulted from the Obas control over the trade of highly valuable Benin brass plaque and palace decoration palm oil The forests of the Edo people supplied this valuable resource In 1897, Great Britain began to assert its power over the Benin Kingdom
67
The Queen Mother (Iyoba) is a distinguished title for the mother of the Oba. She has her own smaller palace within the palace compound.
The British wanted to control the kingdoms lucrative palm oil trade After a series of violent attacks, the conflict culminated in February 1897 with the Benin Punitive68 Expedition Rear-Admiral Harry Rawson headed an attack on Benin City His men looted the Obas palace, torched residences within its walls, ruined much of the city, confiscated artworks, and sent the Oba into exile The debate of repatriation The largest collections of Benin ivories and metal sculptures are in the British Museum in London and the Ethnological Museum in Berlin Representatives of the Benin Kingdom have requested that museums repatriate the Benin items 69 To repatriate means to return something to its country of origin Supporters of repatriation feel that the presence of the items in European museums continues the legacy of colonialism They believe that European museums should return the objects because they were taken by force On the other hand, opponents of repatriation believe that European museums can preserve the artworks better than in any other location For this reason, they argue, the artwork should remain in their current locations In addition, the artworks gain exposure to a larger audience in Europe than in Plaque: Vital Stats their native countries

Artist: Edo artist
Plaque
The design Plaque depicts six figures The central figure is either a highranking warrior or the Oba, with four items
Date: Mid 16th through 17th century Medium: Copper alloy Size: 18 1 2 x 13 716 x 3 1 4 in (47 x 34.2 x 8.2 cm)
armor

headdress
sword
shield
To his right stands a page holding a ceremonial sword A musician stands to either side of the page and the central figure In the space above are two Portuguese men, one to the left and one to the right Unlike the rest of the figures, who stand in stiff, frontal poses, the Portuguese men are seen in profile
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Enrichment Fact: Punitive means inflicting punishment. The Benin Punitive Expedition was the second attempt to destroy Benin City and capture the king. The first was annihilated by a surprise attack from a secret Benin force. Thus the Benin Punitive Expedition took on added meaning as punishment and vengeance. 69 Repatriation is a tricky issue with many types of art. Consider Egyptian mummies: Do they belong to the mummys descendants, the country of Egypt, or the European museums that funded excavation expeditions?
These men likely traded with Portuguese merchants at the time The artist probably used Portuguese material to make Plaque This trade with Portugal increased Benins power and wealth, allowing it to produce extravagant palace decorations like Plaque Since the Portuguese came from across the ocean and the fabled land of death, the Edo associated them with death Since the Portuguese traveled across the ocean to reach the Benin Kingdom, the Edo also connected them with an intermediate realm between life and death and with Olokun, the god of the waters When creating plaques, artists represent Olokun with crocodiles or mudfish This subject matter is very typical of Benin artworks Nearly 1,000 very similar pieces exist The National Museum of African Art displays a piece quite similar to Plaque Only the background decorations and proportions differ Dress, relief, detail, and size convey the importance of each of the figures The central figure wears full regalia, identifying him as either a high-ranking warrior or the Oba This figure also projects the most from the surface, appears in great detail, and is scaled the largest Hierarchy of scale presents the central figure as the most significant The three slightly smaller musicians and page rank second in importance Two very small Portuguese men rank as the least important These Portuguese men appear in very low relief and with little detail The artist probably intended them more as decoration than contributors to the theme of the piece The materials and technique According to the National Museum of African Art, Plaque is made of a copper alloy Most Benin plaques are made of bronze or brass Both bronze and brass contain a large percentage of copper 70 Bronze also contains tin while brass contains zinc The artist used the lost wax casting technique to create Plaque
70
I always remembered this because it seems like no words ever start with z, so zinc is bold as brass to start with a z.
The lost wax casting technique
form fullscale model from hard yet pliable wax
use model to create mold
use mold to cast final work in a copper alloy
This process requires great skill and allows for very detailed final products Recall that each piece is original because the technique requires the artist to destroy both the wax model and mold Function Art historians do not know the original function of pieces like Plaque Scholars have suggested that they represent specific historical or ceremonial events Paula Ben-Amos, a professor of anthropology and African studies, however, has commented that very few of them now appear to us to convey narratives These plaques supposedly once lined the palace walls By the time the British arrived in the region, however, they were no longer on display Later accounts indicate that by the 1890s, the plaques were in storage The British removal of these plaques from their context leaves us with no way to discover their original function without more primary accounts

ASAFO FLAG
KWEKU KAKANU FANTE PEOPLES, GHANA, 1935
POWER PREVIEW
The Fante peoples are governed by a chief and Asafo groups. These military organizations use vibrant flags to communicate with each other and to display their history and identity.
POWER NOTES
The Fante Peoples

Identity The Fante peoples live in the coastal area of Ghana next to the Asante peoples The Europeans referred to this area as the Gold Coast before its independence Both the Fante and Asante are part of the large Akan language group Akan refers to a number of related groups in this region The Fante have a highly centralized government Chiefs hold most of the power The presence of Asafo companies balances the chiefs power These companies are important military organizations The name means war people Sa means war while fo means people Each town has its own Asafo company Larger towns have a company for each sector Asafo organizations welcome both male and female members The leader, however, is always male Members generally join based on paternal connections Each unit has a commander, various captains, flag bearers, linguists, and spiritual leaders such as priests and priestesses
17th-century European accounts describe the highly organized military groups in this region
Europeans sometimes hired these groups as mercenaries Beginning in the 17th century, Asafo culture based its regalia and practices off European models For example, Asafo organizations march in formation, name and number their companies, and use flags to identify themselves Scholars note that the earliest Asafo flags contain elements of European flags Typically, only flags after 1957 feature the Ghanaian flag Today, the Fante do not wage war Instead, the Asafo work in public festivals, political events, the installation and removal of chiefs, and other activities that bring the community together The art culture Asafo companies highly value posuban Posuban are multi-storied cement shrines that house important items such as drums and flags Flags, or frankaa, are also extremely valued Famous local male artists usually create these elaborate and symbolic flags These artists gain their expertise through tailoring apprenticeships Some flags are made through appliqu, a process in which the artist sews the designs directly onto the surface Other flags are painted In modern times, artists have favored very bright, attention-grabbing colors Asafo flags are generally very large Asafo Flag measures only five feet long but some measure eight feet or longer The Asafo usually store away their flags and bring them out only for very special occasions These occasions include the placement of a chief in power, public celebrations, and confrontations with other Asafo groups A flag bearer will then parade, spinning and twirling the flag while dancing and doing somersaults Flag bearing requires great strength and skill This performance echoes West African masquerade dances
Asafo Flag
The artist Kweku Kakanu created Asafo Flag in 1935 He was born in Mankassim, Ghana, in 1910 Kakanu was most active in the 1930s and 1940s
Asafo Flag:
Vital Stats
Artist: Kweku Kakanu Date: 1935 Medium: commercial cotton cloth Size: 42 1 2 x 60 in (108 x 152.4 cm)
The design The flag features a broad background with figures sewn onto the surface using appliqu Appliqu requires the figures to be simple and bold This characteristic works well for a flag A vivid red cloth with a fleur-de-lis71 pattern dominates the background A series of triangles in black, yellow, and white border the red cloth Four figures are sewn onto the background72 black crocodile pond with five fish British Union Jack
four birds
These symbols do not form a narrative but, rather, refer to common Akan proverbs of the time The crocodile sprawls on the left half of the flag, facing the center The animal is made of black fabric and appears as if seen from above with its protruding four legs and tail The crocodiles head appears in profile with a toothy smile, snout, and large eye His accentuated sharp claws threaten us Above the crocodile lies the British Union Jack In 1935, when Kakanu created this piece, Great Britain still ruled the Gold Coast To the right of the crocodile lies an overhead view of a pond containing five fish Four green fish circle a large central gold fish Four blue birds in profile walk around the pond The meaning All Asafo flags communicate between Asafo organizations, asserting the power of their company When serious Asafo conflicts occurred, the British attempted to control the use of flags Contemporary Asafo flags communicate between groups and recount each companys history and identity The symbols on Asafo Flag offer many possible meanings The crocodile represents the Asafo company for which the flag was created In general, crocodiles represent power Two interpretations explain the presence of the fish The fish in the pond could represent the water spirits the company wishes to protect
Enrichment Fact: Fleur-de-lis is a stylized lily. Fleur means flower and lis means lily. It has appeared often throughout history including in royal coats of arms, slave branding, the New Orleans Flag, and the symbol of the Boy Scouts. 72 The British Union Jack is the official flag of the United Kingdom. Many flags across the world contain this recognizable and famous design, showing the extent of British influence. Examples of flags containing the British Union Jack are New Zealand, Fiji, Bermuda, Taunton (Massachusetts), Baton Rouge (Louisiana), and Hong Kong.
71
Asafo companies are connected with nature spirits Alternately, the fish could relate to a proverb about fish that grow fat for the benefit of the crocodile This interpretation holds that the fish represent small creatures that ultimately serve a higher powerin this case, the crocodile By labeling the company as a powerful crocodile which either protects or utilizes the smaller fish, the flag attests to the prestige and power of its company
WRAPPER
YORUBA PEOPLES, NIGERIA TH MID 20 CENTURY
POWER PREVIEW
The Yoruba peoples are an ancient Nigerian urban group. Yoruba artwork reflects the influence of many nations including itself, Great Britain, and Islam.
POWER NOTES
The Yoruba
Background The Yoruba are one of the most ancient urban groups on the African continent 73 They originate from the metropolis Ile-Ife and are closely connected with neighboring groups such as the Benin Kingdom and the Fon Yoruba believe that the world was created at Ile-Ife, located in southwestern Nigeria This site was populated as early as 350 B.C.E. th Ile-Ife has been a flourishing city state since the 11 century Like the Benin Kingdom, the Yoruba are ruled by kings believed to be connected to deity As a result, much of the art that has survived was created for royalty and supports the connection between political and spiritual power For example, Yoruba beaded crowns emphasize the head, believed to be the center of the spiritual essence These crowns were brightly colored and suggested connections to orishas, or deities Yoruba beaded crown In fact, beads were the most highly prized luxury European import of the Yoruba Neighboring groups like the Benin Kingdom and the Asante preferred gold and copper alloys for their royal art
Recall that the prince Oranmiyan who started the second Benin dynasty and the line of the obas originated from the Yoruba nation at Ife.
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Beads originate from Bohemia and Venice The Yoruba traded slaves for beads and then incorporated the imports into royal regalia Some of the most remarkable Yoruba artworks are highly naturalistic and detailed heads in terracotta and cast metal th th These heads date from the 12 to 15 centuries In the 18th century, the slave trade and wars with neighboring groups weakened the Yoruba After the abolition of the slave trade in the 19th century, the Yoruba regained political power and art production capabilities This revival quickly ended when Great Britain emerged as a colonial power in the region Yoruba bronze head Currently, over 30 million Yoruba people live in Nigeria The contemporary Yoruba Oba, or king, continues to play an important role as a cultural leader
Wrapper
Design This adire 74 wrapper contains elaborate Wrapper: figurative panels Vital Stats Queen Mary and King George V of Artist: Yoruba artist England stand regally in the center Date: Mid 20th century This image was probably inspired by a Medium: Cotton, indigo dye popular image circulating at the time The king and queen requested this Size: 77 x 34 516 in (195.6 x 87.2 cm) image to commemorate their silver jubilee in 1935 th This image of the rulers in their coronation robes and crowns celebrates their 25 anniversary of rule European versions represent the king and queen in profile but this version portrays both in frontal, stiff poses This pose follows traditional Yoruba artistic style and emphasizes the couples regalia Many repeating motifs surround the medallion containing the royal couple Islam inspired some of these motifs
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Do, adire, a female deer.sorry about that.
These images include Mohammeds winged horse75 and Islamic mosques Some of the motifs are particularly important in Yoruba culture and art
birds
elephant
lion
man with a gun
Abstracted floral designs fill the rest of the space
The text below the medallion includes the Yoruba phrase Ise kosehin oluwa, meaning
Everything is known to God This wrapper represents the blending of three cultures: Yoruba, British, and Islamic This hybridization is evident in the variety of the motifs Material Adire is a type of tie-dyed cloth traditionally produced by Yoruba women for use by the common people The women die the cotton cloth with indigo, turning it a vibrant blue They use the technique called resist dying In one method of resist dying, the artist stitches raffia, a grassy fiber onto the base cloth in patterns Mohammed's winged horse or Al-Burq The artist then submerges the cloth in a bath of dye The patches under the raffia resist the dying The cloth turns dark blue while the covered portions remain a light blue Another method of resist dying involves turning the cassava plant into a starchy paste The artist then paints this paste onto the fabric and dyes the piece This technique allows for more detail The final method uses stencils to cover parts of the fabric The artist that created Wrapper likely used this method since the same panel repeats throughout the cloth
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Enrichment Fact: According to Islam, Al-Burq is a mythological horse from the heavens which transported the prophets. His most famous journey is carrying the prophet Muhammad from Mecca to Jerusalem and back again.
Adire creation process
stitch raffia, a grassy fiber, onto the cloth turn cassava plant into starchy paste and paint it on the cloth
dye in indigo
dye in indigo this method allows for greater detail dye in indigo
Yoruba women create adire from cotton
cover part of the fabric with stencils
allows for repeatable images; method used for Wrapper
The highly figurative Wrapper probably was meant as a decorative rather than utilitarian
piece The work also commemorates the silver jubilee of the king and queen The tradition of using cloth for commemoration extends beyond Nigeria to all of West Africa Cloth can also express affiliation with a group or leader Factory produced cloth with portraits of political leaders shows political affiliation in the modern world Modern adire making Adire reached the height of its popularity in the early 20th century During this time, women tended to use imported cotton material from Europe as their base material The arrival of this cheaper and more plentiful material to southwestern Nigeria hurt the traditional cotton weavers of the area Popular patterns of the time included abstract references to the sea god, Olokun, and the royal jubilee By the mid 20th century, artists preferred multi-colored, imported, factory-produced cloth over the traditional adire Some artists like Nike Davies-Okundaya managed to promote traditional techniques and materials
FACE MASK
GURO PEOPLES, CTE DIVOIRE TH MID 20 CENTURY
POWER PREVIEW
The Guro culture centers on masquerades. One artwork created for a masquerade is Face Mask. This mask mixes contemporary and traditional art styles to form a representation of the deity Mami Wata.
POWER NOTES
Guro Peoples
Background The Guro live in Cte dIvoire, in the region the Europeans referred to as Guinea This forested area, located on the Atlantic coast, extends from Senegal in the north to Cte dIvoire in the south. Guinea includes Cte dIvoire, Liberia, Sierra Leone, Guinea, Guinea Bissau, and Senegal Before the arrival of the Europeans, the ethnic groups in this region shared many artistic and cultural traditions, leading to persisting similarities European activity in this area began with the Portuguese in the 15th century Later, the French colonized a large portion of Guinea Culture The Guro people live near the much larger Baule group as well as the Yaure, Wan, Anyi, and Attie groups
Guro neighbors
Baule
Yaure
Wan
Anyi
Attie
All these groups are known for their rich masquerade traditions They also all produce similar carved wooden masks and sculptures The Guro traditionally do not have kings Rather, a council of elders oversees issues of land ownership and kinship in the 50 Guro villages If need be, this council can appoint a war chief The Guro do not expand through warfare The Guro organize into villages based on agricultural production In these villages, family networks form support while male elders solve disputes Cultural groups also value people with special skills such as blacksmithing or woodcarving Since the Guro are not ruled by kings, prestige art does not play a central role Other societies reserve the best materials for elite art
Guro mask
Traditional royal art

The Edo create bronze and brass sculptures The Yoruba value beaded regalia The Asante make gold ornaments
Since artists make elite art out of materials valuable to both Europeans and Africans, Europeans have preserved many of these artworks The Guro choose their leaders because of their age and wisdom rather than a supposed connection to divinity Rather than prestige arts, the Guro create most of their art for masquerades These masquerades play a role in upholding the social order
Face Mask
Design Face Mask consists of two parts carved from one block of wood A stylized face fills the bottom half Shaped like an oval, the face tapers slightly at the chin and has delicate features White and black accents highlight the red face Face Mask: The hair, scarification marks, and Vital Stats outlines of the eyes are black Artist: Guro artist The teeth and outline of the hair are Date: Mid 20th century white Medium: Wood, paint A calm expression fills the face with Size: 21 1 4 x 11 1 4 x 6 1116 in (54 x 28.6 x 17 closed eyes and perfect teeth exposed cm) A high degree of symmetry indicates beauty and moral strength Scarification marks on the cheeks and forehead and the hairstyle reinforce the feeling of symmetry This perfect face probably depicts an ideal rather than an actual face A completely different superstructure fills the top half of the mask A woman sits on a platform with six enormous snakes and a snake charmer She wears a stylish red dress with lipstick and red painted toenails Her face is calm despite the snake across her shoulders and the one just below her chin The snake charmer sits to the right, playing a flute to four erect snake heads The superstructure features a much wider variety of colors than the substructure These colors include red, white, black, green, blue, yellow, and brown The superstructure figure is also more natural than the face mask For example, the womans skin color is a natural brown as opposed to the masks red The significance This type of mask is very typical among the Guro and Baule It is known as a Mami Wata mask Mami Wata is a pidgin English term that means Mother Water76 Mami Wata represents the ability to mediate The original German chromolithograph of Mami Wata between the earth and the water
Pidgin is the name for a language which forms from the attempts of two cultures of different languages to speak to each other. Mami Wata is the African imitation of the English term Mot her Water.
76
She is sometimes depicted as half-human and half-fish She can also cross the boundary between the ordinary and spiritual worlds As such, she represents the ability to find balance in opposition Many different versions of the Mami Wata image exist throughout traditional West Africa th The specific image included in Face Mask arrived in Africa during the early 20 century th 77 Sailors acquired a late 19 century German chromolithograph in Hamburg and brought it to Africa This image was popular in many parts of coastal West Africa and the African Diaspora The snake charmer image originally appeared on an East Indian calendar The German chromolithographers copied the image, admiring the dark hair, skin, and exotic features of the figures Face Mask is a hybrid image The substructure represents the face traditionally while the superstructure uses a more contemporary style The mask also brings together the pre-colonial image of Mami Wata with the depiction of her on a German chromolithograph These combinations reveal the interconnectedness of Europe, Africa, and their trade partners along with the creativity and ingenuity of African artists Mami Wata masks often feature in masquerades Masquerades can be sacred rituals, entertainment, or both Mami Wata is a powerful spirit and many revere her, yet masks of Mami Wata function as entertainment These masks appear at community events and dance competitions Here Guro males dress in full ensembles and perform with music In this situation, Mami Wata represents elegance, modernity, and innovativeness When Cte dIvoire became a French colony in 1897, masquerades represented an act of resistance The large amount of French citizens living in Cte dIvoire and the officials forced assimilation into the French culture They emphasized French language, history, literature, and culture Despite French pressure, masquerades continued and are still a key part of the Guro culture

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Chromolithography is essentially lithography with color. In this printing process, the artist draws on a plate, usually a stone, with wax, dips the plate in water, and then inks the plate. The ink sticks only to the wax. The plate is then pressed against a sheet of paper to form the image. With chromolithography, a different plate is used for each color.
FADING CLOTH
EL ANATSUI, GHANA 2005
POWER PREVIEW
El Anatsui is a contemporary African artist who lives and works in Nigeria. His art reflects the blending of European and African cultures and the effect of imperialism.
POWER NOTES
El Anatsui
Home El Anatsui was born in 1944 in Anyako, a town in Ghanas Volta Region When he was born, Ghana was a British colony called the Gold Coast In 1957, the Gold Coast gained its independence, becoming the first political state in subSaharan Africa to do so78 El Anatsui was a teenager at the time Growing up in this time influenced the thematic and aesthetic development of his art Education In the late 1960s, El Anatsui attended the College of Art of the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology This university lies in Kumasi, a large city in Ghanas Asante region There he learned about European history and traditions This education system began when the British arrived in Ghana and continued even after independence Frustrated with his limited education, Anatsui investigated traditional Ghanaian art by himself Convinced that he needed traditional art to portray what it meant to be truly African, Anatsui studied the sculpture and textile traditions of the Asante and Ewe cultural groups Both the Asante and Ewe are famous for their woodcarvings and textiles Anatsuis brother and father were Ewe weavers Following his education, Anatsui established himself as a teacher in Ghana In 1957, the University of Nigeria in Nsukka offered Anatsui a teaching position He currently works as a sculpture professor at the university
78
At this point, the Gold Coast changed its name to Ghana.
Influence In Nigeria, Anatsui joined a group of artists called the Nsukka Group These artists focused on blending traditional motifs and European methods This group emerged in the post-independence era A founding member of the group, Uche Okeke, was particularly interested in Igbo 79 traditional motifs called uli80 The group soon incorporated uli motifs with El Anatsui's Man's Cloth European materials such as acrylic and oil paints, gouache, and pen and ink By the 1970s, Anatsui had become a major African artist and had gained international recognition His reputation peaked when his work appeared in international exhibitions like the Venice Biennale in 1990 and Africa Remix in 2004 through 2007 Africa Remix traveled through major cities like London and Tokyo and led to Anatsuis current presence in many international collections Anatsui works and lives in Nigeria Art critics have noted that European and Close-up view of El Anatsui's Man's Cloth American art collectors are slower to recognize the skills of African artists still living in Africa than those who have immigrated to the west As a result, many African artists have expatriated, or left their home continent Anatsuis success proves that African artists can fully embrace their heritage and still gain international recognition Also, his position as a sculpture professor at the University of Nigeria allows him to influence the development of West African art
Fading Cloth
Materials Anatsui favors local, found objects bearing cultural significance in choosing his materials 81 Some of his works feature broken ceramic pots and cassava graters
Enrichment Fact: The Igbo is one of the largest ethnic groups in Nigeria. Centered in southeastern Nigeria, this group currently numbers 15million people. 80 Enrichment Fact: Uli are designs which Igbo women traditionally paint on each other or on murals in buildings. Before occasions such as weddings or funerals, Igbo women cover each other in these abstract tattoo-like symbols. 81 Enrichment Fact: Cassava is a woody shrub with a starchy, edible root like a potato. In fact, cassava is the third largest source of carbohydrates in the world. Africa is its largest center of production. Interestingly, tapioca is made of cassava root.
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In addition, his wooden structures often reference cultural traditions Rather than traditional sculpting tools, however, Anatsui uses a chainsaw His more recent work features wall Fading Cloth: installations that resemble large, Vital Stats colorful textiles To create these artworks, he flattens Artist: El Anatsui bottle caps and metal cans, then Date: 2005 weaves them together using copper Medium: Bottle caps, metal cans, and copper wire wire Fading Cloth is an example of this Size: 126 in x 21 ft (320 x 640 cm) type of work Anatsui began to work with metallic materials by chance He encountered a bag of bottle caps on the side of the road Now he buys the caps in bulk and hires studio assistants to pound them flat
Design Fading Cloth consists of countless bottle caps, flattened into rectangles and woven together using wire Most of the bottle caps are gold with accenting caps of red, blue, and silver The cloth starts with vivid reds at the top and fades to gold and cream in the center, hence the name Fading Cloth Up close, the colors seem completely random Once the viewer backs away, however, the colors form a visual pattern Anatsuis monumental artwork measures over 10 feet high and 21 feet wide The artist did not intend for Fading Cloth to merely hang from a wall This malleable, flexible piece can be arranged in an infinite number of ways Each position reflects the light differently, changing the appearance of the piece Anatsui leaves it up to the curators to decide how to arrange the work Meaning In this work, Anatsui references kente cloth The Asante and Ewe cultural groups of Ghana weave kente cloth Traditionally, male artists weave imported silk threads for use by royalty The cloth features bright colors and syncopated patterns In this respect, Fading Cloth is very reminiscent of kente cloth In referencing kente cloth, Anatsui also alludes to the historical relationship between West Africa and Europe In pre-colonial times, the most prized kente cloths were made of silk imported from Europe In post-colonial times kente became a political symbol of the independence movement Kwame Nkrumah, a hero from the independence movement, was Ghanas first democratically elected president
He promoted using the kente cloth as a political statement The inclusion of the kente cloth not only references pre-colonial trade with Europe and therefore the slave trade but also Ghanas post-colonial agency and independence movement The bottle tops Anatsui used to create his sculpture reference trade and exchange Liquor was a key import in the pre-colonial and colonial eras, helping to encourage the slave trade All of his bottle caps come from African distilleries Fading Cloth is not just beautiful This artwork also forces the viewer to confront the negative sides of the history and legacy of imperialism

ART AND IMPERIAL POWER

POWER PREVIEW
The British Empire sought expansion primarily because of the trade and commodities new colonies would bring. This extensive trade with her colonies affected the culture of every part of the British Empire.
POWER NOTES
According to the USAD outline, 12 to 13 questions should come from Section III 13 questions (26%) come from Section III on the USAD Art Practice Test This section covers page 60 of the USAD Art Resource
The Colonies, Commodities, and Trade

The real reason for imperialism The formation of the British Empire spanned centuries and continents At the height of the Age of Empires,82 Great Britain was not fixated on power Rather, imperialist England sought commodities and trade Imports from foreign lands soon became necessities The British could not live without luxuries like teas and spices For this reason, Britain sought to turn foreign lands The British Empire is highlighted in red into British colonies Colonies also served as ideal markets for British goods, stabilizing the empires economy The selected works All of the works in this section relate to the issue of trade The Chinese plate and Indian watercolor illustrate the hybridization of techniques and designs in the context of imperialism Both of these artworks were produced by native artists for European patrons The painting originated from the time when India was under the control of the East India Company The porcelain plate originated from southern China when Britain did not dominate the area but did play an important role as a trade partner A North American artist painted the third work for a client in Boston This object seemingly has no involvement with trade
82
Such a good game.
The artist did not intend the painting to be traded and the piece has stayed in North America since its creation The painting, however, reflects the effect trade with Britain had on the American colonies The inclusion of the teapot especially indicates this relationship
Artwork Name
Plate
Artist and Patron

By Chinese artists for the English Okeovers By the Indian Lucknow School for a European member of the East India Company By an American for an American
Context
Influenced by trade with Britain During this time, the East India Company controlled India Reflects the effect of British trade on the colonies
A Common Indian Nightjar
Paul Revere
CHINA, 18TH CENTURY (1739-43)

POWER PREVIEW
The Chinese monopolized the production of hard-paste porcelain for centuries. Wealthy European patrons sent designs for porcelain goods and decorations to China to be mimicked by Chinese artists. These porcelain pieces combine Chinese artistry with European ideals and designs.
PLATE
POWER NOTES
According to the USAD outline, 12 to 13 questions should come from Section III 13 questions (26%) come from Section III on the USAD Art Practice Test This section covers pages 60 through 61 of the USAD Art Resource
China
The porcelain monopoly The Chinese monopolized hard paste porcelain production for centuries This beautiful, delicate material fascinated Europeans, especially as a pleasant contrast to previous table goods of heavy pottery and wood They could not, however, successfully imitate the method for production for many years Porcelain is a type of ceramic Porcelain Properties
Hard Strong Nearly impermeable to water
Delicate Fragile Nearly translucent
Skilled hands can manipulate porcelain into almost any shape When making hard paste porcelain, artists take a very soft, white clay, often kaolin, mixed with pulverized feldspathic rock, and fire it at very high temperatures In this process, porcelain reaches 1400 degrees Celsius Soft paste porcelain is the European imitation of hard paste porcelain This method fires the clay at a lower temperature The growth of a Chinese tradition The first porcelain emerged around 600 C.E. in northern China By the 10th century, artists in southern China had begun to make porcelain as well Southern China could access a different type of clay than northern China, so southern porcelain differed slightly In this early period, buyers especially valued porcelain from Jingdezhen This city lies in the present-day Jiangxi Province The first porcelain to reach Europe came through a land route called the Silk Road in the early 14th century Porcelain often broke in transport due to its fragile nature These breakages made porcelain much rarer and more valuable in Europe
Soon the Portuguese developed trade routes by sea, making porcelain much more easily
available By the 16th century, Chinese artists were producing porcelain specifically for export Most of these goods were shipped out of the ports at Canton Canton has been renamed Guangzhou and lies in the present-day Guangdong Province European collectors highly prized these porcelain goods They often embellished their imports with custom-made metal mounts and turned them into showpieces Finally, in the early 18th century, European artisans discovered the secret to Chinese porcelain production Hard porcelain still remained rare During this time, wealthy European patrons ordered specific shapes and designs for their porcelain imports The patrons wanted teacups, candleholders, and mugs These forms were completely foreign to Chinese artists Completely undiscouraged, Europeans sent along models for the Chinese to use to create the desired Traditional porcelain workshop in Jingdezhen products Photo by Ariel Steiner Patrons also provided designs for enameling workshops to copy onto the porcelain These workshops either were located in Canton, now Guangzhou, or Jingdezhen If the commission arrived in Canton, the porcelain would be ready to ship home within two to three months If the commission were taken to Plate: Jingdezhen, however, it would Vital Stats not be ready for at least two Artist: Southern Chinese artist years The monsoon rains delay travel Date: 1739 through 1743 to Canton, the major port city, Medium: Hard-paste porcelain Size: Diam. 9 in (22.9 cm) and cause the time difference
Plate
Design This highly decorated plate was produced as part of a set in southern China in the 18th century Leake Okeover (1702-65) and his wife, Mary Nichol, commissioned the set of 50 plates and four dishes The couple lived as aristocrats in Staffordshire, England
Their order, along with many other goods from southern China, arrived in England between 1740 and 1743 Since the decorations are so elaborate and the set contains only plates and dishes, Okeovor and Nichol likely intended the set to be purely decorative rather than functional The otherwise simple plate contains elaborate and colorful decorations This plates central motif83 contains the Okeover and Nichol coats of arms rising out of a pool of blue water Two horses carrying heraldic banners flank the motif Blacks, reds, and golds fill the center, drawing attention to this area A gold enamel around the inner and outer rim replicates the appearance of metal embellishments Along the outer rim of the plate, the artist placed a design of the initials of the patrons LMO stands for Leake and Mary Okeover Floral designs fill the remaining space on the rim Significance This transaction between a wealthy European client and a Chinese artist represents much of the history of trade between England and China The English desire for the trade of goods inspired and fueled imperial expansion th Particularly through the 18 and 19th centuries, Great Britain sought to control China Eventually, Great Britain captured Hong Kong and made it a colony, but the rest of China remained independent Plate resulted from collaboration between Chinese artists and European patrons and combined the two cultures
An English artist drew a detailed design of the plate and sent it to southern China
A Chinese potter created the simple, unadorned plate
A Chinese painter decorated the plate, copying the designs sent from Europe
In the Art Fundamentals section of this power guide, I define a motif as an element repeated in a pattern. Another definition is, according to the dictionary, a dominant idea or feature.
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A COMMON INDIAN NIGHTJAR (CAPRIMULGUS ASIATICUS)

INDIA, 18TH CENTURY
POWER NOTES
POWER PREVIEW
The East India Companys presence greatly influenced the Indian art scene. A new style of art developed called Company School painting and embodied the work of Indian artists for European patrons. These artworks blend the two cultures and show the beautiful artistry of Indian artists.
Company School84
History During the 18th and early 19th centuries, many Indian artists adapted their style to accommodate new European patrons These new patrons filled the gap in local patronage The resultant style is called Company School painting Indians refer to the style as kampani kalam Company School painting combines Indian artistry with European ideals Company School artists were trained painters They gained extensive experience working for the Mughal Court These painters worked in various styles, including traditional Indian miniature paintings and contemporary English styles Many of the original patrons of Company School paintings were members of the East India Company Green-Winged Macaw 85 This joint-stock company enjoyed a special A Calcutta Company School painting for Lord Impey relationship with the British crown and helped administer India as well as parts of Asia for 200 years The East India Company traded large quantities of tea, cotton, and indigo
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My niece saw the picture on this page, yelled Pretty parrot!, ran to get her own toy parrot, and proceeded to stab me with the beak saying Caw! Caw! I hope you all appreciate this. 85 A joint-stock company begins by selling shares of itself to investors. These stock owners then become partners in the business venture. Many North America colonization efforts were results of joint-stock companies where Europeans invested in the New World.
European members of the Company often settled with their families in India Once there, these members desired documentation of their stay and ordered souvenir artworks from the Company School painters These patrons either put the paintings into albums or sent them home as gifts The support of a few patrons in particular spurred the popularity of Company School paintings Lord Impey, Chief Justice of the High Court from 1777 to 1785, commissioned many paintings Another supporter was Marquess Wellesley, the governor-general from 1798 to 1805 Once the style became fully established, artists simply produced paintings for sale without waiting for specific commissions Style Company School paintings are generally documentary They often include flowers, trees, birds, fruits, animals, people, architecture, or landscapes For example, the bird in Nightjar is not particularly beautiful or rare, but the patron wished to document a bird that did not exist in Europe Each region of India with access to East India Company patrons developed its own company school Each of these company schools developed a distinct style The style first emerged in southern India and quickly spread Important schools of the Company School style surfaced in Calcutta, Patna, Agra, and other centers Legacy Company School paintings, as small, inexpensive images, essentially served as 18th and 19th century versions of tourist photographs When photography reached India in the 1840s, the popularity of Company School paintings dwindled Today we can appreciate more the artistry of these paintings and their union of Indian and European styles Europeans in every colony hoped to document their experiences This desire stems from a scientific A Common Indian Nightjar: impulse to record experiences and new Vital Stats knowledge Documentation also makes sense from a Artist: Lucknow Company School colonial perspective Date: 18th century Possessing images of a place is a Medium: Watercolor on paper form of ownership 5 1
Size: 8
x 11
in (21.9 x 28.3 cm)
A Common Indian Nightjar

Lucknow School The Lucknow Company School produced the painting Nightjar We do not know the name of the specific artist that created Nightjar The patron of the piece likely thought his name unimportant
Lucknow lies in the Awadh region in northern India In the late 18th century, the East India Company debated whether to take control of
northern India The area was rich agriculturally but had a strong representation from the Mughal Empire86 The British Empire hesitated but eventually took control of the Awadh region in 1856 In the 18th century, the British Empire had a strong influence on the Awadh region The Lucknow School formed to take advantage of European patronage opportunities Claude Martin French collector Claude Martin (1735-1800) commissioned Nightjar Martin served as Major General87 in the East India Company Previously he worked as a French military officer As a member of the East India Company, he moved to Lucknow in the 1770s, remaining there until his death in 1800 In Lucknow, Martin collected an album of documentary paintings by local artists The painting Nightjar is a very small, detailed watercolor The painting is about the size of a notebook paper Traditionally, artists creating Indian miniature paintings used gouache, not watercolor Both paints allow the artist to depict tiny, elaborate details The bird is in profile, standing on the ground, and casting a large shadow The artist painted each feather clearly and colored the bird with a range of brown, gray, and black This bird stands in the extreme foreground Small trees and shrubs behind the bird make up the background The artist painted both the land and sky in neutral, plain colors A bizarre sense of scale also appears in Nightjar The bird is much larger and the landscape much smaller than perspective allows This distortion of scale resembles the traditional Indian miniature paintings These small, highly detailed depictions of architecture or scenery were very popular in the Mughal courts
86
Enrichment Fact: The Mughal Empire was an Islamic imperial power which, at its height, ruled most of the Indian subcontinent, or South Asia. Its leaders were of Turkish and Mongol descent with a Persian lifestyle. Eventually the Mughals lost their potency when the British Empire exiled the Mughal Emperor. 87 And it is, it is a glorious thing to be a Major General. Pirates of Penzance? Anyone?
PAUL REVERE
JOHN SINGLETON COPLEY, 1768
POWER PREVIEW
John Singleton Copley painted portraits during the time of the American Revolution. His portrait of the strong patriot Paul Revere not only displays the subjects metalworking prowess but also comments on the trade situation between Great Britain and her colonies.
POWER NOTES
John Singleton Copley

Early life John Singleton Copley (1738-1815) was born in Boston in 1738 His parents were not wealthy, so we know very little about his early life His father died when he was young His mother married the artist Peter Pelham in 1748 Pelham was a painter and an engraver and likely taught Copley these techniques Pelham, however, died in 1751, leaving Copley to fend for himself in the world of art In the 1750s, Copley established himself as a portrait painter By the 1760s, Copley had gained recognition in Europe Boy with a Squirrel Career by John Singleton Copley In 1766, Copley exhibited a portrait of his halfbrother in London This piece, Boy with a Squirrel, caught the attention of Copleys contemporary, Benjamin West By this time, Benjamin West was already a well-established painter in London He eventually convinced Copley to move from North America to England, as West had done West composed his North American pieces from a distance He created Penns Treaty in England after all the subjects of the painting had died In contrast, Copley painted colonial figures in person in North America during the colonial period
Copley created portraits of important colonial figures such as Samuel Adams, Thomas Mifflin, and John Hancock Copleys reputation as a portrait artist in Boston grew In the early 1770s, he painted portraits in New York and Philadelphia Nevertheless, his career options in North America were more limited relative to those of European portraitists
In 1774, Copley sailed to Europe, and traveled to four locations
London
Paris
Rome
Florence
Returning to London, Copley again painted portraits This time he also expanded his painting to include historical themes Though he lived in London, he still painted portraits of American aristocrats Copley lived and worked in London until his death in 1815
Paul Revere
Life Paul Revere (1734-1818), a proud patriot of the American Revolution, is most famous for his midnight ride Right before the battles of Lexington and Concord, in April 1775, Revere rode from Boston to Lexington to warn the patriots that the British were coming The patriots could then prepare to defend themselves from a British invasion In actuality, Revere was only one of several riders He became famous after Henry Wadsworth Longfellows romanticized poem in 1861 Longfellow portrayed the ride as fantastic, daring, and solitary Readers considered his poem an accurate, historical account In 1768, however, when he sat for his portrait for Copley, Revere was most famous for being a silversmith Revere came from a tradition of silversmithing
Paul Revere:
Vital Stats
Artist: John Singleton Copley Date: 1768 Medium: Oil on canvas Size: 35 18 x 28 1 2 in (89.22 x 72.39 cm)
Paul Revere's midnight ride
He probably learned the trade in his fathers workshop at a young age By the time of his portrait, Revere was about 34 and now ran the family business He produced practical items like buckles and buttons along with specialty goods such as teapots, coffee pots, salt cellars, and other serving items for wealthy homes Though primarily a silversmith, Revere also worked as a goldsmith He put these two talents to work in dentistry, making false teeth In the 1760s, Revere also began to craft engravings for magazines, bookplates, and trading cards Politics Samuel Adams created the group the Sons of Liberty in Boston in August 1765 The group protested against some British colonial policies The Sons of Liberty soon sprouted branches across the colonies Most of the members were middle class and many were, like Revere, artisans As the 1760s continued, British policies became more outrageous and the group unified in their objections The main outrage of 1765 was the Stamp Act The British Parliament passed the Stamp Act in March 1765 and enacted it in November 1765 This direct tax on the colonists required them to pay extra fees for newspapers, pamphlets, legal documents, and other items The tax was fairly small but seemed to embody the outrage of taxation without representation Finally, Parliament repealed the controversial act in 1766 To the Sons of Libertys frustration, they simply replaced the act with equally unfair taxes For instance, in the 1773 Boston Tea Party, the Sons of Liberty clearly showed their displeasure with a new tax on tea Throughout his life, Revere participated actively in his local church and politics In 1765, he joined the Sons of Liberty, declaring himself decidedly to be a patriot In that same year, he created his first political print, responding to the Stamp Act Most of the members of the Sons of Liberty worked secretly Revere, however, made his political affiliations obvious with his political prints The portrait Reveres portrait portrays him in a casual, half-length pose He sits behind a polished table, holding an elegant silver teapot with a wooden handle in his left hand His chin rests in his right hand and he looks up at the viewer as if he were just interrupted in a moment of thought

The table holds a few engraving tools, so Revere is likely putting finishing touches on his work Revere is dressed unusually informally for a portrait in colonial America He wears the clothes of a craftsman He sports a partially open, simple, white linen work shirt Over his shirt lies an unbuttoned waistcoat He wears neither an overcoat nor a wig His attire lends the portrait a casual air as if the viewer has just stumbled upon a craftsman at work The portrait, though, is obviously carefully posed Reveres waistcoat has gold buttons Such attire is extremely impractical for work but references his skill as a metal smith Also, Reveres clothing and the table he sits behind are completely spotless These elements lend a formality to the portrait, striking an ideal balance with the casual aspects This painting is an oil on canvas Copley, remaining within his usual style, created a lifelike and detailed portrait with a meticulous finish Because of its size and materials, this portrait was likely very expensive Copley normally painted portraits of wealthy merchants and their families who could afford his high prices Revere could not have been able to afford the full price of his portrait Revere and Copley possibly traded services for the portrait By 1763, Copley was a client of Revere That year, he ordered a gold bracelet Copley purchased more items in later years Revere could have provided Copley with some gold or silver goods in exchange for the portrait Reveres portrait stayed in his family for generations The family displayed the picture publicly for the first time in 1928 Shortly afterward, the family A teapot created by Paul Revere donated the portrait to the
Museum of Fine Arts in Boston Politics of his portrait During this time, Boston was a center of commerce and trade with the British Empire th In the early 18 century, about 40% of shipping from the colonies passed through Boston These goods included lumber, beef, and furs Goods from Great Britain to the colonies also passed through Boston These goods included rum, sugar, tools, and tea The colonies and Great Britain struggled for control over these imports and exports, eventually leading to a colonial bid for independence The teapot in this portrait may carry some political implications Silver teapots were luxury items and very expensive in colonial America Each teapot sold for a little more than 10 pounds The average Boston laborer made 30 pounds a year and could never afford such an item Teapots were not Reveres most expensive item nor his most frequently made good Most of the time he created simple items such as buckles, buttons, and spoons Out of the 5000 objects he created during his career, Revere made 64 teapots Copley likely included the teapot to comment on the trade relationship between Great Britain and her colonies
ARCHITECTURE AND POWER

POWER PREVIEW
In the 19th century Victorian Era, the British Empire expanded quickly. In the colonies, the Empire often created secular and religious buildings to assert its own power and dominance. We will be studying three of these buildings in the next few pages of the Power Guide.
POWER NOTES
According to the USAD outline, 12 to 13 questions should come from Section III 13 questions (26%) come from Section III on the USAD Art Practice Test This section covers page 66 of the USAD Art Resource
Architecture and Power

The British Empire and architecture Throughout history, humans have used architecture to declare power and dominance Architecture, more than other art forms, can completely transform its location The British Empire utilized architecture to assert its dominance throughout the colonies The 19th century, or Victorian Era, was a time of tremendous expansion for the British Empire Gothic revival cathedral in During this time, the British Empire built various secular and Brazil from the colonial era religious buildings These buildings included churches, administrative or government buildings, libraries, train stations, commercial buildings, and private homes The selections The buildings in this section all draw on a variety of influences th Gothic architecture experienced a revival in the 19 century Gothic pointed arches and large windows often hybridized with colonial traditions Many colonial buildings also draw from Classical influences
Train station in Mumbai, India
Building representing progress and technology in Melbourne, Australia
Colonial architecture from the 19th century still in use today
Church in Georgetown, Guyana
VICTORIA TERMINUS BUILDING

FREDERICK WILLIAM STEVENS MUMBAI, 1887
POWER PREVIEW
The British Empire built the Victoria Terminus Building in Bombay, India to assert its own power, modernize the city, and celebrate the progress colonialism was bringing to this uncivilized land. After India gained its independence, however, the country decided it did not appreciate the colonial legacy and renamed the building.
POWER NOTES
Frederick William Stevens

Life British architect Frederick William Stevens was born in Bath, England, in either 1847 or 1848 In his hometown, he received a formal education in architecture at a young age In 1867, he became assistant engineer in the Public Works Department of India After a decade of work, he gained the commission to design the Victoria Terminus Building for the Great Indian Peninsular Railroad Stevens designed many other large-scale buildings in the area He designed the Municipal Corporation Building, completed in 1893 after his retirement He created many public and private buildings in Mumbai, essentially defining the visual culture of the area Stevens earned fame for his Gothic architecture Frederick William Stevens died in 1900
Municipal Corporation Building
Victoria Terminus Building

History The British Empire constructed the Victoria Terminus Building in Bombay, India, to function as the headquarters for the Great Indian Peninsular Railroad
The design began in 1877, construction started in 1878, and final construction ended in 1887 The year construction began, the Empire Victoria Terminus Building: named the building Victoria Terminus Vital Stats Building to celebrate the jubilee of Queen Victoria Artist: Frederick William Stevens When it was built, the building was a Date: 1887 central point in India Medium: Bombay was the most important port Building: Red sandstone, polychromatic stone, city in the country decorated tile, marble, and stained glass Goods from across the country Photograph: Albumen silver print from glass traveled by rail to and from Bombay negative The city is the capital of Maharashtra, a Size: 7 316 x 9 516 in (18.3 x 23.6 cm) state in southwestern India Great Britain invested a remarkable amount of time and money establishing Bombay as a modern and westernized city The architecture of this city, then, blends Gothic and Indian styles and reflects primarily the presence of colonial rule In modern times, the station has undergone some structural changes Specifically, the station has expanded to accommodate increased traffic When the station was first built, the city of Bombay had a population of less than one million Now, approximately three million passengers pass through the station each day Despite expansions, the core of the building has remained the same Design In designing the Victoria Terminus Building, Stevens took inspiration from Italian and English churches and St. Pancras Railway Station in London Construction on St. Pancras ended about a decade before Stevens designed the Victoria Terminus Building Victoria Terminus Building combines traditional Indian architecture with the Italian Gothic style Gothic architecture was very popular in England in the late 19th century The Gothic influence emerges in the pointed arches, turrets, and towers These elements emphasize the buildings verticality The building consists of local red sandstone Poly-chromatic stone, decorated tile, St. Pancras Railway Station marble, and stained glass add visual interest
Symbols of colonial rule abound in the design of the building
The statue atop the building is an allegorical figure representing Progress, or the modernization that came with European colonization A lion and a tiger stand on either side of the entrance
The lion, tiger, and allegorical figure representing Progress on the Victoria Terminus Building
They symbolize the combination of British might and indigenous Indian culture that created modern Bombay Today, this building is one of the most prominent locations in Bombay and a central tourist spot A tourist likely took the photograph of the Victoria Terminus Building included in the Art Reproductions Guide as a souvenir88 If this building had existed a century earlier, Company School artists would have painted it Legacy Since the stations completion in the 1880s, Both the Victoria Terminus Building and Bombay have new names
Victoria Terminus Building
1996
Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus
Bombay
1995
Mumbai
India gained independence in 1947 and since then, the country has changed many names of
cities and places to eliminate the colonial legacy

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The next time you go on vacation, be sure to take some pictures. Who knows, maybe youll be featured in next years USAD Art Reproductions Guide.
These name changes are extremely political
In 1995, Bombay became Mumbai
Bombay is the English version of the Portuguese words for good bay In Maharashtra, the state that contains Mumbai, a political party supporting the name changes emerged in 1995 The party intended the changes to reject the citys colonial past and strengthen the indigenous culture, or Marathi, identity in the region The group named the city Mumbai after the Hindu goddess, Mumbadevi In 1996, the Victoria Terminus Building became Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus th Chhatrapati Shivaji was a 17 century Hindu king A wise and just ruler, he led the resistance against the Mughals to form the Marathi nation As someone who led the indigenous people to throw off the foreign oppressor, Shivaji was a hero of the independence movement This name change switched the train station from a celebration of colonial dominance to a declaration of independent identity Many people still accidentally refer to the train station as VT (Victoria Terminus) instead of CST (Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus) One such instance occurred in 2010 Raj Thackery, the controversial leader of the ethnocentric political party, Maharashtra Navnirman Sena, referred to the station as VT while delivering a public address This action was especially hypocritical since he had previously criticized a film director for using Bombay instead of Mumbai in his film Name usage is a controversial topic Some political groups in India are pushing for use of indigenous Indian languages instead of English Others, however, object that English is the language of international progress
ROYAL EXHIBITION BUILDING

JOSEPH REED MELBOURNE, 1880
POWER PREVIEW
The Royal Exhibition Building sits in Melbourne, Australia. Emblematic of European ideals of progress, the building housed the Melbourne International Exhibition of 1880 and a plethora of other exhibitions and events.
POWER NOTES
Joseph Reed
Life Joseph Reed was born in Cornwall, England, in 1823 In 1853, Reed arrived in Melbourne He soon rose to the rank of one of the citys most important architects His skill extended to designing public, commercial, and ecclesiastical architecture In 1854, he won a competition to design the State Library of Victoria He also received commissions to design the Bank of New South Wales, Geelong Town Hall, and Wesley Church In 1862 Reed began to work with his first State Library of Victoria architectural partner, Frederick Barnes (1824Note the Classical influence 84) and resemblance to the Pantheon The two architects formed a firm called Reed and Barnes The work of this architectural firm reflected the influence of the Classical and Greek styles Barnes retired in 1883 Reeds firm continued to obtain many commissions and Reed himself worked with a variety of new partners Reed married in 1884 and died in 1890
Royal Exhibition Building

The history of Melbourne Royal Exhibition Building: Melbourne, 89 the capital city of the state Vital Stats Victoria, lies on a bay in southern Australia One of Australias most populous cities, Artist: Joseph Reed Melbourne houses about four million Date: 1880 people Medium: Exterior walls of brick; roof of Europeans coming from Tasmania settled timber, slate, and steel; interior of timber Melbourne in 1835 They quickly transformed the city into a representation of the European idea of progress Queen Victoria recognized Melbourne as a city in 1847 The city began to thrive in the 1850s In 1851, entrepreneurs discovered gold in Victoria As a result, the population greatly expanded Melbourne served as Australias major port As such, the city benefited from the discovery of gold In just a few decades, Melbourne emerged as a wealthy city of international commercial importance The design The architectural firm Reed and Barnes designed the Royal Exhibition Building This building thus reflects the Greek and Classical influences the architects admired The basic architectural design resembles a church This structure is cruciform, or crossshaped A long central space, or the nave, lies perpendicular to two side pieces, or transepts Above the central crossing lies a large dome on top of an octagonal drum The Florentine Cathedral inspired A Romanesque portal and the Royal Exhibition Building entryway this dome The large central entryway resembles a Romanesque portal The building sits in Carleton Gardens Reed designed these gardens to be pleasure grounds that display exotic and native plants and trees
If you go to Melbourne during the winter, and wait by the beach, youll see flocks of penguins waddle onshore. I went when I was seven for my birthday and it was one of the coolest things Id ever seen. Sophy
89
The interior of the building is open and filled with galleries
The plentiful aisles and windows along the nave and transepts provide a sense of lightness and ideal viewing of the main exhibition space The exterior walls consist of brick while the roof features timber, slate, and steel In contrast, the interior columns, floors, ceiling, and dome all consist of timber This construction lends the exterior a solid, imposing look, while the interior remains light The use of local timber in Reeds design likely won him the competition to design the building Timber is cheaper and makes construction much quicker Use and significance Construction of the Royal Exhibition Building ended in 1880, just in time for the Melbourne International Exhibition The exhibition lasted from October 1880 to May 1881 and received about 1.5 million visitors from around the world This exhibition was part of a series of international exhibitions that began in the 19th century These large, lengthy, and incredibly expensive exhibitions are also known as World Fairs The tradition began with the 1851 Great Exhibition in London and the unveiling of the Crystal Palace World Fairs display new advances in science and technology alongside samplings of art and culture The building and exhibition highlight European ideas of progress This artwork reflects Gothic and Classical architecture, highlighting European ideals
In addition, the Royal Exhibition Building was monumental in size As the largest building in Australia at the time, the Royal Exhibition Building featured a walkway in the dome for visitors to view Melbourne Visitors considered the city Europes modern masterpiece Since construction, the Royal Exhibition Building has served a variety of purposes To accommodate these new uses, workers demolished the side wings and installed a number of new additions to this venue The main core, however, remains intact In 1888, this gallery hosted the Melbourne Centennial Exhibition, a celebration of 100 years of European settlement in Australia In 1901, right after Australia became a commonwealth, the Royal Exhibition Building housed the first opening of the Australian Parliament th From the mid to late 20 century, the locale hosted a wide variety of events including Olympic competitions, car shows, school examinations, and graduation ceremonies The Royal Exhibition Building still functions today
ST. GEORGES CATHEDRAL

ARTHUR BLOMFIELD GEORGETOWN, GUYANA, 1894
POWER PREVIEW
The official religion of the British Empire was the Anglican Church. As such, the British Empire would spend much money and care building beautiful churches in its colonies. An example of this effort is St. Georges Cathedral in Georgetown, Guyana.
POWER NOTES
Arthur Blomfield
Life and work Arthur Blomfield (1829 1899) was a renowned English architect and member of the Royal Institute of British Architects His father served as an important Bishop of the Church of England Young Blomfield attended the elite Rugby School and Trinity College at Cambridge He served as an apprentice to the architect Philip Charles Hardwick and later started his own practice Blomfield designed both ecclesiastical and secular buildings His most recognized work is the College of Music in London (1882) He also designed churches in the Gothic Revival style The Church of SS Peter and Paul One such example is St. Andrews designed by Arthur Blomfield Church in Surbiton, England (1872) In 1891, Blomfield received the Royal Gold Medal of the Royal Institute of British Architects in recognition of his work
St. Georges Cathedral

The history of Georgetown and Guyana Guyanas capital city, Georgetown, lies on St. Georges Cathedral: the northern coast of South America Vital Stats Before the arrival of the Europeans, the Artist: Arthur Blomfield area housed the Arawak and Carib Date: 1894 Native American groups Dutch settlers arrived in the area in the 17th Medium: Local wood and 18th centuries After decades of conflict over the region, the British claimed the colony and named it British Guiana in 1814 Until 1834, British Guiana based its economy on slave labor Slaves provided cheap labor in the production of sugar and other internationally valuable goods With the abolition of slavery, new immigrants met the demand for cheap labor In 1966, the country gained independence and changed its name to Guyana Today the majority of the population of Guyana lives along the coast Georgetown became a European settlement in the 18th century The city sits near the mouth of the Demerara River Georgetown has had many names over the course of its history The Dutch called the city Stabroek When the French occupied the region briefly in 1782, they referred to Georgetown as Longchamps Finally the British named the city Georgetown in 1812 after King George III Today, Georgetown is Guyanas most populated city Georgetown houses the central government and serves as the commercial center Guyana is a very ethnically diverse country The Dutch, French, and British all settled the country, bringing their citizenry with them A slavery-dependent economy also forced many Africans to settle in the area Once slavery was abolished, immigrants from all over the world, including India, came to work Due to the countrys European heritage, Christianity remains the dominant religion Most of the Christians identify with the Anglican Church Before independence, British Guiana declared its official state religion to be the Anglican Church Other religions in the area include Hinduism and Islam Design St. Georges Cathedral is one of the tallest wooden churches in the world The structure rises to a height of 143 feet The churchs basic design is a Latin Cross with a central tower In his design, Arthur Blomfield included Gothic features, such as pointed arches, flying buttresses, and large windows with stained glass depicting scenes from the Bible These elements lend the architecture a sense of lightness and height
Georges Cathedral displays Blomfields ability to adapt European architectural styles in a Caribbean setting Most European Gothic churches are stone A building of stone would have looked rather odd in a light, tropical climate In addition, Blomfield chose to use local, plentiful wood to build the church This decision was very costefficient and allowed the cathedral to blend in with the surrounding buildings In addition, Blomfield painted the walls white, which was also well in keeping with the style of the area History and significance St. Georges Cathedral is the last in a line of Anglican churches built in Georgetown Construction of the first building, a small chapel dedicated to St. George, ended in 1810 Within a decade, the structure was too small for the growing citys needs and the colony added on a few galleries Nevertheless, a larger church seemed necessary Georgetown completed the larger, stone version of St. Georges Church in 1842 Within a few months, Georgetown became the seat of the Diocese of Guiana St. Georges Church, as the home of the Bishops Cathedra, became a cathedral Unfortunately, by 1877, the new cathedrals foundation was weak and unsuitable for use The seat of the Diocese relocated briefly while Georgetown built yet another church Construction for the St. Georges Cathedral that stands today began in 1889 and ended with the churchs consecration on November 8, 1894 The Anglican Church was the official state religion of Great Britain and its colonies This emphasis is evident in the prominent position of St. Georges Cathedral in the city In addition, the reliance on a celebrated British architect to design the colonial church indicates the importance of the Anglican Church
St.
EUROPE ENVISIONS THE EMPIRE

POWER PREVIEW
All of the artists in this section commented on British imperialism with their visual art. Since people living in Great Britain very rarely traveled to the colonies, artists often presented a valuable perspective on what the rest of the British Empire was like. Some of these perspectives displayed the colonies as exotic and uncivilized places populated by the noble savage, while others reflected critically on the British Empire and imperialism.
POWER NOTES
According to the USAD outline, 12 to 13 questions should come from Section IV 12 questions (24%) come from Section IV on the USAD Art Practice Test This section covers page 74 of the USAD Art Resource
Visions of the Empire

The selections In this section of the Art Power Guide, we will discuss six artists whose work spans nearly 250 years All of these artists gained prestige in England and responded to British imperialism with visual art Some of these artists gained international experience which gave them a unique perspective about British imperialism For example, Benjamin West and J.A.M. Whistler hailed from North America and expatriated to England Yinka Shonibare, a contemporary artist, was born in England, grew up in Nigeria, and currently lives in London In contrast, John Frederick Lewis and William Hodges were both born in England and traveled extensively to areas affected by British imperialism J.M.W. Turner experienced very little international exposure His paintings, however, still focus on key aspects and effects of British imperialism The European perception of the colonies During the height of the British Empire, in the 17th through 19th centuries, most residents of Great Britain never visited the colonies Artists, then, produced romanticized images of distant and exotic colonial lands In particular, Romantic artists supported the idea of the noble savage According to this concept, foreign people were Benjamin West's depiction of a uncivilized and consequently more simple and pure Native American in The Death of Supposedly, the noble savage was to be envied for General Wolfe exemplifies the idea of a "noble savage" his simple life free from the complexities of modern
European society This concept was, of course, a figment of the European imagination In contrast, some artists of the time criticized the British Empire J.M.W. Turner criticized the slave labor that went into building the Empire th Great Britains American colonies kept slaves until the 19 century The British Empire actually supported abolition much more than other European powers Great Britain expanded into areas that did not use slavery Turner produced his artwork while the abolitionists were rallying for an end to the slave trade and chattel slavery Turner with his criticism of the Empire was a rare case Most artists during the Age of Empire did not question the great powers of imperialism Contemporary artists have much more of an opportunity to look critically at their position in the world, and the construction of power and identity Yinka Shonibare, for example, draws from past and present as well as European and African sources to question ideas that were accepted as facts in previous generations
PENNS TREATY WITH THE INDIANS

BENJAMIN WEST, 1771-72
POWER PREVIEW
Benjamin West painted remarkable historical scenes. One of these is Penns Treaty which displays William Penn as a heroic, generous historical figure. This sort of painting full of political statements and justifications for imperialism were very typical of the Age of Empire.
POWER NOTES
According to the USAD outline, 12 to 13 questions should come from Section IV 12 questions (24%) come from Section IV on the USAD Art Practice Test This section covers pages 74 through 78 of the USAD Art Resource
Benjamin West
Early life Benjamin West was born in Springfield, Pennsylvania, in 1738 Interested in art from a young age, West had a natural talent for drawing Unfortunately, Pennsylvania offered few educational opportunities during the colonial age, so West relied on practice and informal study Nevertheless, as a teenager, he established a strong reputation as a portrait painter By the late 1750s, William Smith, provost90 at the College of Pennsylvania, became impressed with Wests painting Smith provided West with new educational opportunities and patrons, greatly helping his career Portrait of Charles Willson Peale In 1759, West, supported by his Pennsylvania By Benjamin West patrons, traveled to Europe In the mindset of the time, a trip to Europe was absolutely essential for a young American artist who aspired for international recognition West traveled to Rome, Venice, and Florence before finally settling in England in 1763 During his trip he studied the work of Italian Renaissance masters such as Raphael, Michelangelo, and Titian He also studied masterpieces of the Baroque and Classical sculpture and architecture from the ancient world
90
The provost at a university is essentially an administrator. He determines the curriculum for the school and appoints professors.
Career In England, West continued to paint portraits and increased his reputation as a history painter Critics and the public expected artists who painted historical paintings to have mastered a classicizing style like that of ancient, Renaissance, and Baroque art They also expected historical paintings to be illuminating and inspiring, teaching viewers about the best parts of human history In 1764, West exhibited his work at the Society of Artists in London This exhibition brought him to the attention of British art critics In 1769, West received his first royal commission from King George III Soon, the King appointed West as a court painter Over the next 30 years, West painted 60 paintings for the king, including both portraits and historical paintings King George III established the Royal Academy of Arts in 1768 This institution, with West as a founding member, was a place for teaching and exhibiting Britains The Death of General Wolfe by Benjamin West finest art West served as president of the Royal Academy from 1792 to 1805 and again from 1806 to his death in 1820 Benjamin West spent his adult life working in London Though he never actively promoted his work in the United States, he influenced the art tradition in that country through teaching Due to the limited formal education opportunities in the United States, many young artists in the late 18th and 19th centuries traveled to Europe for an education Europe was the source of the great artistic traditions Many artists traveled from the United States to London to study under West These artists included Charles Willson Peale, Gilbert Stuart, and John Trumbull After learning from West, these artists traveled back to the Americas and there influenced their own artistic traditions The Death of General Wolfe, a large historical scene, was one of Wests most influential paintings Benjamin West painted the scene in 1770 and exhibited it at the Royal Academy in 1771 The painting illustrates the final moments in the life of General James Wolfe
He died in 1759 during the Battle of Quebec His painting was revolutionary because it depicted recent history rather than a heroic story of the distant past In addition, West chose to dress his figures in contemporary styles instead of the customary drapery of ancient art Both Joshua Reynolds, a painter in the Royal Academy, and King George III were outraged by the characters attire King George III vowed that he would never buy a painting in which the characters wore contemporary clothing Much to their chagrin, however, the public loved the painting and both Reynolds and the king eventually accepted the idea Finally, Wests painting depicted a scene in North America rather than Europe All of these innovations paved the way for Wests next major historical work, Penns Treaty with the Indians
Penns Treaty with the Indians

William Penn Penns Treaty with the Indians: William Penn (1644-1718) founded Vital Stats Pennsylvania Artist: Benjamin West Historians often view William Penn as fair, heroic, a promoter of freedom, and a leader Date: 1771-72 in the quest for friendly relationships with Medium: Oil on canvas Size: 75 1 2 x 107 3 4 in (191.8 x 273.7 cm) the Native Americans Critics of Penn, however, point out that he benefited from an unjust system that was condescending and oppressive toward the Native Americans William Penn was born in London to prosperous parents His father, Admiral Sir William Penn, connected him to the monarchy Penns family belonged to the Anglican Church Recall that this religion was the official religion of the British Empire Penn, however, favored the Quakers During this time, the Anglican Church criticized Catholics, Puritans, Quakers, and followers of other religions Persecuted for his beliefs, Penn found his relationship with his family and their religion tense Penns father died in 1670 William Penn Seeking a religious refuge, Penn and a group of Quakers purchased land in North America in 1677
In 1681, the King of England gave Penn a proprietary grant in payment for a debt to his
father The grant totaled approximately 45,000 square miles The King gave Penn full governing rights and responsibilities over the land Penn wanted to call the land Sylvania, meaning forests in Latin The King, however, called the land Pennsylvania after Penns father Penn wanted to establish a land of religious tolerance for all Christians As governor of Pennsylvania, he created a just government based on elected representatives and fair trials He started planning for Philadelphia and began to explore the interior of his newly acquired territory Soon Penn developed a good relationship with the local Native Americans, especially the Lenape tribe This tribe is also known as the Leni Lenape or Delaware tribe He felt it only right that, as a newcomer, he pay the Lenape tribe for the land he was now filling with Europeans The painting Penns Treaty depicts a historical, almost legendary event Penn offered the Lenape goods for their land and a promise of peace According to the story, this event happened under a giant elm tree in Shackamaxon There is no formal documentation of this treaty, but historians agree that the event probably happened in either 1682 or 1683 Penns attempt at peaceful relationships with the Native Americans was very generous in the context of the time Most colonies merely applied brute force Penns treaty took place about 100 years before West painted A depiction of Penn's treaty with the Lenape the event With no firsthand accounts, West painted how he thought the event would have looked The painting focuses on the exchange of goods Two European men kneel and present a bolt of cloth to the Lenape chief Elders and male warriors surround the chief while women and children look on Some figures lean forward and admire the cloth while others put hands to their chests as if accepting the cloth and the peace offering Outside of this focus, Native Americans are going about their daily lives A group of tents with natives clustered in front stand in the background A mother nurses her baby in the extreme right foreground These figures resemble images of the Virgin and Child
An older child next to the mother gestures toward the circle, drawing the viewers and mothers gazes European men fill the left side of the painting West based his image of Penn on an earlier portrait of Penn as a young man West aged Penn by turning him into a heavy-set man Penn wears a sober brown outfit with a white neck cloth He holds out his arms, pointing toward the cloth being presented with one and another cloth with the other He seems to indicate that there are more goods he would like to offer the Native Americans In the left corner, two men sit on boxes that seem to hold more goods for trade Penns gesture also forms a bridge of peace between the two groups of people West depicted the Native Americans as calm and composed He modeled the figures after Roman and Greek sculptures This depiction epitomizes the Romantic concept of the noble savage He also emphasized the differences between the Europeans and the Native Americans The Quaker men surrounding Penn wear sober and plain clothing th This style was typical of Quakers in the 18 century th 17 century Quakers wore highly ornamental clothing with silk stockings and lace detailing West portrayed the Quakers so contemporary viewers would recognize them The Quakers dress also emphasizes the difference between the Europeans and the Native Americans The natives wear brightly colored, ornamented attire Compared to the Europeans, the natives wear very little clothing Such illustrated differences served to justify European colonialism According to the thinking of the time, the superior settlers brought civilization to a simple and primitive world British control of the Americas ended soon after West created his painting, but his work captured the feelings of the time Imperialism had to strike a balance between peaceful relationships and domination of groups different from Europeans West used the housing in the background to show the replacement of natives with European settlers
Modern, permanent, European housing is quickly replacing primitive-looking, small tents in the shadows An entire community of two-story structures stand in the final stages of construction Small boats wait in the harbor in the distance Men walk back and forth from the harbor, carrying goods for the settlement of the town After this event, Penn returned to England th He only returned once, briefly, at the end of the 18 century In England he faced financial difficulties, spending time in prison for his debts As a result, he could not visit his territory and his authority there faded After his death in 1718, Penns sons took his place as proprietor of Pennsylvania Thomas Penn William Penns son, Thomas Penn (1702 1775), commissioned Penns Treaty Thomas Penn differed from his father He rejected the Quakers and joined the Church of England Unlike his father, who worked to develop fair and friendly relationships with the Native Americans, Thomas Penn oppressed the Native Americans The Walking Purchase of 1737 exemplifies this attitude Thomas Penn and his secretary James Logan claimed ownership of a tract of land According to them, William Penn had signed a treaty with the Lenape Indians granting to him an area of land equivalent to the distance a man could walk in a day and a half The two then hired three runners to walk the distance, marking much larger boundaries than the Lenape had expected In the 1750s, the Walking Purchase became even more controversial During this time the Native Americans, citing the Walking Purchase as inspiration, sided with the French in the French and Indian War (1756 1763) The Native Americans led raids on Pennsylvania settlements Opponents of proprietorship such as Benjamin Franklin and Quaker leaders used the Walking Purchase as evidence against the institution Franklin petitioned the British crown to replace Pennsylvania proprietorships with royal charters Other colonies used the royal charter system By this system, men governed by royal decree rather than inheritance Franklins petition directly challenged Thomas Penns claim to governing Pennsylvania Thomas Penn likely commissioned a painting of his fathers peaceful dealings with the Native Americans to shed positive light on his name The depiction of his father also legitimizes his own claim to the land This painting, like other art of the British Empire, defines authority and identity As a highly politicized painting, it is not an unbiased depiction of an event, but a constructed image showing a key event in the formation of an empire
HMS RESOLUTION AND ADVENTURE WITH FISHING CRAFT IN MATAVI BAY

WILLIAM HODGES, 1776
POWER PREVIEW
William Hodges traveled with Commander James Cook on his second expedition to the Pacific. On this trip, Hodges worked to document everything the crew encountered. His painting, HMS Resolution and Adventure displays an exotic, faraway land and the peaceful relationship there between Europeans and the Tahitian natives.
POWER NOTES
William Hodges
Life and Career William Hodges was born in 1744 in London He trained to be an artist from a young age He began in an art school but soon became an apprentice to Richard Wilson in 1758 Wilson worked as a landscape painter in the Royal Academy For his first independent artwork, Hodges painted landscape scenery for London theatrical productions In 1772, Hodges traveled with Commander James Cook on his second voyage to the Pacific James Cook served as a commander in Great Britains Royal Navy Cook traveled to the Pacific the first time between 1768 and 1771 Captain James Cook During this trip he traveled around Cape Horn in by William Hodges South America, mapped the coast of New Zealand, touched the southern coast of Australia, and contacted native groups in Tahiti
Cape Horn
New Zealand
Australia
Tahiti
Cook returned to the Pacific between 1772 and 1775

He commanded the HMS Resolution, accompanied by the HMS Adventure The expedition crossed the Antarctic Circle, nearly reaching the Antarctic coast, then sailed on to Tahiti, Easter Island, and New Caledonia
Antarctic Circle
Easter Island
New Caledonia
Tahiti
During this trip, Hodges worked as
the official draughtsman, drawing scenes of whatever the expedition saw His most famous pictures depict Tahiti and Easter Island When Hodges returned to London in 1776, he exhibited large scale paintings inspired by the voyage at the Royal Academy These paintings were valuable from a scientific perspective but also were exotic and fascinating to the British population A View of the Monuments of Easter Island by William Hodges Between 1780 and 1784, Hodges traveled to India His supporters, Governor-General Warren Hastings and the East India Company, sent him there to record the English military expansion in India Hodges thought of himself as a recorder of history and an artist-historian After his return, he established a studio in London to display his drawings of India In 1793, he published a book of his drawings Hodges was a member of the Royal Academy He became an associate member in 1786 and a full member in 1787 He exhibited his work at the Academy until 1794 Frederick, the Duke of York Unfortunately, Hodges marred his reputation with two of his works: The Effects of War and The Consequences of Peace91 He exhibited these two anti-war, allegorical landscapes on Bond Street in 1794 and 1795 The Duke of York insisted that the paintings were inappropriate and dangerous He feared the paintings protested Britains campaign against France Hodges had to close the exhibition and could not find another audience Humiliated, Hodges abandoned painting and faced poverty in his early 50s
As far as I can gather, USAD seems to have mixed up the titles of these artworks. William Hodges painted The Consequences of War and The Effects of Peace.
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He no longer produced large-scale paintings and had to pay to publish his book of illustrations Attempting to improve his financial situation, Hodges unsuccessfully experimented with bank investments He died in 1797 with very little money, controversy surrounding his bank investments Historians speculate that he may have committed suicide
HMS Resolution and Adventure

Design HMS Resolution and Adventure: HMS Resolution and Adventure is a large Vital Stats landscape painting showing a protected bay Artist: William Hodges along Tahitis northern coastline Date: 1776 Everything is in harmony Medium: Oil on canvas The water and sky are calm and the sun shines down on the volcanic mountains Size: 54 x 76.1 in (137.2 x 193.2 cm) meeting the water Two British ships, HMS Resolution and HMS Adventure, float peacefully in the center left of the composition These elaborate ships contrast with the smaller, simpler Tahitian fishing boats In the left foreground, a few Tahitian natives carry out their daily activities Two men converse with each other, one sitting and the other standing with his back to the viewer A woman and child, recalling images of the Virgin Mary and the Christ Child, sit on the dock over the water The two figures look toward the Hodges' Tahitian natives reflect the influence of Greek and Roman sculpture viewer, drawing him into the scene A man farther in the background sits, gazing at the ships in the bay The Tahitians wear very little clothing 92 Instead, they stand in contrapposto poses and wear loose-fitting drapery, like Classical sculptures This emphasis on both the exotic and classical illustrates the idea of the noble savage
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Recall that a contrapposto pose is relaxed with the weight shifted onto one leg.
The Tahitians, though obviously uncivilized and unforgivably different from Europeans, appear dignified As if to make up for the posed formality of his pictures in the foreground, Hodges includes several spontaneous elements in the painting 93,94 A chicken struts in the immediate foreground Two men paddle a canoe in the center of the middle ground In the right foreground, Tahitian men in boats go about their daily activities Though we see no Europeans interacting with Tahitians in this painting, Hodges focused on the relationship between the two groups The Tahitian ships create a V with the European ships at the point This arrangement brings the viewers focus onto the European presence The sailors, on the deck and in small boats around the ships, have anchored the ships and raised the sails to dry in the sun Hodges creates the impression that Matavi Bay is welcoming and the European presence is peaceful In a different painting of the bay, Hodges replaces the ships in the background with Tahitian war galleys HMS Resolution and Adventure consequently appears much less threatening Hodges also includes the peaceful European The War Boats of the Island of Tahiti settlement of Point Venus in his painting by William Hodges The small white tent in the left background represents Point Venus Creation Hodges used documentary sketches he made on his voyage to create this large-scale painting His painting is not entirely accurate, though In order to fit all of the landmarks he wanted to, Hodges slightly manipulated the scale In reality, no viewer could see both Mount Orofena and the shoreline at the same time Mount Orofena is Tahitis highest peak and the tallest mountain in the painting To create a realistic sense of perspective, Hodges utilized both linear and atmospheric perspective The figures in the foreground have clear outlines and vivid colors, while the background figures are much fainter and less clearly delineated History James Cooks expedition reached the northern coast of Tahiti in August 1773 There, they established peaceful relationships with the natives and founded an informal settlement called Point Venus The sick members of Cooks crew traveled to Point Venus for recovery
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Why did the chicken strut across the foreground? To get to the background!
Hodges assignment on the voyage was to document everything the expedition encountered
He accurately documents life in the Matavi bay He depicts everything with rich detail, from the volcanic mountains in the background to the Tahitians making boats HMS Resolution and Adventure idealize an exotic paradise and begins the process of ownership of the new land Though the British wielded very little power in Tahiti during this time, documentation and exploration are the first steps of imperialism and lead to eventual ownership
SLAVE SHIP
JOSEPH MALLORD WILLIAM TURNER, 1840
POWER PREVIEW
In a time of passionate abolitionists and blatant cruelty toward slaves, J.M.W. Turner painted a politically charged criticism of the brutality of the slave trade. His painting is based off a story of a slave ship captain who tossed dead and dying slaves overboard in order to collect more insurance money.
POWER NOTES
Joseph Mallord95 William Turner

Early life J.M.W. Turner was born in London in 1775 Turner obtained a high-quality formal art education at a young age At the age of 14, he enrolled in classes at the Royal Academy in London When he was only 15, in 1790, Turner exhibited his first watercolor painting This accomplishment was extraordinary for one so young Turner became a great success in the Royal Academy, eventually becoming a full member Self portrait of Joseph Mallord William in 1802 at the remarkable age of 27 Turner Career During his life, Turner traveled to many parts of Europe

Scotland
France
Switzerland
Venice
While traveling, he studied the works of great 17th century landscape painters such as Claude Lorrain and Jacob van Ruisdael The landscapes he observed while traveling and the landscapes of his native country greatly inspired his art Turners landscapes were remarkable in that he painted them on an extremely large scale Previously, only history paintings featured this scale As a painter, Turner enjoyed depicting dramatic landscape scenes such as shipwrecks or fires In addition, he brought drama to calm landscapes
USAD slips back and forth between the correct spelling and the name of a duck. The artists name is Joseph Mallord William Turner. This slip up should, however, help you remember his name.
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His landscapes were picturesque and sublime
The word sublime, in the old sense, describes a situation of two opposing emotions For example, a viewer of a horror film feels both thrilling excitement and terror Similarly, a dramatic thunderstorm evokes the sublime emotions of awe and fear Any painting depicting the power of nature dominating humans is sublime Some of his landscapes reference history and politics For example, Dido Building Carthage (National Gallery, London, 1815) depicts ancient Roman history in a monumental, picturesque landscape Also, Snow Storm - Hannibal Crossing the Alps (Turner Collection, London, 1812) illustrates a struggle for the ancient Roman military leader, Dido Building Carthage by J.M.W. Turner Hannibal In 218 B.C.E., a snow storm caught Hannibal and his troops in the mountains Dark clouds envelop the sun over an ominous landscape As a depiction of the power of nature dominating humans, this painting is sublime In both of these paintings, Turner chose the landscape as the main subject with the human subjects secondary Snow Storm-Hannibal Crossing the Alps When painting, Turner focused on color by J.M.W. Turner He applied very loose brushstrokes, contrasting undefined areas of color These colors form a landscape when the viewer perceives them from a distance In this way, Turner reduced landscapes to their essential elements and became a forerunner of the Impressionist movement His landscapes transcend time or space In contrast, the Impressionist Claude Monet painted very familiar and recognizable subjects such as the faade of a cathedral Monet focused on the effect of changes of light in different seasons and different times of the day Turner died in 1851
Slave Ship
Design Slave Ship is a very abstract painting with vivid color contrasts
Turner separated the composition into four quarters
The horizon line separating the sea and the sky divides the piece horizontally while the setting sun divides it vertically In the center left, the enormous waves toss Slave Ship: the slave ship mercilessly Vital Stats In the foreground, slave arms reach up, Artist: J.M.W. Turner desperate to stay afloat Date: 1840 The captain of the ship tossed these Medium: Oil on canvas slaves, chained together, overboard A violent swirl of water, indicating sea Size: 35 3 4 x 48 1 4 in (90.8 x 122.6 cm) animals attacking the drowning slaves, fills the lower right quadrant This landscape features as one of Turners most emotionally evocative pieces He contrasts sharply between the warm and dark colors In addition, Turner includes frightening and graphic visual imagery to illustrate his point about the inhumanity of the slave trade Context The abolition movement emerged in the 18th and early 19th century Turner based his painting off an account in Thomas Clarksons book, The History of the Abolition of the Slave Trade (1808) Clarkson expanded his 1786 treatise, An essay on the slavery and commerce of the human species, particularly the African, translated from a Latin dissertation to write his book In his book, Clarkson describes the Zong Affair of 1781 Captain Luke Collingwood decided to throw over 100 sick and dying slaves overboard The captain believed that insurance companies would reimburse him for slaves lost at sea but not slaves that died of sickness on board Unlike the captain in Turners painting, Luke Collingwood encountered no storms and arrived safely in Jamaica
The fortunate sailor even died before 1783, when insurers entered a court case against his claims for lost slaves Thomas Clarkson helped found the Society for Effecting the Abolition of the Slave Trade This group originated in London in 1787 Almost all of the members of the group, except Clarkson, were Quakers The Society focused on passing legislation to outlaw the slave trade and on educating the public about the horrors of the practice In 1807, the British Parliament finally abolished the slave trade Parliament also took on the responsibility to enforce the ban militarily Success, however, came very gradually th The transatlantic slave trade continued through the 19 century In 1833, Parliament passed the Slavery Abolition Act, abolishing slavery throughout the British Empire Despite this new law, enforced labor in other forms continued in the British Empire and slave trade and chattel slavery abounded beyond the Empires boundaries As a result of this disappointment, a new society formed Abolitionists created the British and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society in 1839 This organization strove to abolish slavery throughout the world The British and Foreign AntiSlavery Society held a convention in London in 1840 500 delegates from around the world attended Thomas Clarkson addressed the gathering and even republished his anti-slavery writings Turner displayed his support by exhibiting his anti-slavery landscape in the Royal Academy in 1840 His painting graphically The Anti-Slavery Society Convention of 1840 by Benjamin Robert Haydon depicted the murder of slaves in the name of profit Art historian George Landow suggests that Turner included the typhoon in his painting so as to inflict a just punishment on the captain of the slave ship Mother Nature will claim revenge for the lives of the murdered slaves
PURPLE AND ROSE: THE LANGE LEIZEN OF THE SIX MARKS

JAMES ABBOTT MCNEILL WHISTLER, 1864
POWER PREVIEW
James Abbott McNeill Whistler, like Benjamin West, was born in the United States but moved to Europe for his artistic career. Whistler painted radically abstract paintings for the time. In his painting, Purple and Rose, Whistler references the influence of Chinese art and the trade of tea on the British Empire.
POWER NOTES
James Abbott McNeill Whistler

Early life James Whistler was born in Massachusetts in 1834 He died in 1903 He spent most of his life abroad Whistlers father worked as an engineer As a result, Whistler traveled to Russia and England as a boy He enrolled in art classes in St. Petersburg from 1845 to 1848 and in London from 1847 to 184896 When Whistler was a teenager, his father died and he and his mother moved back to the United States For a brief time, Whistler attended West Point Military Academy He lacked academic and military talent In fact, out of all the subjects he took, he only Portrait of James Abbott McNeill Whistler excelled in art Whistler worked briefly as a cartographer before traveling to Paris in 1855 He did not leave Europe for the rest of his life Career Once in Paris, Whistler slipped easily into the life of a typical Parisian bohemian97 artist He studied in the studio of Charles Gleyre Gleyre also mentored several French Impressionist painters
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Im not entirely sure how these dates are possible. As far as I can gather, Whistlers father stayed in Russia while Whistler traveled with his mother to London in 1847 and 1848. 97 A bohemian is a person who lives and acts free of regard for conventional rules and practices (www.dictionary.com).
In addition, he befriended Realist painter Gustave Courbet In order to learn painting, Whistler copied the works of his favorite artists, especially Rembrandt van Rijn Whistler learned Rembrandts skill of creating highly emotional, evocative works with only a limited range of tones Whistler believed in the idea of art for arts sake At the time, the art academies of France and England insisted on moral and enlightening art Also, artists still favored paintings of important historical events In contrast, Whistler believed that the primary purpose of an artist was to create beauty As a result, his paintings capture subtle emotions with color In order to avoid literal or moralizing interpretations of his work, Whistler titled his pieces using musical terms Symphony in White, No.1: The White Girl (National Gallery of Art, Washington D.C., 1862) 98 Arrangement in Grey and Black: The Artists Mother (Muse dOrsay, Paris, 1871) 99 Nocturne in Black and Gold: The Falling Rocket (Detroit Institute of Arts, Detroit, 1874) The titles of these paintings emphasize a complete lack of meaning Public viewers responded especially strongly to Nocturne in Black and Gold Art critic John Ruskin, a supporter of Turner, was especially critical

James McNeill Abbott Whistler's Symphony in White, No.1: The White Girl, Arrangement in Grey and Black: The Artist's Mother, and Nocturne in Black and Gold: The Falling Rocket
He accused Whistler of flinging a pot of paint in the publics face Outraged, Whistler sued Ruskin, accusing him of libel, or falsely speaking against his reputation
98 99
Have you seen the Mr. Bean movie about Whistlers Mother? Possibly the funniest movie of my childhood. Sophy Enrichment Fact: Whistler painted his Nocturne in Black and Gold after witnessing a display of fireworks. At the time, it was extremely radical to paint something so fleeting and seemingly pointless. Whistler, however, thought that the beautiful yet meaningless fireworks were perfect art subjects. With this painting, Whistler became a forerunner of abstraction and a lead proponent of American modernism.
The trial discussed issues such as the goal of art and the role of the artist in society Whistler won the trial but could not recover his damaged reputation Whistler incorporated art from the Far East in his painting He greatly admired the art of the Chinese, especially porcelain The porcelain objects in Whistlers paintings were highly valuable collectables Later, in the 1870s, Japanese woodprints fascinated French Impressionists Great artists such as Claude Monet and Vincent van Gogh collected hundreds of prints Purple and Rose: The Lange Leizen As a result, Japanese art strongly of the Six Marks influenced the Impressionist style Vital Stats

Artist: James Abbott McNeill Whistler
Purple and Rose: The Lange Leizen of the Six Marks
Date: 1864 Medium: Oil on canvas
Design Size: image: 36 3 4 x 24 18 in (93.3 x 61.3 cm) Purple and Rose is a small painting of a framed: 46 916 x 34 3 8 x 2 3 4 in (118.3 x woman surrounded by porcelain objects 87.3 x 7 cm) Joanna Hiffernan, Whistlers mistress in the 1860s, modeled for this painting Hiffernan modeled for other works by Whistler including Symphony in White, No.1: The White Girl and Symphony in White, No.2: The Little White Girl (Tate Gallery, London, 1864-1865) Hiffernan also had a relationship with Gustave Courbet, posing for some of his works as well In the picture, Hiffernan sits, relaxed and casual Her body makes a diagonal line from the lower left to upper right corners She wears a Chinese brocade robe covered in peach and rose-colored flowers The lower section and trim of the robe are dark purple The coloring of the robe inspired the Philadelphia Museum of Arts name for the work: Purple and Rose In her right hand, Hiffernan holds a brush, raised and poised as if to paint the blue and white porcelain she holds in her left She wears makeup and has pulled her hair back Symphony in White, No.2: The Little White into a tight bun, imitating Chinese fashions Girl by James Whistler An assortment of Chinese objects surrounds the central figure Various blue and white porcelain pieces appear as if they are on display in a shop These objects include a tea cup, a tray, and a large ginger jar A painted fan with a design of a crane rests behind the tea cup
Several Chinese brushes lie on the table behind the central figure
The background of the painting is simple and mostly beige and brown
This coloration accentuates both the figure and the imported objects The obsession with porcelain Porcelain objects in Purple and Rose likely came from Whistlers own collection Whistler, as a patron to many shops of Chinese imports, was an avid collector He especially favored the Oxford and Sloan Street shops owned by dealer Murray Marks During this time period, Chinese porcelains, fabrics, furniture, and other decorative items were available in department stores and specialty shops Middle and upper class citizens especially enjoyed these objects The obsession of Chinese porcelains primarily stemmed from the of tea consumption in first half of the 19th century 100 Romita Ray points out that tea was exotic and foreign before but in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, tea became the national beverage of Britain When Whistler created his painting, over 90% of the tea in Britain originated in China In fact, access to tea imports partly inspired Britains imperialistic exploits in India, China, and other parts of East Asia In addition, Britain even battled with Holland over control of Chinese tea exports The Chinese first produced blue and white porcelain, like the objects in the painting, in the 14th century By the 17th century, the Chinese exported these objects to Europe As a result, European designers imitated Chinese motifs and styles in their work
100
Romita Ray is an assistant professor of art history at Syracuse University in New York. She specializes in the visual history of tea consumption in Britain and the colonies.
For example, the Dutch created the Lange Leizen design The pattern shows delicate, willowy Chinese women Lange, in Dutch, means long Whistler called this pattern Long Eliza In Purple and Rose, Hiffernan holds a porcelain piece which features a Lange Leizen design With the inclusion of this Dutch imitation of Chinese art, Whistler references the conflict between Great Britain and Holland over Chinese tea exports The six marks in the title of Purple and Rose refers to a special Chinese character which verifies the authenticity of a porcelain piece The viewer cannot really determine if Whistler hid political significances in his painting Whistler himself insisted that the meanings in his paintings lie in the arrangement of colors and forms He often denied the presence of any deeper meaning Nevertheless, viewers of the painting would notice the tea and the possible reference to British trade with India and China
A LADY RECEIVING VISITORS (THE RECEPTION)

JOHN FREDERICK LEWIS, 1873
POWER PREVIEW
John Frederick Lewis was born in London but spent much of his life abroad, living in Cairo and maintaining the lifestyle of a wealthy Turkish man for a decade. As one who lived it, Lewis paintings of Egypt and the Ottoman Empire were highly reliable, even documentary. His paintings were also extremely interesting to a British audience who viewed Egypt as, hopefully, a future addition to the British Empire.
POWER NOTES
John Frederick Lewis

Life John Frederick Lewis was born in London in 1805 His father worked as an engraver and landscape painter Lewiss uncle George Robert was also a painter Lewis spent much of his adult life traveling and working abroad Fascinated by the East, Lewis traveled to Spain from 1832 to 1834, then to Greece and Turkey, and finally to Cairo101 Lewis immersed himself completely into the Egyptian culture and, adopting the lifestyle of a wealthy Turkish man, lived in Cairo from 1841 to 1851 Novelist William Makepeace Thackery documented Lewiss time in Cairo in his book, Notes of a Journey from Cornhill to Grand Cairo (1846) Lilium Auratum by John Frederick Lewis Thackery proclaimed that Lewis had taken on the lifestyle of an Ottoman pasha, or governor The artist even dressed in Muslim clothing During this time, the Turks, under the Ottoman Empire, ruled Egypt The account of Lewiss native behavior fascinated the British
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Because these places are so far East
The Romantics were obsessed with everything exotic about Eastern culture, especially the idea of harems A picture of Lewis in Turkish Muslim clothing circulated throughout England His reputation as an authentic Muslim lent his art a legitimacy for his British audience His audience thought of his paintings as documentary rather than fictional Once he returned to England in 1851, Lewis used his experiences in his travels as inspiration for his painting for the rest of his life While in Cairo, he produced over 600 watercolors and drawings He utilized these sketches in London to construct large-scale oil paintings of his exotic life, especially intimate interiors of mosques and harems The high level of detail in these paintings convinced British audiences that they were accurate and documentary Lewiss images of the East contributed to the Western Orientalist perception of the East Western Orientalists imitated the culture and art of the East A Lady Receiving Visitors (The Reception) Lewis became a member of the Royal Vital Stats Academy in 1865 and died in 1876
Artist: John Frederick Lewis
A Lady Receiving Visitors (The Reception)
Date: 1873
Medium: Oil on panel Design This painting is a highly detailed depiction Size: 25 x 30 in (63.5 x 76.2 cm) of a complex interior space with a high ceiling In the center of the main chamber, a lady lounges on an upholstered divan102 She wears vivid and elegant clothing Undisturbed by the arrival of a visitor implied by the title, the lady stares off peacefully into space A female servant stands above her, holding a large fan The servant looks out at the viewer as if noticing the arrival of a visitor Two separate, recessed chambers lie on either side of the main chamber On the left side, servants stand, looking expectantly at the lady in the center On the right side, a woman sits with a gazelle Both look at the lady in the center as well Sunlight filters through the elaborate wooden screens and glass windows on the walls, creating beautiful shadows In the foreground lies a pool, sunken into the floor Tiles of gold, blue, and red decorate the pool The pool shows the ladys reflection This painting is highly detailed and looks almost like a photograph The brushstrokes are practically invisible The colors are bright and vivid and the one-point perspective is very convincing
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A divan is a long, cushioned seat without arms or back which is usually placed against a wall. Basically its a big pillow.
Historical context Emily Weeks103 analyzed this painting in detail The clothing, furnishings, and arrangement of the interior are all accurate to the time period In addition, Lewis displayed an accurate relationship between the lady of the house and her many servants The inclusion of a gazelle in the picture is also period-accurate Gazelles were very common pets in upper-class Egyptian homes These animals represented female beauty One inaccuracy, though, lies in the situation the painting depicts A lady would not sit in the front of the house, or mandarah, waiting to receive guests Traditionally only men could be in the mandarah Lewis, after living in Cairo for so long, certainly would have known this and must have inserted this inaccuracy purposefully Perhaps he reversed the social norm to make a statement about the treatment of women in the Ottoman Empire Indeed, the treatment of women concerned the British Empire and, in the British mindset, partially excused intervention in the region Of course, England, France, and the Ottoman Empire were all vying for control of North Africa, specifically Egypt, in the 19th century Egypt would provide an ideal trade route Without this route, Europeans would have to travel all the way around Africa to get to India th British interest in trading with India increased in the 19 century, so British interest in gaining control over Egypt similarly increased th In the late 18 century, Napoleon attacked North Africa England allied with the Ottoman Empire and drove the French out Then, in 1805, Muhammed Ali, the Ottoman leader, took control and drove out the British Needless to say, the British and the Ottoman Empire were not on good terms for awhile By the time Lewis traveled to the Ottoman Empire, however, the relationship between the two countries had improved
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Emily Weeks is an art historian, consultant, and museum curator. She lived in Egypt and even wrote a book entitled Cultures Crossed: John Frederick Lewis and the Art of Orientalist Painting.
In fact, Great Britain soon became very interested in trade with Egypt The American Civil War in the 1860s forced Great Britain to look somewhere besides the American southern states for cotton imports Egypt now not only provided an ideal strategic location but also valuable cotton supplies The French also wished to gain control over Egypt In 1869, the French built the Suez Canal This canal provided water access to important trade routes, helping France economically By the 1870s, however, Great Britain had the largest portion of shares in the canal, controlling more of the area than France Despite this European debate over Egypt, the Ottoman Empire held the upper hand until 1882 Inauguration of the Suez Canal In this year the Ottoman Empire, faced with high debts and bankruptcy of the treasury, surrendered control of Egypt to the British Empire Lewis painted and exhibited A Lady Receiving Visitors in 1873 Great Britain had not yet gained control over Egypt but the French had already built the Suez Canal At the time, though, Egypt was a region of extremely high interest to Lewiss British audience
THE SLEEP OF REASON PRODUCES MONSTERS (ASIA)

YINKA SHONIBARE, MBE, 2008
POWER PREVIEW
Yinka Shonibare is a contemporary, post-colonial artist who, in his art, addresses issues with cross-cultural identity and flaws in the British Empire. His work, The Sleep of Reason Produces Monsters, leaves the responsibility to the viewer to question the British Empire and determine its flaws.
POWER NOTES
Yinka Shonibare
Life Yinka Shonibare was born in 1962 in London to Nigerian parents His father studied law in London When Yinka turned three, his family moved back to Nigeria He spent most of his childhood in Lagos, the capital city By this time, Nigeria had already gained independence from Great Britain Nelson's Ship in a Bottle by Yinka Shonibare The family spent most of their summer breaks in London, so Shonibare experienced a very multicultural upbringing During his late teens, Shonibare attended a boarding school in England Next, he studied at Wimbledon College in London When he was 19, however, Shonibare suffered paralysis from transverse myelitis, an inflammation of the spinal cord After receiving a grim prognosis, Shonibare proceeded to recover and, eventually, walk again He still struggles to overcome partial paralysis Some of his artwork addresses this challenge Shonibare studied at Brym Shaw School of Art in London from 1984 to 1989 Once while studying there, a teacher asked Shonibare why he did not create authentic African art This confrontation caused Shonibare to question the meaning of African identity and authenticity Finally, Shonibare attended Goldsmiths College in London
He earned a Master of Fine Arts degree
Afterward he became associated with the group called Young British Artists (YBAs)
Many of these artists also graduated from Goldsmiths The YBAs exhibited their work in a 1997 show called Sensation The British art collector Charles Saatchi organized the show The exhibition, though especially controversial in the United States, brought Shonibare to the attention of Europeans and Americans Shonibares importance in the art world increased in the 1990s and early 21st century In 2004 he received a nomination for the prestigious Turner Prize, named after J.M.W. Turner Every year, the Turner Prize goes to one British artist under 50 years of age After his nomination, Shonibare received solo exhibitions in the Museum of Contemporary Art, Sydney (2008), the Brooklyn Museum (2009), and the National Museum for African Art (2009-2010) Art Though Shonibare lives and works in London today, he is both British and Nigerian His artwork seeks to address issues of cross-cultural identity and the faults of imperialism Thus his title of MBE, or Member of the Order of the British Empire, is slightly ironic The Empire awarded him the title in 2005 Shonibare is a conceptual artist, meaning he relies on sculptors, photographers, costume makers, and filmmakers to bring his ideas to life In his art, Shonibare works with Dutch wax cloth th 19 -century Dutch traders designed factory-produced, resist-dyed cloth to sell in Indonesian markets When the Dutch wax cloths did not sell in Indonesia, the traders took the cloths to Africas Gold Coast Since then, Dutch wax cloth has become a symbol of African identity The elaborate patterns on the cloth mean different things throughout Africa and even serve as a form of communication Today, Holland, England, Africa, and China all produce Dutch wax cloth European wax cloth is the most expensive and the most valuable variety Chinese wax cloth is much cheaper than any African-produced textile In Africa, some groups promote the replacement of Dutch wax cloth with locally produced textiles These groups hope to reduce dependence on foreign imports Dutch wax cloth stands in the midst of complicated trade relations and heavily affects the West African economy Shonibare chose to work with Dutch wax cloth because he feels that the cloth represents cultural hybridity He purchases his cloth from Londons Brixton Market In his early work, Shonibare spread the cloth like a canvas and painted directly on top Later he used the cloth as a sculpting material Most commonly, he reconstructed famous European paintings in three dimensions with headless dummies wearing wax cloth
For example, Shonibare based The Swing (after Fragonard) (2001) on the famous painting by French Rococo artist Jean Honor Fragonard Shonibare replaced the central figure with a headless dummy and the figures fashionable, aristocratic, 18th The Sleep of Reason Produces Monsters: century dress with Dutch wax cloth Vital Stats The artist uses headless figures to lend a timelessness to the Artist: Yinka Shonibare, MBE piece and to assert his own Date: 2008 control over the subject Medium: C-print mounted on aluminum Along with sculpture, Shonibare creates Size: image: 72 x 49.5 in photographs and film framed: 81.5 x 58 x 2.5 in All of his art borrows from the past and resets the imagery in a new context In addition to Fragonard, Shonibare has based artworks off the work of famous British artists like William Hogarth and Thomas Gainsborough
The Sleep of Reason Produces Monsters (Asia)

Origin In his piece, Shonibare quotes The Sleep of Reason Produces Monsters104 Francisco Goya (1746-1828), a Spanish painter and printmaker, created this famous print in the late 18th century The Sleep of Reason is one of a set of 80 etchings in a folio called Los Caprichos, meaning The Caprices or The Follies Goya produced this particular etching between 1796 and 1798 The etching depicts a man asleep on a desk, his head in his arms The man could either be the artist himself or a representation of the creative mind The desk on which the man rests displays the writing the sleep of reason produces monsters
Threatening owls and bats surround the man
Goya's The Sleep of Reason Produces Monsters
These creatures symbolize ignorance and superstition One owl, standing on the table, pokes the main figure with a pen as if to wake him A lynx, alert and watchful, lies behind the figures chair Art historians are not sure what exactly Goya meant by his print
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USAD says Francisco Goya produced a print entitled The Sleep of Reason Produces Nightmares. Goyas piece, however, has the exact same name as Shonibares artwork: The Sleep of Reason Produces Monsters.
They do know, however, that Goya, as an artist during the Enlightenment, used his work to criticize the path society was taking Shonibare could have chosen Goya to quote because of his own role as social critic
Design Shonibare created almost an exact replica of Goyas print, but with a few differences His work consists of large scale, full color photographs and looks three dimensional Another difference lies in Shonibares choice of clothing for his main figure Shonibare mimicked Goyas style but created his clothing out of Dutch wax cloth Also, the inscription on the desk is slightly altered In this image, the writing reads The sleep of reason produces monsters in Asia? Shonibares work is part of a set In each different image, the only things that change are the nationality and dress of the central figure and the continent in the inscription on the desk In this particular image, the central figure is bald and African The inscription on the desk is in French and references Asia The different figures throughout the set range from young to old and include many ethnicities For example, one image includes a white-haired Caucasian man Throughout the set, Shonibare references Asia, Africa, America, Australia, and Europe The varying ages, ethnicities, and continents all reference the complex and far-reaching networks as well as influences of the British Empire Shonibares work leaves the viewer with a plethora of unanswered questions Instead, the artist leaves the unresolved issues as a responsibility for the viewer to question history and find the answers
SECTION SUMMARIES AND CONCLUSION

POWER PREVIEW
Section summaries recap the major points of each section. These reviews often bring to light new comprehensive facts not listed in the actual section. Test questions refer to descriptions mentioned only in the section summaries. Like the introduction, the conclusion is not testable.
POWER NOTES
The Section Summaries cover pgs. 41- 42, 57 59, 71 73, and 89 91 of the USAD Art Resource The Conclusion covers pg. 92 of the USAD Art Resource
Section I Summary
The study of art history The academic field of art history recreates an artworks social, economic, and cultural context Recreating historical context permits an understanding of this artworks function and meaning Art history also explores an artworks formal qualities of line, shape and form, perspective, color, texture, and composition Various documents and sources allow formal and contextual analysis Art history extends to many different mediums: printmaking, painting, photography, sculpture, mixed media, performance art, crafts, folk art, and architecture Western art history Art historians often study western art chronologically, beginning with prehistoric cave paintings in southeastern France and continuing through contemporary art Early cultures significant in art history include those of Mesopotamia, Egypt, Nubia, the Aegean islands, Greece, and Rome Only durable and well-sheltered artworks survive from ancient history Christianity rose to prominence in medieval art The churchs art patronage empowered this trend, which continued through the Renaissance and Baroque eras Secular artworks, however, gained popularity in Baroque and Renaissance art The Protestant Reformation and other socioeconomic changes encouraged a secular mindset Renaissance artists contributed linear perspective and naturalism while their Baroque successors fashioned more dramatic and dynamic artworks Rococo art relied on a powerful aristocracy in France before the Revolution of 1789 Neoclassicism reacted to Rococo art and the revolutions political as well as social forces Afterwards, Romanticism rose up against the classicism of this style Romantic artworks attempt to kindle the emotions and senses The late 19th century witnessed Realism, Impressionism, Post-Impressionism, and the PreRaphaelites develop as artistic movements Realism and Impressionism both explored everyday life
Impressionism, however, tuned in to visual ideas
A group of movements known as modernism rocked early 20th-century art
Cubism
Expressionism
Dada
Surrealism
Abstract Expressionism
Key modernist styles

In 1913, New Yorks Armory Show introduced progressive art to America and elevated the
United States to prominence in the art world Post-World War II industrialization inspired Pop Art, Minimalism, and Photorealism Postmodernism, performance art, and environmental art revolutionized the definition of art Nonwestern art history Early art historians studied art from different regions separately, reducing Western art to an Eurocentric perspective Modern art historians, however, note the increasingly interconnected nature of art worldwide The major ancient Asian civilizations of China, India, and Japan produced political and religious art, resulting in artistic traditions that have survived to the present Africa and Oceanias early cultures also developed long-standing artistic traditions Primarily utilitarian African and Oceanic art differs from aesthetic Western art Islam, a foremost world religion, dictated a non-figurative style Archaeology directs studies of society and art in the early Americas
Section II Summary
Europeans in West Africa In the 15th century, the Portuguese landed on the African continent The explorers settled in the coastal area of Western Africa, beginning a centuries long conflict with other European powers over control of markets and resources in the area The Europeans traded luxury goods to the large coastal kingdoms in return for slaves and other resources This access to trade strengthened the already powerful coastal kingdoms In the 1880s, the abolishment of the slave trade inspired Europeans to rule Africa directly The colonial era began Colonialism affected African culture, especially art and government New imported materials became part of new artistic traditions European rulers wreaked havoc on existing African governments Prestige art that asserted royalty either faded out of tradition or became even more important with this challenge to native rule Contemporary African art The best markets for art are located in Europe and the United States Consequently, contemporary African artists face challenging circumstances African artists choose to respond to the current art world in a variety of ways
Some artists abandon African materials and themes in favor of European alternatives Others adopt materials and techniques as a form of critique of society Finally, some African artists create traditional, functional artwork Often, these artists adapt their work by incorporating newly available materials Sapi-Portuguese, Sierra Leone, Lidded Saltcellar (15th 16th century) An African artist produced Lidded Saltcellar for a Portuguese visitor in the 15th or 16th century Portuguese explorers often purchased ivory carvings as gifts for their patrons This piece represents the early collaboration between Europeans and Africans Lidded Saltcellar consists of carved ivory with abstract designs and figurative motifs The motifs held a different meaning for the European purchaser and the Sapi carver The Sapi artist likely based his piece off a European cast metal cup This model would have been available to the artist in sketches or prints Typically, the most favored collector items were based on European prototypes Native Africans produced saltcellars as references to African culture and traditions In European hands, they became luxury goods and containers for the much desired import salt105 Edo Peoples, Benin Kingdom Court Style, Nigeria, Plaque (mid-16th 17th century) The Benin Kingdom began in present-day Nigeria around 900 C.E. th th By the late 13 or early 14 century, the kingdom had grown to a thriving political state Expanding through warfare, the kingdom became a powerful trade partner when the Portuguese arrived in the 15th century The Benin Kingdom produced a variety of artworks for use in rituals and on altars The most valuable artworks consisted of cast metals, ivory, and coral Eventually the European presence harmed the Benin art tradition In 1897, the British attacked the Benin Kingdom, confiscating many artworks Today, activists debate if these works should be returned to their homeland Plaque reflects the Benin Kingdom artistic style with the highly stylized figures, the symmetrical layout, and the hierarchy of scale This work also indicates the Benin expertise with casting metal Historians do not know the original function of works such as Plaque, especially since the British removed these pieces from their historical context Kweku Kakanu, Fante Peoples, Ghana, Asafo Flag (1935) The Fante cultural group lives in the coastal region of Ghana Eventually, the British colonized this area Military organizations, called Asafo groups, play important roles in Fante society Since the Fante no longer wage war with their neighbors, contemporary Asafo groups organize community events Traditionally, the Asafo groups commission local artists to create flags called frankaa These detailed and symbolic works of art serve as communication between Asafo organizations

105
I had to read the book Salt by Mark Kurlansky for Robert Laynes World History class and craved salt the entire time. Then I went to my kitchen and ate a pinch of salt. No joke. Sophy
Contemporary flags function not only as communication but also as emblems of an Asafo groups history and identity Kweku Kakanu created Asafo Flag in 1935 Kakanu was born in Mankassim, Ghana, in 1910 His career peaked in the 1930s and 1940s To create Asafo Flag, Kakanu sewed symbols on a background flag using appliqu A crocodile looms next to a pond of fish surrounded by four birds The British Union Jack flies above the crocodile These symbols do not form a narrative Rather, they refer to traditional Fante proverbs Yoruba Peoples, Nigeria, Wrapper (mid-20th century) The powerful Yoruba group has lived in western Nigeria since 350 B.C.E. The kingdom lost power and influence with the beginning of British colonial rule Traditionally, Yoruba women produce a utilitarian cloth called adire This tie-dyed cloth serves as clothing for common people Adire reached its peak in popularity in the colonial period when artists began to fashion imported materials th By the mid-20 century, imported, factory-produced, multicolored cloth replaced adire Wrapper contains a very elaborate, figurative depiction of King George V and Queen Mary of England, inspired by their silver jubilee image of 1935 Guro Peoples, Cte dIvoire, Face Mask (mid 20th century) The Guro Peoples live in the coastal region of Cte dIvoire Like other groups in the area, the Guro peoples are particularly famous for their masquerade tradition Masquerades affirm social status Consequently, most Guro artwork centers on the ever-important masquerades Face Mask includes two sections carved from one piece of wood The lower section illustrates Guro ideals of beauty, while the upper section represents imported and more modern views The upper section of Face Mask consists of an imported representation of Mami Wata German lithographic copies of an East Indian snake charmer inspired the depiction El Anatsui, Ghanaian, Fading Cloth (2005) El Anatsui was born in 1944 in Ghana He currently lives and works in Nigeria, producing works that comment on issues in postcolonial Africa Recently, El Anatsui has been creating wall hangings He flattens discarded metal cans and bottle caps and weaves them together with copper wire These hangings look like colorful textiles and, depending on how they are hung, reflect light off the flattened metal Anatsuis wall hangings reference kente cloth Traditionally, Ghana men weave kente cloth for royalty
Adire
Woven by Yoruba women Tie-dyed cloth intended for the common people
Kente
Woven by Ghanaian men Illustrious cloth intended for royalty
By connecting his work to African tradition, Anatsui comments on the relationship between Europe and Africa His work contains many possible meanings At first glance, the hanging is a beautiful, radiant textile A closer look, however, reveals a commentary on the history and impact of imperialism
Section III Summary

Commodities and Trade The Age of Empire focused largely on access to and control over commodities and trade Great Britain imported tea, spices, works of art, and other luxury goods China, Plate (18th century, 1739 1743) In the 18th century, artisans in southern China produced Plate as part of a set of 50 plates and four dishes Leake Okeover (1702 1765) and his wife Mary Nichol, aristocrats in Staffordshire, England, commissioned the set The Okeover and Nichol coats of arms form the central motif of this highly decorated porcelain plate Plate combines Chinese artistry with European design The creation of hard-paste porcelain remained a mystery known only by the Chinese until the early 18th century Artisans mix a very fine white clay, called kaolin, with pulverized feldspathic rock to form the ceramic-like porcelain Even after Europeans discovered the method, hard-paste porcelain remained scarce India, A Common Indian Nightjar (Caprimulgus asiaticus) (18th century) Company School paintings are works Indian artists produced for European patrons in the 18th and 19th centuries Many of the European patrons were part of the East India Company In India, this style is called kampani kalam Company School artists had a lot of experience painting for the Mughal court They often painted in the style of Indian miniature painting Company School paintings are usually documentary They record interesting aspects of Indian life such as flowers, trees, birds, fruits, animals, people, architecture, and landscapes th th In fact, these paintings are essentially 18 and 19 century photographs
As a result, when photography emerged in India in the mid-19th century, Company School paintings became less popular Many explorers of new lands seek to document their experiences This tendency stems not only from a scientific desire for documentation but also from a colonial mindset Having images of something is a way of asserting control over that thing John Singleton Copley, Paul Revere (1768) John Singleton Copley (1738 -1815) painted portraits in North America during the colonial period Just before American independence, Copley moved to England, seeking larger career options Paul Revere embarked on his midnight ride in 1775 When he sat for his portrait in 1768, Revere was most famous for his skills as a silversmith The portrait commemorates his talent in metalsmithing and presents a political commentary Revere, who was active in church and politics, joined the Sons of Liberty in 1765 He also made his first political print in this year Unlike most of the other members of the Sons of Liberty, Revere kept his political affiliations as an American patriot open and obvious Reveres portrait contains a teapot which possibly portrays a political message Trade, especially the trade of tea between Britain and the colonies, was very controversial at the time Architecture and power The British Empire used architecture to support colonial rule throughout the colonies Most examples of this kind of architecture originate from the Victorian Era Imperial architecture can include churches, administrative or government buildings, libraries, train stations, commercial buildings, and private homes Most colonial architecture combined local traditions with Gothic and Classical elements Pointed arches and large windows were especially popular Frederick William Stevens, Mumbai, Victoria Terminus Building (Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus) (1860s 1870s) The Victoria Terminus Building served as the main railway station in Bombay Since construction, the name of the building has changed to Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus, while the name of the city has become Mumbai Both of these name changes were extremely political Frederick William Stevens began designing the Victoria Terminus Building in 1877 106 Construction began in 1878 and ended in 1888 In that same year, the station received the name Victoria Terminus Building in honor of the jubilee of Queen Victoria Stevens also constructed many other buildings in Mumbai
106
There is a frustrating inconsistency between this date and the earlier date USAD provided for the completion of the station. From what I can gather, the building opened in 1887 but was finally completed in 1888. I hope USAD issues a correction for this soon. For now, I will attempt to refrain from this fact, but otherwise will expect this later number.
His architecture integrates traditional Indian styles with Gothic influences
As a highly visible building in Bombay, the Victoria Terminus Building functioned not only
as a tourist attraction but also as a symbol of colonial rule Joseph Reed, Melbourne, Royal Exhibition Building (1880) Joseph Reed (1823? 1890) and his firm, Reed and Barnes, designed the Royal Exhibition Building To create the buildings cruciform design, Reed incorporated elements from churches and Gothic as well as Classical influences The city of Melbourne intended the building to embody European ideals of progress The building first housed the Melbourne International Exhibition of 1880 through 1881 th A series of international exhibitions began in the 19 century Each fair lasted several months and attracted much international attention In 1888, the building held the Melbourne Centennial Exhibition, celebrated one hundred years of European settlement in Australia Right after Australia became a commonwealth in 1901, the Parliament of Australia opened in the Royal Exhibition Building Arthur Blomfield, Georgetown, Guyana, St. Georges Cathedral, 1894 Guyanas capital city, Georgetown, lies on the northern coast of South America Originally, the Arawak and Carib Native American groups lived there European countries fought for control over the area until finally the British seized control of the colony and named it British Guiana in 1814 Arthur Blomfield designed the Anglican St. Georges Cathedral in 1888 This church replaced a line of previous churches in the area Construction began in 1889 and the building was consecrated on November 8, 1894 St. Georges Cathedral is one of the tallest wooden churches in the world at 143 feet high The church consists entirely of wood, which helps the building to visually fit in with the surrounding buildings Blomfield adapted European styles and ideals into a Caribbean setting The Anglican church was central to British colonial rule This relationship is evident in the experienced architect commissioned to build the church and the prominent placement of the church in the city
Section IV Summary
Europe envisions the empire During the Age of Empire, British artists often created art, imagining the people and lands under British colonial rule These artworks were often very romanticized, endorsing the idea of a noble savage Other artists created works critiquing imperialism Benjamin West, Penns Treaty with the Indians (1771 1772) Benjamin West was born in colonial Pennsylvania He moved to England, where he created history paintings Penns Treaty with the Indians is unique in that the painting depicts a relatively recent event from North American history
Nearly 100 years after William Penns legendary treaty with the Indians, Penns son, Thomas
Penn, commissioned the painting William Penn, the founder of Pennsylvania and a Quaker, received recognition for his equitable and positive relationship with the Native Americans In the painting, William Penn offers Native Americans payment in exchange for land rights This legendary meeting probably occurred in 1682 or 1683 In contrast, Thomas Penn received recognition for unkind treatment of Native Americans He likely commissioned the painting to remind the public of his own virtuous and praiseworthy heritage In this way, historic paintings like Penns Treaty defined authority and identity in the First British Empire, especially in North America William Hodges, HMS Resolution and Adventure with Fishing Craft in Matavi Bay (1776) William Hodges, a British artist, traveled with James Cook on his second expedition to the Pacific (1772 1775) Hodges worked as the draughtsman When he returned to London, Hodges created large-scale paintings from his sketches from the trip His idyllic large-scale landscape paintings appealed to a public eager to witness more exotic, yet familiar colonial lands In his paintings, Europeans, natives, and nature all coexist peacefully HMS Resolution and Adventure with Fishing Craft in Matavi Bay is an idealized, large-scale landscape painting of a protected bay along the northern coast of Tahiti James Cooks expedition reached this bay in August 1773 Hodges created sketches while at this location and later used these drawings to create the painting Hodges paintings served as accurate documentation and paintings of idealized exotic paradises for his audience Also, painting pictures of new lands is a preliminary step toward colonial ownership Joseph Mallord William Turner, Slave Ship (Slavers Throwing Overboard the Dead and the Dying, Typhoon Coming On) (1840) Contemporaries recognized J.M.W. Turner, a successful British painter, primarily for his revolutionary historical and landscape paintings Slave Ship (Slavers Throwing Overboard the Dead and the Dying, Typhoon Coming On)107 depicts a slave ship in a storm at sea A number of slaves drown in the water and are eaten by fish and sharks With vivid contrasts between the bright sun and the dark water, Slave Ship is highly emotional Turner portrays the murder of slaves in the name of profit to comment on the inhumanity of the slave trade
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I mean, just in case you cant tell whats going on in the painting
His work comments on the abolitionist book, The History of the Abolition of the Slave Trade,
(1808) by Thomas Clarkson The piece also shows Turners support of the abolitionist cause and the 1840 international anti-slavery convention James Abbott McNeill Whistler, Purple and Rose: The Lange Leizen of the Six Marks (1864) Whistler was born in Massachusetts but he became an artist in England He believed in the idea of art for arts sake According to this belief, the primary goal of art is to create beauty His paintings capture moods and emotions with subtle color contrasts Whistler, like many other Europeans, collected Chinese art, especially porcelain The blue and white porcelain included in his Purple and Rose would have been valuable collectors items As the consumption of Chinese tea increased in the first half of the 19th century, the demand for Chinese porcelains escalated as well In fact, access to tea inspired British imperialism in India, China, and other parts of eastern Asia In previous centuries, Britain and Holland fought over access to Chinese tea imports Whistler included a Dutch Lange Leizen design on his porcelain to reference this relationship In Purple and Rose: The Lange Leizen of the Six Marks, a central figure sits, surrounded by a number of Chinese objects Several of these objects are blue and white porcelain pieces such as a tea cup and large ginger jar Whistler probably painted his own porcelain objects in this piece John Frederick Lewis, A Lady Receiving Visitors (The Reception) (1873) John Frederick Lewis spent a portion of his life in the Middle East Consequently, contemporaries considered his paintings of his experience there to be reliable and documentary While living in Cairo, Lewis created hundreds of watercolors and drawings After his return to England, he used these sketches to create large-scale paintings Lewis lived in Egypt before the country became a colony of the British Empire Nevertheless, Egypt held great interest for Great Britain If the British obtained Egypt, they could transport goods directly to India without having to go around Africa British interests in India also increased in the 19th century A Lady Receiving Visitors (The Reception) is a highly detailed depiction of the interior space of a ladys home The upper-class lady sits in the main chamber of a large room, surrounded by servants With paintings like this one, artists provided British audiences with highly romanticized views of colonial lands Yinka Shonibare, MBE, The Sleep of Reason Produces Monsters (Asia) (2008) Yinka Shonibare was born in London to Nigerian parents He grew up in Nigeria but moved to England to study art He currently lives and works in London Shonibares art addresses issues of cross-culturalism and imperialism
He frequently utilizes Dutch wax cloth in his work
This cloth originated in Holland and England 108 Today, the culture both on the African continent and in the African diaspora has adopted the cloth as a symbol of identity Shonibare also often references historical Western art pieces in his work th In the late 18 century, the Spanish painter and printmaker, Francisco Goya produced the print, The Sleep of Reason Produces Monsters This print inspired Shonibares series of five photographs of the same name Shonibare created an almost exact copy of Goyas work with full-color, large-scale photographs Each photograph used a model of a different ethnicity clothed in Dutch wax cloth Small differences exist between Goyas print and Shonibares replicas As is frustratingly typical of post-modern artists, Shonibare provides the viewer with no answers Rather, he challenges the viewer to question history and seek out the flaws in imperialism
Conclusion
The end The imperialism artworks altogether provide a variety of perspectives on European and especially British colonialism Just as the British Empire transformed over decades, artworks commenting on the Empire changed In postcolonial times, many various opinions exist about the true impact and meaning behind imperialism
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The African diaspora includes every person of sub-Saharan African descent in the western hemisphere.
POWER LISTS
All numbers in parentheses refer to the page numbers of the USAD Resource Guide where you can find the original context of the defined term. Dates, selected artworks, their artists, and important cultural groups appear in the Power Tables instead of Power Lists. Subsections of Artworks, Art Styles, and People Artists follow the same order as the USAD guide rather than alphabetical order.
ARTWORKS ANCIENT AND NONWESTERN ART
Code of Hammurabi stele (10) Dome of the Rock (32) Great Wall (28) Great Ziggurat of Ur (9, 10) Hanging Gardens of Babylon (10) Heel-stone (9) Ishtar Gate (10) Palace of Persepolis (10) Palette of King Narmer (10, 11) Pueblos (32) Pyramid of the Sun (32) Stonehenge (9)
Stone slab engraved with the first legal-code in history; in a relief image towards the top, sun-god Shamash inspires the writer of the code 687 692 C.E.; early work of Islamic architecture in Jerusalem Ancient Chinese artwork; spans 2,000 miles; originally fulfilled defensive purposes but now holds aesthetic and engineering appeal Temple near Nasiriyah, Iraq; built under the first Neo-Sumerian king One of the seven wonders of the ancient world; built during the Neo-Babylonian period (c. 612 538 B.C.E.) Vertical stone to the northeast of Stonehenge; pinpoints the location of the sunrise from the center of Stonehenge on the midsummer solstice Entrance to the Neo-Babylonian ziggurat of the temple of Bel; famous in architecture for animal figures placed over the wall surfaces Primary artwork of the Persian civilization (c. 538 330 B.C.E.); consists of stone, brick, and wood; borrows from Egyptian architecture c. 3,000 B.C.E.; perhaps held cosmetics for mixing in rituals; a carving features a king towering over small enemies; shows the hierarchical scale and fractional representation popular in ancient Egypt Native Americans built these dwellings in the Southwest United States Famed Mesoamerican pyramid in Mexico; central feature of the city c. 2,000 1,000 B.C.E.; most famous megalith; stands on Salisbury Plain in Wiltshire, England; the outermost ring contains hulking posts and lintels made of sarsen stone; the middle ring consists of bluestones; the innermost ring includes five more sarsen posts and lintels arranged into a horseshoe shape; 50-ton stones, the largest at Stonehenge, form the innermost ring; dates to the New Stone Age, or Neolithic Period The Neo-Babylonian Ishtar Gate serves as the entrance to this ziggurat Treasure from the Egyptian boy kings tomb; discovered inside the last layer of his sarcophagus; composed of gold, gems, and blue glass c. 28,000 25,000 B.C.E.; 4 1/8 inches tall; her stubby arms, missing facial features, and lack of feet contrast her oversized belly, breasts, and pubic area; typifies many stone statuettes from the Old Stone Age; also known as the Woman of Willendorf See Venus of Willendorf
Temple of Bel (10) Tutankhamens burial mask (11) Venus of Willendorf (8)
Woman of Willendorf (8)
Ziggurat (10)
Stepped temple pyramids at Sumerian and Neo-Sumerian city centers; these structures also fulfilled administrative and economic functions
ARTWORKS GREECE AND ROME
Colosseum (14) Laocon Group (13) Pantheon (14) Parthenon (13, 40)
70 80 C.E.; along with the Pantheon, embodies the pinnacle of ingenious Roman engineering; exemplifies vaulted construction Freestanding sculpture; Hellenistic Greek masterpiece; along with the Venus de Milo, reflects ideals of beauty 118 125 C.E.; along with the Colosseum, embodies the pinnacle of ingenious Roman engineering Persians annihilated this Greek temple in 480 B.C.E.; Greeks restored this building during the architecturally significant Middle Classical Period (c. 448 400 B.C.E.); influential use of columns; exemplifies post and lintel construction Freestanding sculpture; Hellenistic Greek masterpiece; along with the Laocon Group, reflects ideals of beauty
Venus de Milo (13, 38)
ARTWORKS BYZANTIUM AND MEDIEVAL EUROPE

Book of Kells (14) Chartres Cathedral (15)
c. 800 C.E.; exemplifies illuminated manuscripts Began construction in 1134 C.E.; rebuilt after 1194 C.E.; exemplary Gothic cathedral; located in France; soaring arches and luminous light from stained glass windows draw attention heavenward c. 800 810 C.E.; exemplifies illuminated manuscripts 532 537 C.E.; Byzantine architectural masterpiece in Constantinople Monks produced these illustrated copies of existing books; these works propagated artistic ideas between northern and southern Europe 1070 1120 C.E.; renowned Romanesque church in Toulouse, France
Coronation Gospels (14) Hagia Sophia (14) Illuminated manuscripts (14) Saint-Sernin (15)
ARTWORKS THE RENAISSANCE

The Birth of Venus (16) The Bound Slave (17) David (by Donatello; 16) David (by Michelangelo; 17)
c. 1482; by Renaissance artist Botticelli; lasting image of female beauty 1513 1516; sculpture by Michelangelo for Pope Julius IIs tomb 1430 1432; bronze statue by Donatello; borrows from classical sculpture; first known freestanding nude since the classical period 1504; marble sculpture; Michelangelo overcame an unexpected crack in the marble to sculpt a statue that embodied Florence and guaranteed his fame as a sculptor See The Bound Slave
The Dying Slave (17)
Florence Cathedral (16, 69)
This buildings colossal dome posed an architectural impossibility for years until Filippo Brunelleschi (1377 1446) introduced a double-shelled dome; dome inspired the large dome mounted on an octagonal drum of the Royal Exhibition Building c. 1498; engraving by northern Renaissance painter Albrecht Drer Michelangelos name for Lorenzo Ghibertis second set of doors for the Florence baptistery; Ghiberti spent over 25 years on this work c. 1510 1515; northern Renaissance painter Matthias Grnewalds masterpiece; includes nine panels and two sets of folding wings c. 1495 1498; by Leonardo da Vinci; well known in popular culture c. 1503 1505; by Leonardo da Vinci; well known in popular culture; demonstrates the artists sfumato painting technique c. 1513 1515; sculpture by Michelangelo for Pope Julius IIs tomb Example of a freestanding sculpture by Michelangelo One of the upscale frescoes Raphael and his assistants painted in Pope Julius IIs official chambers; honors Greek philosophers and scientists 1508 1512; due to the cancellation of an earlier work, Michelangelo was reluctant to accept this commission from Pope Julius II; a controversial restoration effort recently improved this masterpiece c. 1513 1514; influential painting of the Virgin Mary by Raphael c. 1508; seminal landscape painting by Venetian Renaissance painter Giorgione (c. 1477 1510); a storm, not humans, serves as the subject Engraving by Albrecht Drer; exemplifies the shading techniques of hatching and crosshatching
The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse (19) Gates of Paradise (16) Isenheim Altarpiece (19) The Last Supper (17) Mona Lisa (17) Moses (17) Pieta (38) School of Athens (17) Sistine Chapel ceiling (17)
Sistine Madonna (17) The Tempest (17) Veronica (36)
ARTWORKS THE BAROQUE
Cornaro Chapel (20) Ecstasy of Saint Teresa (20)
Baroque artist Gianlorenzo Bernini built his primary masterpiece, Ecstasy of Saint Teresa (1647 1652) into an altar at this chapel 1647 1652; sculpture by Gianlorenzo Bernini; part of an altar underneath a stained glass window that casts golden light on Saint Teresa; departs from smooth and flowing classical drapery, especially in marble carved to resemble clouds 1642; Rembrandt van Rijns most famous work; actually titled Sortie of Captain Banning Cocqs Company of the Civic Guard; Rembrandt collected payments from each person visible in this group portrait; deviates from the group portrait tradition because some guards are more visible than others, a decision that damaged Rembrandts career
The Night Watch (21)
Palace of Versailles (21)
Began construction in 1669; Sun King Louis XIV commissioned this extravagant palace, which represents his majesty's wealth and might; spans 200 acres; contains stately chteaux, gardens, a stable, an orangerie (greenhouse for orange trees), a zoo, a network of fountains and waterfalls, and a colossal canal for holding mock sea battles See The Night Watch
Sortie of Captain Banning Cocqs Company of the Civic Guard (20)
ARTWORKS 18TH AND 19TH CENTURY ART
Impression Sunrise (23) Le Dejuner sur Lherbe (23) Luncheon on the Grass (23) Night Caf (24) Oath of the Horatii (21) The Stonebreakers (22)
1873; by Claude Monet; critics of this work adapted impression as a derogatory term and Impressionists embraced the label See Luncheon on the Grass 1863; early Impressionist piece by douard Manet; reviled for depicting a nude woman in a casual setting 1888; Post-Impressionist painting by Vincent van Gogh; contrasts yellow, green, and red to represent sinful human emotions 1784; by Jacques-Louis David, typifies Neoclassicisms response to the aristocrat-centric Rococo style through paintings of republican virtues 1849 1850; early Realist painting by Gustave Courbet; depicts common road workers; politically significant in light of recent uprisings across Europe; infuriated Salon audiences accustomed to traditional historical and religious paintings
ARTWORKS 20TH CENTURY ART
AT&T Building (28) Bed (27) Bulls Head (26)
1984; architect Philip Johnson added a Postmodernist ornamental finial to the top of this office building; later the Sony Building 1955; by Robert Rauschenberg; features the artists painted bedclothes 1943; this piece by Pablo Picasso pairs a bicycle seat and bull horns; exemplifies Duchamps idea of creating ready-made artworks out of common items placed in a new context 1851; epitome of Industrial Revolution advances in building materials; glass forms the majority of this structures exterior; a network of thin iron beams supports this buildings glass walls; housed the Worlds Fair in London in 1851 Monument in Paris composed of a wrought iron framework 1919; Dadaist work by Marcel Duchamp; actually a porcelain urinal Abstract and blocky painting by Brancusi (1876 1956); exhibited at the Armory Show 1907; by Pablo Picasso; exhibited at the Armory Show
Crystal Palace (41)
Eiffel Tower (41) Fountain (26) The Kiss (25) Les Demoiselles d Avignon (25)
LHOOQ (26) Monogram (27) Nude Descending a Staircase (25) Sony Building (28)
1919; a mustachioed Mona Lisa by Dada artist Marcel Duchamp; 1959; one of Robert Rauschenbergs combines, includes a stuffed goat, tire, police barrier, shoe heel, tennis ball, and paint 1912; by Marcel Duchamp; exhibited at the Armory Show See AT&T Building
ARTWORKS AGE OF IMPERIALISM PAINTINGS, SCULPTURES, AND TEXTILES
Adire (53)
Tie-dyed, traditional cloth of the Yoruba peoples; traditionally died by Yoruba women; used by the common people; dyed using the resistdying technique and indigo dye Painting by James Abbott McNeill Whistler; exhibited in Muse dOrsay, Paris, 1871; no narrative Yoruba indications of royalty, constructed from brightly colored beads imported from Europe, focus attention on the head, or the center of the wearers spirit; these items draw connections between the wearer and the Yoruba gods, or orishas Portrait of John Singleton Copleys half-brother; exhibited in the Museum of Fine Arts in London in 1765; exhibited in London in 1766, where it came to the attention of Benjamin West Allegorical landscape by William Hodges; exhibited on Bond Street in 1794 and 1795; criticized by the Duke of York due to possible criticism toward the British war with France Large historical painting by Benjamin West; completed in 1770; exhibited at the Royal Academy in 1771; illustrates General Wolfes death in the 1759 Battle of Quebec; revolutionary because West depicted recent history and clothed the figures in contemporary clothing rather than traditional classical drapery Landscape painting by Joseph Mallord William Turner; shows Roman history in a scenic landscape; displayed in the National Gallery of London in 1815 See The Consequences of Peace Elaborate and symbolic flags; created by commission; very important to the Asafo organizations Ceramic material made from mixing kaolin and crushed feldspathic rock; after mixing, fired at up to 1,400 degrees Celsius; technique for creation developed in China and monopolized for centuries; Plate is an example of hard paste porcelain
Arrangement in Grey and Black: The Artists Mother (83) Beaded crowns (52)
Boy With a Squirrel (63)
The Consequences of Peace (79)
The Death of General Wolfe (75)
Dido Building Carthage (81)
The Effects of War (79) Frankaa (51) Hard paste porcelain (61)
Kente (57)
Woven cloth worn by royalty; made by men from the Ewe and Asante cultural groups of Ghana; traditionally woven from imported silk threads; brightly colored and patterned Plural form of nkisi Empowered sculptures, created by Kongo groups in West Congo Basin, destroyed by Christian missionaries of colonizing Belgium Painting by James Abbott McNeill Whistler; exhibited in the Detroit Institute of Arts in 1874; no narrative; caused John Ruskins accusation to Whistler of flinging a pot of paint in the publics face Cement, multi-story shrines; generally contain items such as drums or flags; very important to the Asafo organizations Famous print by Spanish painter and printmaker Francisco Goya; inspired Yinka Shonibares work of the same name; produced between 1796 and 1798; one of 80 etchings in a folio entitled Los Caprichos; multiple possible meanings Landscape painting by Joseph Mallord William Turner; depicts a storm in 218 B.C.E. which kept the ancient Roman leader Hannibal and his troops in the mountains; dark clouds almost block out the sun; exhibited in the Turner Collection in London in 1812; exemplifies sublime landscape painting European imitation of hard paste porcelain, fired at lower temperatures Post-colonial work by Yinka Shonibare; completed in 2001; based off The Swing by French Rococo artist, Jean Honor Fragonard; replaces main figure with a headless mannequin dressed in Dutch wax cloth Painting by James Abbott McNeill Whistler; model named Joanna Hiffernan; exhibited in National Gallery of Art, Washington D.C., 1862; no narrative Painting by James Abbott McNeill Whistler; model named Joanna Hiffernan; exhibited in Tate Gallery, London, 1864 to 1865; no narrative Traditional motifs from the Igbo culture; favored by Uche Okeke, a founding member of the Nsukka group; imitated by the Nsukka group with acrylic, oil paints, gouache, and pen and ink
Minkisi (46) Nkisi (46) Nocturne in Black and Gold: The Falling Rocket (83) Posuban (51) The Sleep of Reason Produces Monsters (88)
Snowstorm- Hannibal Crossing the Alps (81)
Soft paste porcelain (61) The Swing (after Fragonard) (88) Symphony in White No.1: The White Girl (83) Symphony in White No.2: The Little White Girl (83) Uli (56)
ARTWORKS ARCHITECTURE
Bank of New South Wales (69) Carleton Gardens (69) College of Music in London (70)
Designed by Joseph Reed shortly after 1854; located in Melbourne, Australia Area around Royal Exhibition Building; designed by Joseph Reed; contains local and exotic plants and trees Designed by Arthur Blomfield; completed in 1882; his most recognized work
Geelong Town Hall (69) Municipal Corporation Building (67) St. Andrews Church (70) State Library of Victoria (69) St. Pancras Railway Station (67) Wesley Church (69)
Designed by Joseph Reed shortly after 1854; located in Melbourne, Australia Large building in India designed by Frederick William Stevens; completed in 1893, after Stevens retired Church in the Gothic revival style; designed by Frederick William Stevens, completed in 1872, located in Surbiton, England Joseph Reed won a competition to design this building in 1854; located in Melbourne, Australia London railway station completed a decade before Frederick William Stevens began to design Victoria Terminus; along with Italian and English churches, inspired Victoria Terminus Designed by Joseph Reed shortly after 1854; located in Melbourne, Australia
ART STYLES GREEK, ROME, AND EGYPT
Athenian (12) Classical (12, 13, 14, 66)
Vase painting style similar to the black silhouette vase painting style; more sizable and linear relative to the black figure style Ancient Greek and Roman styles and ideals; examples include columns, contrapposto, vaults, etc.; influenced British colonial architecture in the 19th century This column order combines the Ionic and Corinthian orders This ornate column order gained popularity in Greeces Late Classical Period (c. 400 323 B.C.E.); also the name of a Greek vase painting style in which floral decorations fill the background Along with Ionic, this column order dominated temples in Greeces Archaic Period (c. 660 475 B.C.E.); lacks a base Ancient Egyptian method of depicting human figures: the head and lower body appear in profile while the torso faces the viewer Along with Doric, this column order dominated temples in Greeces Archaic Period (c. 660 475 B.C.E.); uses a scroll-shaped capital This column order lacks fluting, or lines running up the column shaft
Composite (12) Corinthian (12, 13)
Doric (12) Fractional representation (11) Ionic (12) Tuscan (12)
ART STYLES EARLY STYLES AND INNOVATIONS
Baroque (13, 17, 19)
Describes art from the late 16th through mid-18th centuries; Greek sculpture impacted works from the Renaissance, Neoclassicism, and this period; the Venetian Mannerist artist Tintoretto (1518 1594) preceded this style in his sharp perspectives and lighting contrasts; while feuding cities affected the Renaissance, warring empires affected this period; a ludicrously wealthy ruling class funded art during this era; departed from the Renaissances static classicism; favored energy, theatricality, ornamentation, and splendorous colors; this style popularized chiaroscuro, or dramatic contrasts of light and dark; perhaps peaked in France under King Louis XIV; affected the emotions of Romanticism Baroque technique contrasting light and dark; Baroque painters usually cast a theatrical spotlight on the subject through this approach Rococo painter Jean-Antoine Watteau (1684 1721) invented this genre, in which fashionably dressed nobles frolic in the countryside Architectural style common between the early 12th and 16th centuries; seen in some secular buildings; most apparent in church architecture; adapted advances such as the pointed arch, ribbed vault, and flying buttress to maximize church height and window size; incorporated into British colonial architecture in the 19th century Byproduct of Viking invasions; combined Viking styles and the art of Anglo-Saxon England as well as Celtic Ireland Highly detailed, very small paintings of architecture and scenery; popular in the Mughal Court; influenced the scale of A Common Indian Nightjar Transitional style between the Renaissance and Baroque; common traits include warped elements of art, toxic colors, and twisted poses; thrived in the late 16th century This Byzantine art form places ceramic tiles, shards of stone, or glass on a wall or other surface to fabricate images Originated before the French Revolution of 1789 and opposed the aristocratic Rococo style through paintings of republican virtues; standardized clear outlines, stoic characters, geometric figures, and rationality This 18th-century style embellishes romance, revelry, and court life through carefree decorations; uses gold and pastel colors; aristocratic patrons of this style favored witty and elegant subjects Early architectural style of the late medieval period (c. 900 1500); involved churches built around a Roman arch; preferable to earlier wooden churches due to fire-resistant stone vaults
Chiaroscuro (19) Fte galante (21) Gothic (15, 66)
Hiberno-Saxon (15) Indian miniature painting (63)
Mannerism (17)
Mosaic work (14) Neoclassicism (21)
Rococo (21)
Romanesque (15)
Romanticism (22)
Unlike Neoclassicism, this styles building blocks include emotions and the imagination; paintings from this style appear fantastical and feature historical subjects, wonders of nature, ferocious animals, or foreign locations Derives from the Italian word for smoke, fumo; Leonardo da Vinci applied this groundbreaking technique in the Mona Lisa (c. 1503 1505); in this approach, artists paint with subtle colors and soft outlines; causes forms to blend together
Sfumato (17)
ART STYLES 19TH CENTURY STYLES AND INNOVATIONS
Art Nouveau (24)
Pre-Raphaelites nature-inspired works gave rise to this architectural and decorative style in Europe and the United States in the late 19th and early 20th centuries; this style favored flowing lines mimicking leaves and flowers Style of art produced by Indian artists for British patrons in the 18th and early 19th centuries; served as documentation of India and a blend of British and Indian styles; A Common Indian Nightjar is an example This style freely lambasted society, especially values and norms; dissident intellectuals from Zurich hatched this movement; this style proliferated through the widespread cynicism after World War I Baroque painter Diego Velzquezs (1599 1660) color-based approach affected this style; this movements artists banded together to protest strict rules regarding subject matter at annual Salon exhibitions; drew inspiration from douard Manets (1832 1883) color contrasts that mimicked light; critics named this style after a 1873 painting by Claude Monet (1840 1926); this group of artists reproduced evanescent light through swift brushstrokes; this style temporarily influenced late 19th-century Japanese artists; this style was also influenced by Japanese woodblock prints in the 1870s Indian term for Company School painting Post-Impressionist Georges Seurat (1859 1891) applied this technique in which specks of complementary colors produce vivid hues Includes various offshoots of Impressionism; most of the artists from this style sought intense colors Originated from a circle of anti-Industrial Revolution artists in England; exalted simple styles from before the Renaissance; produced moral and seemingly religious paintings; built on characteristics of Romanticism and archaic art; favored nature and broad curves, both of which inspired Art Nouveau Reacted against Neoclassicism and Romanticism; pursued a belief that ordinary subjects and negative aspects of traditional subjects held a place in painting
Company School painting (62)
Dada (25)
Impressionism (21, 23, 29, 83)
Kampani kalam Optical mixing (24) Post-Impressionism (24) Pre-Raphaelite (24)
Realism (22)
ART STYLES 20TH CENTURY STYLES AND INNOVATIONS
Abstract Expressionism (26)
Developed in the 1940s; Vassily Kandinskys abstract art inspired this group; favored emotional colors and brushstrokes; this style generally produced either action-paintings or color field paintings Subcategory of Abstract Expressionist art; featured wild brushstrokes or Jackson Pollocks paint-dripping approach This two- or three-dimensional artwork may combine an endless variety of found objects; an example includes Joseph Cornells boxes of items that form symbolic or metaphoric meanings Mixed media medium; invented by Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque in c. 1912; artists collect items such as photographs, papers, and tickets and apply them to a surface Subcategory of Abstract Expressionist art; featured simple and geometric areas of color Robert Rauschenberg (1925 2008) fashioned sculptures out of discarded objects and coined this name for his new medium Paul Czannes geometric compositions influenced this 20th-century modernist movement; Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque invented this style in Paris in c. 1908; this approach meshes together multiple perspectives to emulate the human experience Dutch artist Piet Mondrian (1872 1944) cultivated this painting genre, which juxtaposes flat areas of primary color Also known as environmental art; first appeared in the 1960s and gained popularity in the 1970s; typically involves impermanent sculptures placed outdoors; redefines a particular space See Earthworks Modernist movement; Norwegian artist Edvard Munchs (1863 1944) potent emotions and Fauvisms bold arbitrary colors inspired this style; artists include the German groups of Die Brcke and Der Blaue Reiter Literally, wild beasts; critics applied this label to a group of early 20th-century artists who pioneered arbitrary color; Henri Matisse (1869 1954) spearheaded this movement Minimalist artists, especially Frank Stella (1877 1946) painted in this genre featuring sharp outlines; acrylic paint and the airbrush allowed these clear lines Before creating Postmodernist designs, architect Philip Johnson earned fame for his work in this modern style Emphasizes the rudimentary aspects of art; monochromatic colors, simple forms, and clear lines dominate compositions in this style
Action-paintings (26) Assemblage (39)
Collage (39)
Color field paintings (26) Combines (26, 27) Cubism (24, 25)
De Stijl (25) Earthworks (27, 39)
Environmental art (39) Expressionism (25)
Fauves (25)
Hard-edge painting (27)
International Style (27) Minimalism (27)
Modernism (42) Performance art (27, 39) Photorealism (27) Pop Art (27)
Group of art movements including Abstract Expressionism, Cubism, Dada, Expressionism, and Surrealism Impermanent medium akin to environmental art; combines theater and art; the artist functions as the artwork and interacts with viewers This painting style mimics photography in its advanced realism; the subject appears in sharp focus; contrasts with sfumato painting Arose in the 1960s; features the unconventional subject of consumer culture; Andy Warhols soup cans and pictures of movie stars exemplify this style Response to modernism; revives traditional art or extends modernist techniques; Philip Johnsons ornamental finial-capped AT&T Building (1984) offers an example of Postmodernist architecture Marcel Duchamp introduced this medium; the artist places a common item in a new context; Picassos Bull Head offers an example Sigmund Freuds theories inspired these artists to render the machinations of the human mind
Postmodernism (27)
Ready-made (26) Surrealist (26)
AWARDS AND DEGREES
Master of Fine Arts (87) Royal Gold Medal (70) Turner Prize (87)
Yinka Shonibare earned this degree when he graduated from Goldsmiths College Arthur Blomfield received this award from the Royal Institute of British Architects in 1891 Yinka Shonibare was nominated for this prize in 2004; this prize was named after Joseph Mallord William Turner; in order to be eligible, an artist must be British and under 50 years of age
BOOKS, TEXTS, AND POEMS
Treatise written by Thomas Clarkson in 1786; expanded to form The An essay on the slavery and History of the Abolition of the Slave Trade commerce of the human species, particularly the African, translated from a Latin dissertation The History of the Abolition of the Slave Trade (82) Written in 1808 by Thomas Clarkson; expanded version of Clarksons treatise, An essay on the slavery and commerce of the human species, particularly the African, translated from a Latin dissertation; provided an account of the Zong Affair; inspired Joseph Mallord William Turners Slave Ship 1913; publication by Phillip Baldensperger that included a picture of the Dome of the Rock
The Immovable East: Studies of the People and Customs of Palestine (31)
The Lives of the Artists (7)
Collection of Italian artist biographies by Giorgio Vasari (1511 1574); this book proves the advancement of artists in Renaissance society and a new concept of artistic genius In ancient Rome, Pliny the Elder (23 79 C.E.) wrote analyses of art in this text Written by William Makepeace Thackery in 1846; documented John Frederick Lewis life in Cairo and described him as living the lifestyle of an Ottoman pasha or governor Baroque artist Artemisia Gentileschi painted women from this part of the Bible Holy book of Islam; contains Muhammads revelations; notable Islamic artworks include copies of this book or containers for the book
Natural History (7) Notes of a Journey from Cornhill to Grand Cairo (85) Old Testament (20) Quran (31)
COLORS
Black (8, 12, 31, 34, 51, 54, 60, 62)
Neutral color; not a hue; along with red, prominent color in the Chauvet Cave paintings; color of figures in the Athenian vase painting style; color of the background in the red-figure vase painting style; along with red and white, color of the abstract patterns on the shields of the Asmat of Melanesia; black, yellow, and red triangles border the background of Asafo Flag which contains a black crocodile; accentuates hair, eyes, and scarification in Face Mask; along with red and gold, draws attention to the central motif of Plate; main color along with brown and gray in A Common Indian Nightjar Primary hue; cool color; color of the glass on King Tutankhamens burial mask; color of the four birds in Asafo Flag, adire after dying with indigo, and the water the coat of arms rises from in Plate; color along with green, yellow and brown on the superstructure of Face Mask; accenting color along with gold, red, and silver on Fading Cloth; present with white on the porcelain in Purple and Rose; accenting color with gold and red in the pool tiling of A Lady Receiving Visitors An equal mixture of two complementary colors makes this color; along with green, blue, and yellow, present in the superstructure of Face Mask; dominant color in A Common Indian Nightjar along with gray and black; color of William Penns clothing in Penns Treaty with the Indians; makes up, along with beige, the background of Purple and Rose Neutral color; not a hue; dominant color in A Common Indian Nightjar along with brown and black Secondary hue; cool color; clashes with intense yellows and reds in Vincent van Goghs Night Caf (1888) to represent human emotions associated with the poolroom; color of the four fish that swim around a central gold fish in Asafo Flag; color along with blue, yellow, and brown on the superstructure of Face Mask
Blue (11, 34, 51, 53, 54, 56, 60, 83, 85)
Brown (34, 54, 62, 77, 84)
Gray (34, 62) Green (24, 34, 51, 54)
Orange (27, 34) Pink (27) Red (8, 24, 31, 34, 51, 54, 67, 85)
Secondary hue; warm color; color of the fabric in gates Christo and Jeanne-Claude placed around Central Parks pathways Color of the wrapping Christo and Jeanne-Claude placed around 11 islands in Florida Primary hue; warm color; along with black, prominent color in the Chauvet Cave paintings; clashes with intense yellows and greens in Vincent van Goghs Night Caf (1888) to represent human emotions associated with the poolroom; along with black and white, color of the abstract patterns on the shields of the Asmat of Melanesia; color of the background of Asafo Flag, the main face in Face Mask, and Mami Watas dress and toenails in Face Mask; type of sandstone used to construct the Victoria Terminus Building; along with gold and blue, accenting colors of the pool tiles in A Lady Receiving Visitors Secondary hue; cool color Neutral color; not a hue; along with red and black, color of the abstract patterns on the shields of the Asmat of Melanesia; seldom appears in watercolor paint palettes; color, along with yellow and black, of the triangles bordering Asafo Flag; color of the teeth and outline of the hair in Face Mask; color of kaolin, Paul Reveres shirt, the St. Georges Cathedral, Penns neck cloth, and the tent on Point Venus in HMS Resolution and Adventure; color along with blue of the porcelain in Purple and Rose; color of the hair of the Caucasian man in a painting in Yinka Shonibares set of five of The Sleep of Reason Produces Monsters Primary hue; warm color; plays a small role in Chauvet Caves ochre paintings; clashes with intense greens and reds in Vincent van Goghs Night Caf (1888) to represent human emotions associated with the poolroom; color along with black and white of the triangles bordering Asafo Flag; color along with blue, brown, and green on the superstructure of Face Mask
Violet (34) White (31, 34, 38, 51, 54, 61, 65, 70, 77, 80, 83, 88)
Yellow (8, 24, 34, 51, 54)
DISEASE
Transverse myelitis (86)
Inflammation of the spinal cord; caused paralysis in Yinka Shonibare when he was 19; still causes Shonibare to struggle to overcome some paralysis
EVENTS CONFLICTS
Battle of Quebec (75)
Conflict in North America in 1759; caused the death of General James Wolfe and subsequently inspired Benjamin Wests painting, The Death of General Wolfe
Benin Punitive Expedition (49) British attack on Benin City in February, 1897; Rear-Admiral Harry Rawson headed the attack, looting the palace, setting homes on fire, confiscating artworks, and eventually sending the Oba into exile
Civil War (86)
Conflict in America in the 1860s; forced Great Britain to look for an alternative to the American south as a source of cotton; increased British interest in Egypt See Revolution of 1789 Cheap, mass-produced prints circulated social protests during this war that erupted in 1910 Athenss defeat in this conflict caused architecture to stagnate in Greeks Late Classical Period (c. 400 323 B.C.E.) Neoclassicism grew in the decades before this conflict; after this uprising, Jacques Louis David served as master of rally ceremonies under Frances new government An intense conflict between the European nations over the control of Africa; began in the 1880s and lasted until the start of the 1900s; organized and formalized by the Berlin Conference of 1884 and 1885; led to the rule of Africa by various European powers Along with the Armory Show, this event spurred New Yorks replacement of Paris as the center of the art world; Dada originated in Zurich during this period; disillusionment resulting from this event propagated modernist art, including Dada and Cubism; between this event and World War II, the Bauhaus school standardized architecture The omnipresence of this war halted organized art movements; acrylic paint originated after this event; between World War I and this event, the Bauhaus school standardized architecture England constructed the glass Crystal Palace (1851) in London to house this event; the Royal Exhibition Building was initially constructed to house this event, also called the Melbourne International Exhibition of 1880 to 1881
French Revolution (21) Mexican Revolution (37) Peloponnesian War (13) Revolution of 1789 (21)
Scramble for Africa (45)
World War I (25, 26)
World War II (26, 38)
Worlds Fair (41, 68)
EVENTS ANCIENT TIME PERIODS
Archaic Period (12)
c. 660 475 B.C.E.; Egyptian and Mesopotamian stone sculptures inspired the Greeks of this period to craft freestanding works out of marble and limestone; while these Greeks borrowed Egypts frontal poses, they leaned towards additional dynamism and realism; vase painting and Doric as well as Ionic temples also originated during this period c. 475 323 B.C.E.; Athens executed the most famous ancient Greek artworks during this era The Narmer Palette dates to this period of Old Kingdom Egypt
Classical Period (12) Dynasties III VI (10)
Early Classical Period (12, 13)
c. 475 448 B.C.E.; this periods temple builders preferred thin Doric columns; sculptors generally carved strong, solemn, and simple forms depicting figures poised before or after a significant action; Greek sculpture evolved into a more complex and natural style during this period; the contrapposto pose originated in this era c. 331 23 B.C.E.; this periods art integrated styles from both Greece and Asia Minor; the Venus de Milo and Laocon Group, two freestanding sculptures from this era, portray ideals of beauty c. 400 323 B.C.E.; Athens failure in the Peloponnesian War caused architecture to stagnate in this period; ornate Corinthian columns gained popularity See Middle Stone Age c. 448 400 B.C.E.; Greek temple architecture progressed rapidly during this time; the restoration of the Parthenon temple (447 B.C.E.) in this period produced one of the most influential artworks in history Also known as the Mesolithic Period; due to a warmer climate, rock shelters replaced caves as human dwellings during this period; extensive scholarly debate surrounds the age of paintings on rock shelters in eastern Spain; a common estimate places these paintings in the period between c. 7,000 B.C.E. and c. 4,000 B.C.E.; unlike Paleolithic cave drawings, these paintings contain humans; Mesolithic artists habitually drew humans defeating animals See New Stone Age Also known as the Neolithic Period; formations of megalith stones characterize this era; megaliths arose in Western Europe as early as 4,000 B.C.E.; historians have named the megalithic culture after the rock formations they built; Stonehenge (c. 2,000 1,000 B.C.E.) remains the best known megalith The Narmer Palette dates to Dynasties III VI of this Egyptian period Also known as the Upper Paleolithic Period; time period of the Chauvet Cave paintings, (c. 30,000 B.C.E.) cave drawings in France and Spain, including those at Lascaux and Altamira, (c. 13,000 11,000 B.C.E.) and stone figurines like the Venus of Willendorf (c. 28,000 25,000 B.C.E.); the cave paintings from this period may have served in rituals such as hunting ceremonies; a lone figure in the Lascaux cave is the only human form to appear in Paleolithic art First period of Ancient Egyptian civilization; began in c. 3500 B.C.E. See Old Stone Age
Hellenistic Period (13)
Late Classical Period (13)
Mesolithic Period (8) Middle Classical Period (13)
Middle Stone Age (8, 9)
Neolithic Period (9) New Stone Age (9)
Old Kingdom (10) Old Stone Age (8)
Predynastic period (10) Upper Paleolithic Period (8)
EVENTS EUROPEAN HISTORY
Anti-Slavery Convention (82)
International abolitionist convention held in London in 1840; attended by over 500 delegates; addressed by Thomas Clarkson; sought worldwide abolition of slavery A meeting of major European powers in 1884 and 1885; sought to parcel out European control of Africa Act passed by the British Parliament in 1807 abolishing the slave trade; also gave the British Parliament the responsibility of enforcing the ban militarily; despite the abolition, the slave trade continued through much of the 19th century The Catholic Churchs response to the Protestants split from the church; launched further church decoration campaigns and called for dramatic as well as emotional art The expansion of Christianity through military means; inspired by the entrance of Islam into the Mediterranean c. 375 1025; art from this time period includes nomadic Germanic metalwork and Viking woodwork; Viking invasions produced the Hiberno-Saxon style This 18th-century philosophical movement shaped modern art history and stimulated protests against the excessively dominant Baroque monarchy Generation of artists including Leonardo da Vinci (1452 1519), Michelangelo (1475 1564), and Raphael Sanzio (1483 1520) This breakthrough in technology introduced a myriad of new building materials and techniques; disillusionment resulting from this event united Pre-Raphaelite artists in England and inspired their themes from nature c. 900 1500; this era highlighted church architecture, as seen in the innovations of the Romanesque and Gothic styles; every settlement, including villages, erected a church at the town center; the construction of several colossal churches took over a century War preoccupied much of Europes population in this period; only nobles and the clergy received formal education; the Church preserved most of this eras artworks; monks in monasteries copied and illuminated valuable books See Medieval period Source of the Protestant religion; in this 16th-century movement, Protestants objected to the churchs corruption and decadence
Berlin Conference (45) British Slave Trade Act (45, 82)
Counter Reformation (18)
Crusades (43) Early medieval period (14)
Enlightenment (7, 19)
High Renaissance (16, 17) Industrial Revolution (24, 41)
Late medieval period (15)
Medieval period (14)
Middle Ages (14) Reformation (17)
Renaissance (15, 16, 17, 18, 28)
Revival of Greek and Roman artistic concepts; the invention of paper money allowed patrons to consolidate their wealth and spurred this artistic movement; a wealth of Greek and Roman art in Italy influenced the art of this time period; the Greek tradition of classifying artists in the artisan class ended as this movement embellished artistic genius and awarded artists advanced roles in society; the Protestant Reformation argued against the excessive church decoration of this era; this movements ideas reached northern Europe in the 16th century through traveling artists, trade, and engravings of Italian artworks This act, passed in 1833, abolished slavery throughout the British Empire; despite this act, slavery continued in different forms and in locations outside of the British Empire Infamous event of 1781 detailed in Thomas Clarksons book, The History of the Abolition of the Slave Trade; Captain Luke Collingwood threw over 100 slaves overboard in order to collect an insurance payment; the ship arrived safely in Jamaica and Collingwood died before 1783; this event inspired Joseph Mallord William Turners Slave Ship
Slavery Abolition Act (82)
Zong Affair (82)
EVENTS MISCELLANEOUS
Chinas Golden Age (28) Christs crucifixion (19) Melbourne Centennial Exhibition (68) Melbourne International Exhibition (68) Sacrifice of Isaac (16) Tang Dynasty (28)
Occurred during the Tang Dynasty (618 907 C.E.); produced extraordinary ceramic sculptures and contemplative ink drawings Northern Renaissance artist Matthias Grnewald earned the most fame for illustrations of this religious scene 1888 event held in the Royal Exhibition Building of Melbourne, Australia; commemorated 100 years of European settlement in Australia Original purpose for the Royal Exhibition Building; event held there between 1880 and 1881 Lorenzo Ghiberti (c. 1378 1455) illustrated this scene in his winning design for the competition to design the doors of Florences baptistery See Chinas Golden Age
EVENTS U.S. HISTORY
Armory Show (25)
February 17 March 15, 1913; first modern art exhibition in the United States; crucial in New York replacing Paris as the center of the art world; exhibited Les Demoiselles d Avignon (1907), Nude Descending a Staircase (1912), The Kiss, and abstract paintings by Vassily Kandinsky Battles in the American Revolution that occurred right after Paul Reveres midnight ride in April 1775
Battles of Lexington and Concord (64)
Boston Tea Party (65) French and Indian War (78)
American response to a tax on tea in 1773; supported by the Sons of Liberty Conflict between 1756 and 1763; Native Americans sided with the French and led raids on settlements in Pennsylvania, citing the Walking Purchase as inspiration African American surge of creativity; jazz culture propagated this movement of the 1920s; lasted one decade; inspired artists such as Jacob Lawrence and Romare Bearden April 1775; Paul Revere and others rode from Boston to Concord to warn of the impending approach of the British; occurred just prior to the battles of Lexington and Concord Passed by the British Parliament in March 1765; put into action in November 1765; direct tax on the American colonists with a focus on taxing printed items; small actual tax amount, but fuel for the idea of no taxation without representation; repealed in 1766 Infamous 1737 event; Thomas Penn and his secretary, James Logan, hired three very fast runners to walk out the boundaries of the land they claimed from the Lenape; cited as inspiration for Native American rebellion against the British settlers in the French and Indian War; used as evidence against proprietorships by Benjamin Franklin
Harlem Renaissance (25)
Midnight ride (64)
Stamp Act of 1765 (65)
Walking Purchase (78)
INSTITUTIONS ART MUSEUMS, GALLERIES, AND EXHIBITIONS
Africa Remix (56) Barnes Foundation (25) British Museum (49)
International exhibition between 2004 and 2007; traveled to major cities such as Tokyo and London; included Anatsuis work Organized the Armory Show from February 17 through March 15, 1913 This museum, along with the Ethnological Museum in Berlin, holds the largest collection of Benin artworks as a result of the Benin Punitive Expedition; located in London Site of Yinka Shonibares solo exhibition in 2009 Exhibited James Abbott McNeill Whistlers painting, Nocturne in Black and Gold: The Falling Rocket in 1874; located in Detroit This museum, along with the British Museum in London, holds the largest collection of Benin artworks as a result of the Benin Punitive Expedition; located in Berlin Houses the Code of Hammurabi stele Exhibited James Abbott McNeill Whistlers painting, Arrangement in Grey and Black: The Artists Mother in 1871; located in Paris Site of Yinka Shonibares solo exhibition in 2008; located in Sydney
Brooklyn Museum (87) Detroit Institute of Arts (83) Ethnological Museum (49)
Louvre Museum (10) Muse dOrsay (83) Museum of Contemporary Art (87)
Museum of Fine Arts (65) National Gallery of Art (83) National Museum of African Art (50, 87) Philadelphia Museum of Art (83) Royal Academy (75, 76, 78, 79, 80, 82, 84)
Received the gift of the Paul Revere portrait from the Revere family shortly after 1928; located in Boston Exhibited James Abbott McNeill Whistlers painting, Symphony in White No.1: The White Girl in 1862; located in Washington, D.C. Houses an artwork very similar to Plaque, differing only slightly in background decorations and proportions; site of Yinka Shonibares solo exhibition in 2009 and 2010 This museum named James Abbott McNeill Whistlers painting Purple and Rose after the main figures robe King George III founded this institution in 1768 to teach and exhibit fine art; located in London; Benjamin West was a founding member and served as president; West also exhibited The Death of General Wolfe there in 1771; Joshua Reynolds, critic of Wests Death of General Wolfe, was a member of the institution; William Hodges was a member and exhibited paintings there inspired by his voyages in 1776; Hodges also apprenticed to Richard Wilson, a landscape painter at the institution; Joseph Mallord William Turner became a member at a very young age and exhibited Slave Ship there in 1840; John Frederick Lewis was also a member This annual exhibition debuted during the reign of Louis XIV and continued to control the art scene in France through the 19th century; aristocrats chose artists to sponsor at this event; artists frustrated with this exhibitions stringent rules launched Impressionism This exhibition showcased works barred from the governmentsponsored Salon such as douard Manets Luncheon on the Grass (1863) A 1997 show exhibiting the work of the Young British Artists; organized by the British art collector Charles Saatchi; controversial in the United States; brought Shonibares work to a wider audience Exhibited James Abbott McNeill Whistlers Symphony in White No.2: The Little White Girl in 1864 and 1865; located in London 1990 international exhibition; included El Anatsuis work
Salon (21, 22)
Salon des Refuss (23) Sensation (87)
Tate Gallery (83) Venice Biennale (56)
INSTITUTIONS STRUCTURES AND MARKETS

Brixton Market (88) Orangerie (21)
Yinka Shonibare buys his Dutch wax cloth at this location in London This structure at Versailles sheltered Louis XIVs orange trees
INSTITUTIONS GOVERNMENTS AND SOCIAL GROUPS
American Colonization Society (45) Australian Parliament (68) Benin Kingdom (48, 49)
Founded Liberia in 1822 as a home for African American settlers First opened in the Royal Exhibition Building in 1901, right after Australia became a commonwealth Kingdom along the western coast of Africa, south of Sierra Leone; 80 leagues long and 40 wide; founded in Nigeria in 900 C.E.; initially ruled by the Ogiso, later ruled by the Oba; populated by the Edo people; became a thriving political state in the late 13th or early 14th century; expanded through warfare by 15th century; called Beny Kingdom by the Portuguese; traded slaves with the Europeans for brass or copper bracelets; raided by the Benin Punitive Expedition in 1897; created Plaque Abolished the slave trade in 1807 and slavery in the British Empire in 1833; passed the Stamp Act in March 1765, enforced the act in November 1765, and repealed the act in 1766 Society of abolitionists aiming to abolish slavery throughout the world; formed in 1839; held an international convention in London in 1840 A joint-stock company connected with the British Empire; held an administrative role in India and parts of Asia for 200 years; traded primarily tea, cotton, and indigo; members of the company often moved to India and consequently commissioned Company School paintings; along with Governor-General Warren Hastings, supported William Hodges trip to India between 1780 and 1784 Gave Company School artists experience; favored traditional Indian miniature painting Appointed Frederick William Stevens to be assistant engineer in 1867; he worked here for a decade before receiving the assignment to design a railway station for the Great Indian Peninsular Railroad James Cook served as a commander in this institution Abolitionist organization founded in London in 1787; mostly Quaker with the notable exception of founding member Thomas Clarkson; sought to promote public awareness and involvement in the prevention of the slave trade
British Parliament (65, 82)
British and Foreign AntiSlavery Society (82) East India Company (62, 79)
Mughal Court (62) Public Works Department of India (67) Royal Navy (79) Society for Effecting the Abolition of the Slave Trade (82)
INSTITUTIONS SCHOOLS AND ART GROUPS
Acadmie des Beaux-Arts (22) Acadmie Royale de Peinture et de Sculpture (20) Bauhaus (25)
Impressionism arose among artists who despised this prominent and highly conservative Parisian institute that controlled Salon exhibitions Founded in France during the reign of Louis XIV; tool for standardizing aesthetics and taste in the fine art sphere; better known as the Academy This highly influential school in Germany standardized modern architecture and design; this institutes style preferred designs based on the building or objects functions and materials Yinka Shonibare studied at this institution between 1984 and 1989; here a teacher asked him why he did not create authentic African art; located in London Arthur Blomfield attended Trinity College in this university William Smith was provost at this institution Vassily Kandinsky (1866 1944) led this German Expressionist group This German artist group fashioned Expressionism out of Fauvisms striking arbitrary colors and Edvard Munchs (1863 1944) potent emotions; this faction included Ernst Ludwig Kirchner (1880 1938) and Emil Nolde (1867 1956) Yinka Shonibare studied at this institution in London and earned a Master of Fine Arts degree El Anatsui attended the College of Art at this school; located in Kumasi, a large city in Ghanas Asante region; education focused on European rather than African traditions The region and branch of Company School painting that produced A Common Indian Nightjar Post-independence era artists that blend traditional African motifs with European materials; founding member Uche Okeke encouraged the use of the Igbo motif uli; El Anatsui moved to Nsukka, Nigeria, in 1975 and joined this group; represents the hybridity of the postindependence era Arthur Blomfield is a member of this group; awarded Arthur Blomfield the Royal Gold Medal in 1891 Arthur Blomfield attended this elite school as a young man In 1764, Benjamin West exhibited his work at this art group; his exhibition brought him to the attention of British art critics See Acadmie Royale de Peinture et de Sculpture Arthur Blomfield attended this school at Cambridge
Brym Shaw School of Art (86)
Cambridge University (70) College of Pennsylvania (75) Der Blaue Reiter (25) Die Brcke (25)
Goldsmiths College (87) Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (55) Lucknow School (62) Nsukka Group (56)
Royal Institute of British Architects (70) Rugby School (70) Society of Artists (75) The Academy (20) Trinity College (70)
University of Nigeria (56)
In 1975, El Anatsui moved to Nsukka, Nigeria, to become the professor of sculpture at this institution; in this position El Anatsui is able to influence the development of art in West Africa James Abbott McNeill Whistler briefly attended this school but had no skill for the military arts As a young adult, Yinka Shonibare attended this institution in London Group of artists of which Yinka Shonibare was a member; most graduated from Goldsmiths College; exhibited work in 1997 in a show called Sensations which was organized by Charles Saatchi; show was very controversial in the United States
West Point Military Academy (83) Wimbledon College (86) Young British Architects (87)
LOCATIONS CONTINENTS AND WORLD REGIONS
Africa (24, 25, 30, 88)
Masks from this continent inspired late 19th-centrury artists; Cubism drew from the art of this continent; the first European traders and colonists to set foot on this continent destroyed a wealth of artworks that they perceived as dangerous pagan symbols; this continent also served as a source of cheap labor, broader markets, and more resources for European countries; Yinka Shonibare referenced this continent in his set of images for The Sleep of Reason Produces Monsters The prophet Muhammad (c. 570 632) established Islam here Hellenistic art integrates styles from Greece and this region This continent became a commonwealth and formed a parliament in 1901; the Royal Exhibition Building stands in Melbourne, a city on this continent; James Cook, in his first voyage to the Pacific, traveled to the southern coast of this continent; Yinka Shonibare referenced this continent in his set of images for The Sleep of Reason Produces Monsters Archaeologists have yet to venture into many known sites in this region and South America Oceania consists of Polynesia, Micronesia, and this region; home of the Asmat cultural group, which formerly practiced war and headhunting, but still uses wooden shields with black, red, and white patterns as cultural symbols; this regions cultures used carved masks in rituals to summon and honor ancestors Also known as the Ancient Near East; the Sumerian, Akkadian, Babylonian, and Assyrian civilizations thrived in this fertile region between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers Oceania consists of Melanesia, Polynesia, and this region See Mesopotamia Until recently, art historians dismissed art from South America and this continent as crafts
Arabian Peninsula (31) Asia Minor (13) Australia (68, 79, 88)
Central America (7) Melanesia (30, 31)
Mesopotamia (10)
Micronesia (29) Near East (10) North America (32)
Oceania (30)
The thousands of islands in Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia form this region; the climate here does not favor art preservation; the Maori on New Zealand and other cultures make up this region Oceania consists of Micronesia, Melanesia, and this region; types of body art such as tattoos signified social status here Vikings from this region crafted art, especially woodwork, during the early medieval period (c. 375 1025) Archaeologists have yet to venture into many known sites in Central America and on this continent; until recently, art historians dismissed art from North America and this continent as crafts; the city of Georgetown and St, Georges Cathedral are located on the northern coast of this continent The humid climate disintegrates many artworks in this part of Africa; Nok civilization originated here in modern Nigeria in c. 500 B.C.E.
Polynesia (31) Scandinavia (14) South America (7, 32, 70)
West Africa (7, 30)
LOCATIONS COUNTRIES
Algeria (46) Belgium (46) British Guiana (70) Canada (32)
In the quest for independence, this country faced violent resistance from numerous French settlers in the area This conquering country wiped out the Kongos minkisi in the Western Congo Basin British colony on the northern coast of South America founded in 1814; gained independence and changed name to Guyana in 1966 Conditions unfavorable to preservation in the United States and this country have decimated most of 12,000 years worth of artifacts, especially items more than 2,000 years old
China (28, 60, 61, 83, 84, 88)
Pottery from this area dates back as far as the 4th millennium B.C.E.; dynasties and Buddhism influenced art history in this country; this nations rulers constructed elegant tombs; the Emperor of Qin united this country in c. 210 B.C.E.; the Tang dynasty (618 907 C.E.) presided over the golden age of this country, which produced supreme ceramic sculptures; this nations artists also drew contemplative ink scrolls; in 1949, a communist revolution changed this country to a peoples republic and political art abounded; in the late 1970s, this nations art began to slowly move away from politics; this country held a monopoly on the production of hard-pate porcelain for centuries; Plate was produced in this country; James Abbott McNeill Whistler collected art from this country which reflected in the dress, hairstyle, and artifacts featured in Purple and Rose; over 90% of the tea in Britain originated from this country and Britain and Holland disputed over access to tea exports from this country; wax cloth produced here serves as a cheaper alternative to European or African wax cloth; the style Lange Leizen depicts women from this country and the character six marks, which adds authenticity to a piece of porcelain also originates from this country Located in Guinea on the Atlantic coast of Africa, this country became a French colony in 1897, used a rich masquerade tradition as a form of resistance, and gained independence in 1960; this country houses the Guro peoples who made Face Mask This countrys dry climate favored art preservation; the civilization here developed writing and art at the same time as Mesopotamian civilizations; Alexander the Great conquered this country in 332 B.C.E.; the Persians based their palace at Persepolis off this countrys architecture; the Nubian civilization grew to the south of here; frontal poses in art from this country inspired Archaic Greek sculptors; because of this regions connection to Mediterranean civilizations, art historians treat this country in Western and not nonwestern art history; ancient artists in this country applied wax-based encaustic paint to grave markers; John Frederick Lewis lived in this country for ten years while it was ruled by the Turks under the Ottoman Empire; this country was highly desirable to European powers; especially after the Civil War, Great Britain sought cotton and a trade route to India that this country would provide; France built the Suez Canal here; in 1882, due to financial difficulties, the Ottoman Empire turned over control to the British Empire This African country has maintained independence since ancient times; the fabled Prester John and his lost Christian city were rumored by the Portuguese to be located in this country
Cte dIvoire (46, 53, 55)
Egypt (7, 10, 11, 12, 29, 38, 85, 86)
Ethiopia (43, 45)
France (8, 15, 19, 21, 24, 29, 46, 55, 70, 78, 80, 86)
The oldest cave paintings come from Chauvet Cave in the southeastern part of this country; other cave drawings in this country date to between c. 15,000 B.C.E. and c. 10,000 B.C.E.; the famed Romanesque church of Saint-Sernin (c. 1070 1120) stands in Toulouse, a city in this country; the Gothic Chartres Cathedral also lies in this country; King Louis XIV united this country; Baroque art perhaps culminated here under Louis XIV; the Revolution of 1789 took place here and sparked change throughout Europe; Vincent van Gogh painted brightly lit landscapes from the southern region of this country; Paul Gauguin briefly studied under van Gogh here; a group of Japanese artists studied here during the ascent of Impressionism; this country briefly colonized Guyana in 1782 and referred to the region as Longchamps; this country colonized Cte dIvoire in West Africa in 1897 and carried out a policy of forced assimilation into the European culture; the Duke of Yorks concern with William Hodges painting stemmed from the conflict between Great Britain and this country; this country, led by Napoleon, attacked North Africa and was driven back by the allied forces of Great Britain and the Ottoman Empire; this country built the Suez Canal; Joseph Mallord William Turner traveled to this country, gaining inspiration for some of his artworks Original site of a wooden fang mask dating from the 19th century; this mask functioned in the ngil ceremony, which exposed sorcerers Enlightenment philosopher, Johann Joachim Winckelmann, was born in this country; art prospered in southern regions of this country during the 15th and early 16th centuries; notable Renaissance artists from this country include Albrecht Drer, Matthias Grnewald, and Hans Holbein the Younger; the factions of Die Brcke and Der Blaue Reiter from this country cultivated Expressionism; the Bauhaus school from this country standardized modern architecture between the world wars; chromolithographers from this country produced the famous image of Mami Wata This country was a British colony located in the Gold Coast; in 1957, however, the colony became the first sub-Saharan country to gain independence; the Asante, Ewe, and Fante peoples live here; the Fante peoples created Asafo Flag; the Asante and Ewe peoples create kente cloth; Kweku Kakanu was born in Mankassim, a city in this country; El Anatsui was born in Anyako, also a city in this country; El Anatsui also attended school and taught here; this countrys first democratically elected president was Kwame Nkrumah
Gabon (30) Germany (7, 19, 25, 26, 55)
Ghana (46, 50, 51, 55, 57)
Great Britain (9, 15, 19, 24, 49, 53, 55, 60, 61, 62, 63, 65, 67, 69, 70, 71, 74, 76, 78, 81, 83, 84, 86, 87)109
Stonehenge lies in Salisbury Plain in Wiltshire, a town in this country; Hiberno-Saxon art integrates the style of Anglo-Saxons from this country and Celtic Ireland with Viking art; Renaissance portraitist Hans Holbein the Younger earned the most repute here, especially as court painter of King Henry VIII; the Pre-Raphaelite artistic movement arose here; the central picture in Wrapper depicts Queen Mary and King George V of this country; Leake and Mary Okeover live in Staffordshire, Frederick William Stevens was born in Bath, Joseph Reed was born in Cornwall, and Yinka Shonibare and William Hodges were born in London, all in this country; both Benjamin West and John Singleton Copley moved to this country to further their careers; Arthur Blomfields St. Andrews Church is located in Surbiton, a city in this country; the king of this country granted William Penn the land he called Pennsylvania; this country allied with the Ottoman Empire to drive Napoleon out of North Africa; Yinka Shonibare attended school in this country; this country also produces wax cloth; James Abbott McNeill Whistler traveled to this country as a youth; this country expanded greatly into areas such as the Gold Coast and Hong Kong, inspired by new trade and commodities; headed the Benin Punitive Expedition in 1897; battled with Holland over access to Chinese tea exports; by the 1870s, this country held the largest portion of shares in the Suez Canal and eventually gained control of Egypt in 1882; the official religion of this country is the Anglican Church; the Sons of Liberty rebelled against this countrys colonial policies, especially the Stamp Act and the tax on tea; this country abolished the slave trade in 1807 and slavery throughout its empire in 1833; related to the East India Company A site of great innovations in art that were very influential for later cultures; in his exploration of the East after 1834 and before 1841, John Frederick Lewis traveled through this country This country is located on the Atlantic coast of Africa in the Guinea region See Guinea This country lies on the northern coast of South America; before the arrival of the Europeans, this country was populated by the Arawak and Carib groups; the Dutch arrived first and finally the British established the colony British Guiana in 1814; in 1966 this country gained independence and changed its name; today this country is extremely ethnically and religiously diverse; the dominant religion here is Christianity; St. Georges Cathedral is located here
Greece (85)
Guinea (54) Guinea Bissau (54) Guyana (70)
109
My conclusion? If youre ever stuck, guess Great Britain. Sheesh.
Holland (70, 84, 88)
This country first settled the region on the northern coast of South America in the 17th and 18th centuries; this country referred to the area as Stabroek though it would soon become British Guiana and, eventually, Guyana; this country battled with Britain over access to Chinese tea exports; along with England, Africa, and China, this country produces Dutch wax cloth Buddhism from this country shaped Chinese and Japanese art and culture; the 1,600 languages and dialects in this country prove its diversity; some of the worlds oldest civilizations and artistic traditions originated here; Greek art influenced classical images of Buddha from this country; this country contains many valuable spices, making it a desirable trade partner for Europe; William Hodges traveled to this country between 1780 and 1784; after slavery was abolished in the British Empire, this country provided cheap labor for British Guiana; after this country gained independence in 1947, activists promoted a shift toward traditional Indian languages and names; the Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus stands in Mumbai, a city in this country; Company School paintings originated here; consequently, A Common Indian Nightjar was painted here Originally, Dutch traders created Dutch wax cloth to sell to this country The Persian Empire (c. 538 330 B.C.E.) thrived at the location of this present-day country The Neo-Sumerian Great Ziggurat of Ur stands outside the city of Nasiriyah in this country Hiberno-Saxon art integrates the style of Celtics from this country and Anglo-Saxon England with Viking art Home to the Etruscan civilization in the 1st millennium B.C.E., location of Ravenna, a city that built magnificent churches under Byzantine rule; the availability of Greek and Roman art in this country spurred the Renaissance; Albrecht Drer and scores of other Northern European artists traveled here to study Renaissance masterpieces; the Catholic church worked to preserve its hold over this country during the Baroque period Luke Collingwoods ship, during the infamous Zong Affair, was headed for and safely reached this country This country was founded in 1822 by the American Colonization Society as a refuge for African-American settlers; this country lies on the Atlantic coast of Africa in the Guinea region Location of the first Portuguese slave-raiding expedition in the early 1440s; far north of the Slave Coast
India (28, 62, 66, 70, 79, 86)
Indonesia (88) Iran (10) Iraq (9) Ireland (15) Italy (13, 14, 15, 18, 19)
Jamaica (82) Liberia (45, 54)
Mauritania (44)
Mexico (31, 37)
Location of the Pyramid of the Sun; during this countrys revolution, activists utilized printmaking to cheaply mass produce images promoting social protest; Diego Rivera produced frescoes here and in the United States Contains cave paintings that date to c. 23,000 B.C.E., placing them among the oldest artworks in Africa; cave drawings from here predate the first known European paintings The Maori cultural group from this country and other societies throughout Oceania reanimate older artistic traditions in the context of the present, giving rise to new traditions; in his first trip to the Pacific, James Cook mapped the coast of this country Location of the terracotta-producing Nok civilization, which developed in c. 500 B.C.E.; home to the bronze-producing Benin Kingdom, which thrived between the 13th and 18th centuries and created Plaque; gained independence in 1960; home to the Yoruba peoples which produced Wrapper; contains the Yoruba origin of the world, Ile-Ife; El Anatsui lives and works in this country while Yinka Shonibare grew up here See China In the 15th century, this country landed on the African coast, becoming the first to establish trade relationships with Africa; this countrys trade route enabled European access to porcelain; the first slave-raiding exhibition by this country occurred in modern-day Mauritania in the early 1440s ; this country admired the Sapi and purchased ivory carvings, including Lidded Saltcellar, from the Sapi in the 15th and 16th centuries; explorers from this country first arrived in the Benin Kingdom, or the Beny Kingdom as they called it, in 1484; once there, this country set up trade relations with the Edo people, who associated these explorers with death and the sea god, Olokun; the Edo peoples included a depiction of two men from this country in Plaque; the original name for Mumbai, India, Bombay, is an English version of the words from this country for good bay Der Blau Reiter founder, Wasily Kandinsky, and another abstract p[ainter, Kazimir Malevich, originated in this country; James Abbott McNeill Whistler traveled to this country as a boy Joseph Mallord William Turner traveled to this country during his life, gaining inspiration for some of his artworks This country is located in the northern tip of the Guinea region on the Atlantic coast of Africa
Namibia (30)
New Zealand (31, 79)
Nigeria (30, 46, 48, 52, 56, 86)
Peoples Republic of China (28) Portugal (43, 44, 47, 48, 50, 54, 61, 68)
Russia (25, 83)
Scotland (80) Senegal (53)
Sierra Leone (47, 48, 54)
This country is located on the Atlantic coast of Africa, in the Guinea region, and to the north of the Benin Kingdom; this country contained the Sapi group and consequently the creation of Lidded Saltcellar; currently this country houses the descendants of the Sapi including the Temne, Kissi, and Bolum groups Cave paintings in this country date to between c. 15,000 B.C.E. and c. 10,000 B.C.E.; in 1576, the Counter Reformation artist El Greco traveled to Toledo, a city in this country; the Catholic church worked to preserve its hold over this country during the Baroque period; as king of this realm, Philip IV modeled his court after that of King Louis XIV of France; in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, architect Antonio Gaudi designed ingenious organic buildings in this country; John Frederick Lewis traveled here from 1832 to 1834 Joseph Mallord William Turner traveled to this country, gaining inspiration for some of his artworks Post-Impressionist artist Paul Gauguin (1843 1903) traveled to this island seeking more vibrant colors; James Cook visited this country on both his first and second trips to the Pacific; William Hodges most famous paintings depict scenes from this country and Easter Island; HMS Resolution and Adventure portrays Matavi Bay, located in this country In his exploration of the East after 1834 and before 1841, John Frederick Lewis traveled through this country After the Armory Show (1913) and World War I, the art world centered on this country instead of France; after Nazis closed the Bauhaus school of design, the institutes professors moved here; conditions unfavorable to preservation in Canada and this country have decimated most of 12,000 years worth of artifacts, especially items more than 2,000 years old; Diego Rivera produced frescoes here and in Mexico; Benjamin West, John Singleton Copley, and James Abbott McNeill Whistler were all born in this country and expatriated to Europe in search for better art markets and broader careers; the Young British Artists exhibition, Sensation, of which Yinka Shonibare was a part, was very controversial in this country
Spain (8, 18, 19, 21, 41, 85)
Switzerland (80) Tahiti (24, 79)
Turkey (85) United States (25, 26, 32, 37, 63, 74, 82, 87)
LOCATIONS REGIONS
Alps (18) Asante Region (55) Awadh Region (62)
During the early Italian Renaissance; the Gothic style still determined artworks in the area of Europe north of here Located in Ghana; contains the city Kumasi and the Kwame Nkrumah University Region in northern India; contains the city Lucknow; conquered by the East India Company in 1856
Bohemia (52)
Beads originated in this region and Venice; these beads were then traded to the Yoruba peoples for slaves and incorporated into Yoruba regalia The image of Mami Wata that inspired German chromolithographers initially appeared on a calendar in this region Home of the influential coloristic Baroque painter Peter Paul Rubens (1577 1640) An area in West Africa now known as Ghana; the Dutch sold Dutch wax cloth in this area when the Indonesian market faltered Contains the Chinese city Canton which produces hard paste porcelain and functions as an important port city Forested area along the Atlantic coast of Africa from Senegal in the north to Cte dIvoire in the south; the ethnic groups in this region all share similar characteristics, especially a prioritization of a rich masquerade tradition; the present-day countries in this region include Cte dIvoire, Liberia, Sierra Leone, Guinea, Guinea Bissau, and Senegal; includes the Gulf of Guinea, where the Portuguese landed Area on the western coast of Africa; Portuguese explorers traveled here in 1455 and 1456 This region contains the Chinese city Jingdezhen which produced hard paste porcelain that was particularly valuable in the early years of porcelain production The Crusades responded to the alarming expansion of Islam into this region of the world England, France, and the Ottoman Empire all fought over control of this area and its valuable trade routes and resources This region developed the first porcelain objects in 600 C.E. Region in Wiltshire, England; location of Stonehenge An area in Africa far south of Mauritania, which saw a huge amount of slave trade between Africa and Europe Artists in this region began making hard paste porcelain in the 10th century; this region also produced Plate This part of Germany prospered artistically during the Renaissance European settlers entered Melbourne, Australia, in 1835 by way of this island El Anatsui was born in 1944 in Anyako, a town in this region; located in Ghana This region was populated by the Kongo and colonized by Belgium; once in this region, Belgium eliminated the minkisi of the Kongo people
East India (55) Flanders (21) Gold Coast (50, 88) Guangdong Province (61) Guinea (53, 54)
Gulf of Guinea (43) Jiangxi Province (61)
Mediterranean (43) Northern Africa (86) Northern China (61) Salisbury Plain (9) Slave Coast (44) Southern China (61) Southern Germany (19) Tasmania (68) Volta Region (55) Western Congo Basin (46)
Western Europe (9) Wiltshire (9)
After c. 4,000 B.C.E., the megalithic culture of the New Stone Age erected rings and rows of stones in this area of Europe County of England; location of Salisbury Plain and Stonehenge
LOCATIONS TOWNS AND CITIES
Agra (62) Anyako (55) Bath (67) Benin City (49) Berlin (49) Bombay (68)
City in India that contained an important school of Company School painting El Anatsui was born in this city in 1944; located in Ghanas Volta Region Frederick William Stevens was born in this city in England in either 1847 or 1848 Attacked in 1897 by the Benin Punitive Expedition Location of the Ethnological Museum where many Benin artworks are stored Important port city in Maharashtra, India; location of Victoria Terminus Building; name from English version of the Portuguese word for good bay; renamed to Mumbai in 1995 John Singleton Copley was born in this city in 1738; here, Paul Revere served as an active Patriot with the Sons of Liberty; location of the Boston Tea Party; Paul Revere, in his midnight ride, rode from this city to Lexington John Frederick Lewis lived in this city in Egypt from 1841 to 1851, immersing himself completely into the culture and living the lifestyle of an Ottoman pasha; during this time, this city was under control of the Turks under the Ottoman Empire City in India that contained an important school of Company School painting Located in the Guangdong Province; major port city of China; now called Guangzhou; workshops in this city could complete porcelain commissions in two or three months Site of the Byzantine Hagia Sophia (532 537 C.E.) Joseph Reed was born in this city in England in 1823 In the early 15th century, Lorenzo Ghiberti and Filippo Brunelleschi won competitions to design this citys baptistery doors and cathedral dome, respectively; Leonardo and Michelangelo created masterpieces in this city; Michelangelo meant for his David (1504) to stand high above ground on the faade of this citys cathedral; Michelangelos David symbolizes this city
Boston (63, 64, 65)
Cairo (85)
Calcutta (62) Canton (61)
Constantinople (14) Cornwall (69) Florence (16, 17)
Georgetown (70)
City located at the mouth of Demerara River; became an English settlement in the 18th century; the Dutch called this city Stabroek while the French called it Longchamps; the British named the city in 1812 in honor of King George III; this city is Guyanas most populated city and commercial and governmental center Present-day name for Canton Sailors acquired the German chromolithograph that inspired the popular image of Mami Wata from this city A portion of China seized by the British A city in southwestern Nigeria, populated as early as 350 B.C.E.; the Yoruba believe the world was created here; thriving city-state since the 11th century; origin of the prince Oranmiyan who founded the second dynasty in the Benin Kingdom in the end of the 14th century A city in Jiangxi Province which produced highly valued porcelain in the early years of porcelain production; porcelain goods produced in Jingdezhen required at least two years for completion due to the monsoons which made access to Canton, the major port city, difficult Large city in Ghanas Asante region; contains the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology where El Anatsui attended school Yinka Shonibare spent much of his childhood living in this city, the capital of Nigeria In his midnight ride, Paul Revere rode from Boston to this city, announcing the impending arrival of the British
Guangzhou (61) Hamburg (55) Hong Kong (61) Ile-Ife (52)
Jingdezhen (61)
Kumasi (55)
Lagos (86) Lexington (64)
London (41, 49, 56, 63, 64, 67, 70, 75, 76, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 85, 86, 87, 88)
Site of the 1851 Worlds Fair and the Crystal Palace; location of the British Museum which holds many Benin artworks, the Society of Artists where Benjamin West exhibited some of his work, the Royal Academy, the National Gallery where Joseph Mallord William Turner exhibited Dido Building Carthage, the Turner Collection where Turner exhibited Snow Storm- Hannibal Crossing the Alps, and Tate Gallery where James Abbott McNeill Whistler exhibited Symphony in White No.2: The Little White Girl; also location of St. Pancras Railway Station which inspired the design of the Victoria Terminus Building, Arthur Blomfields College of Music, William Hodges studio he established to display his drawings of India, the convention of the British and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society in 1840, the Brixton Market where Yinka Shonibare purchases his Dutch wax cloth, and Wimbledon College, Brym Shaw School of Art, and Goldsmiths College where Yinka Shonibare attended school; John Singleton Copley and Benjamin West expriated to this city; Africa Remix traveled through here along with Tokyo; the Society for Effecting the Abolition of the Slave Trade began in this city in 1787; James Abbott McNeill Whistler attended art classes here from 1847 to 1848; John Singleton Copley exhibited his Boy With a Squirrel here in 1766; William Penn, William Hodges, James Mallord William Turner, John Frederick Lewis, and Yinka Shonibare were all born in this city French name for Georgetown; the French occupied this area briefly in 1782 City in the Awadh region in northern India; rich agricultural area and desirable for the East India Company; contained strong presence of the Mughal Empire; taken over by the East India Company in 1856; location of a prominent Company School painting school; created A Common Indian Nightjar Kweku Kakanu was born in this city in Ghana in 1910 Capital city of the state of Victoria; located on a bay in southern Australia; population of four million people; first settled by Europeans in 1835; recognized as a city in 1847 by Queen Victoria; Australias most important and populated port city; represents European ideals of progress; contains the Royal Exhibition Building Important port city in Maharashtra, India; location of Victoria Terminus Building; originally named Bombay; renamed in 1995 in honor of the Hindu goddess, Mumbadevi
Longchamps (70) Lucknow (62)
Mankassim (51) Melbourne (68, 69)
Mumbai (66)
Paris (23, 24, 25, 41, 64, 83)
The excessive conservatism of the Acadmie des Beaux-Arts in this city motivated Impressionism; Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque invented Cubism here in c. 1908; modernist art rocked this city in the early 20th century; New York replaced this metropolis as the center of the art world; location of the wrought iron Eiffel Tower; in his traveling through Europe, John Singleton Copley visited Rome, London, Florence, and this city; James Abbott McNeill Whistler visited this city in 1855 and there immersed himself into the young artist culture; location of Muse dOrsay where Whistler exhibited his painting, Arrangement in Grey and Black: The Artists Mother City in India that contained an important school of Company School painting John Singleton Copley painted portraits in this city Under Byzantine rule, this Italian city built churches embellished with resplendent mosaics Location of the Colosseum and Pantheon; blossomed during the Renaissance; as a young painter, Raphael traveled here and received commissions from Pope Julius II; linear perspective in a Sistine Chapel fresco by Pietro Perugino helped spread Renaissance ideas here; in his traveling through Europe, John Singleton Copley visited Paris, London, Florence, and this city; before settling in England, Benjamin West visited Venice, Florence, and this city Supposedly the event depicted in Penns Treaty with the Indians took place under a giant elm tree in this village; there is no documentation that this actually occurred Benjamin West was born in this city in Pennsylvania in 1738 Dutch name for Georgetown City in England; home to Leake and Mary Okeover, patrons of the Chinese Plate James Abbott McNeill Whistler attended art classes in this city from 1845 to 1848 City of Arthur Blomfields St. Andrews Cathedral; located in England Location of the Museum of Contemporary Art where Yinka Shonibare had a solo exhibition in 2008 Africa Remix, an exhibition containing El Anatsuis artwork from 2004 to 2007, traveled through London and this city After working under the Venetian painter Titian, El Greco journeyed to this city in Spain in 1576 French city; location of the famed Romanesque church of Saint-Sernin (c. 1070 1120)
Patna (62) Philadelphia (64) Ravenna (14) Rome (14, 17, 33, 64, 75)
Shackamaxon (76)
Springfield (74) Stabroek (70) Staffordshire (60) St. Petersburg (83) Surbiton (70) Sydney (87) Tokyo (56) Toledo (18) Toulouse (15)
Venice (17, 18, 19, 52, 75, 81)
Along with Rome and Florence, prospered in the arts during the Renaissance; home of the seminal landscape painter Giorgione (c. 1477 1510), the revolutionary portrait painter Titian Vecelli (c. 1488 1576), and the Mannerist artist Tintoretto (1518 1594); El Greco studied under Titian here, merchants from this city contributed to the spread of Renaissance ideas in northern Europe; beads originated in this country and Bohemia and were traded to the Yoruba peoples for slaves and incorporated into Yoruba regalia; before settling in England, Benjamin West traveled to Florence, Rome, and this city; during his life, Joseph Mallord William Turner traveled to Scotland, France, Switzerland, and this city French King Louis XIV began building an upscale palace here in 1669 Swiss city; home to the dissident intellectuals who launched Dada
Versailles (21) Zurich (25)
LOCATIONS MISCELLANEOUS
African Diaspora (55) Antarctic Circle (79) Bond Street (79)
The image of Mami Wata which originated from a German chromolithograph is popular throughout western Africa and this area James Cooks second voyage to the Pacific crossed this area William Hodges showed The Effects of War and The Consequences of Peace at this location in 1794 and 1795 before criticism forced him to close the exhibition A nearly impassable obstacle for explorers located on the northwestern coast of Africa; by 1434, Portuguese explorers had bypassed this feature In his first trip to the Pacific, James Cook rounded this formation in South America James Cooks second voyage to the Pacific encountered this island; William Hodges most famous paintings depict scenes from this island and Tahiti Holy city of Islam, Christianity, and Judaism; site of the Islamic Dome of the Rock (687 692) Every Islamic mosque includes a qibla wall facing this sacred city James Cooks second voyage to the Pacific encountered this area An informal European settlement represented by a white tent in William Hodges HMS Resolution and Adventure; located in Matavi Bay, Tahiti; served as a refuge for the sick members of James Cooks crew
Cape Bojador (43) Cape Horn (79) Easter Island (79)
Jerusalem (32) Mecca (32) New Caledonia (79) Point Venus (80)
LOCATIONS NATURAL FORMATIONS
Aegean Sea (11) Demerara River (70) Euphrates River (10) Matavi Bay (79)
The Cycladic, Minoan, and Mycenaean civilizations prospered here before Ancient Greeces Archaic Period Georgetown is located near the mouth of this river Mesopotamian civilizations grew in the valley between this river and the Tigris River A protected bay along Tahitis northern coastline; Hodges HMS Resolution and Adventure depicts this area; James Cook and his expedition reached this bay in August 1773 Tahitis highest peak; displayed slightly inaccurately in William Hodges' HMS Resolution and Adventure Mesopotamian civilizations grew in the valley between this river and the Euphrates River
Mount Orofena (79) Tigris River (10)
LOCATIONS SITES OF ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS AND ARTWORKS
Altamira (8)
Along with Lascaux in France, this site in Spain boasts some of the most famous cave paintings from between c. 13,000 B.C.E. and c. 11,000 B.C.E.; unlike Chauvet Caves drawings, these caves contain outlines of human hands The most famous ancient Greek artworks date to the Classical Period (475 323 B.C.E.) and come from this city-state As king of this city-state, Hammurabi centralized other Mesopotamian city-states under his rule in c. 1792 B.C.E. and wrote the first law code; after Assyrian rule, this city-state built the hanging gardens and the Ishtar Gate Site of the oldest cave paintings, which date to c. 30,000 B.C.E.; located in southeastern France; uncovered in 1994; the paintings here consist of black charcoal, red ochre, and some yellow ochre and portray animals such as horses, rhinoceros, lions, buffalos, and mammoths Minoan civilization grew on this island in the Aegean Sea Aegean Sea archipelago; home to the first Aegean Sea civilization Center of Minoan civilization on the island of Crete; the labyrinthine royal palace in this city gave rise to the legend of the Minotaur Along with Altamira in Spain, this location in France boasts some of the most famous cave paintings from between c. 13,000 B.C.E. and c. 11,000 B.C.E.; unlike Chauvet Caves drawings, these caves contain outlines of human hands City on mainland Greece; cultural center of the Mycenaean civilization in the Aegean Sea region
Athens (12) Babylonia (10)
Chauvet Cave (8)
Crete (11) Cyclades (11) Knossos (11) Lascaux (8)
Mycenae (12)
Pompeii (37)
The ruins of this Roman city contain an abundance of frescoes
LOCATIONS STATES
Maharashtra (68) Massachusetts (82) Pennsylvania (74, 76)
The Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus is located in Mumbai, a city in this state in India James Abbott McNeill Whistler was born in this state in 1834 Benjamin West was born in 1738 in Springfield, a city in this state; in 1677, William Penn and a group of Quakers purchased an area of land; soon afterward, Penn received another section of land; in 1681, the King of England presented him with a proprietary grant for the land; Penn wanted to name his new territory Sylvania, meaning forests in Latin, but the king named it Pennsylvania after William Penns father; Penns land touted the philosophy of tolerance for all Christians Located on the southern bay of Australia; this states capital city is Melbourne
Victoria (68)
MEDIUMS DRAWING
Charcoal (8)
Extremely soft drawing tool; light application of this tool leaves the white of the paper somewhat exposed; Chauvet Caves drawings use red and yellow ochre as well as this medium Late 19th century German drawing which inspired the image of Mami Wata Draws thinner and lighter lines Chauvet Caves drawings use charcoal and red as well as yellow variations of this pigment Soft colored sticks; can mix to produce tints and shades; popular medium in portraiture; extremely fragile; artists using this medium usually spray fixatives to prevent smearing; gained popularity in the 18th century; inspired the light-hearted colors of Rococo art Draws thicker lines that may appear light or dark
Chromolithograph (55) Hard pencil (36) Ochre (8) Pastel (21, 36)
Soft pencil (36)
MEDIUMS MISCELLANEOUS
Beads (52) Cassava plant (53)
Highly valuable portions of Yoruba regalia acquired through trade with Europeans; constructed into crowns; originated in Bohemia and Venice A material which may be formed into a starchy paste; the paste is painted onto cotton before the cloth is dyed to create adire; this medium allows for more intricate details than raffia Asafo Flag and Wrapper are made of this material
Cotton (UAREG 5, 6)
Dutch wax cloth (88)
Factory-produced, resist-dyed, brightly colored textiles; produced by Dutch traders for the Indonesian market in the 19th century; when not successful in Indonesia, sold in Africas Gold Coast; symbol of African identity; patterns created change with location and serve as a form of communication; currently produced in Holland, England, Africa, and China; European versions are the most expensive and the most valued while Chinese versions are the cheapest Material which China monopolized for centuries; kaolin and feldspathic rock are mixed and then fired at 1400 degrees Celsius; Plate uses this medium Blue dye used to produce adire Portuguese explorers purchased carvings made of this material as presents for their patrons; Lidded Saltcellar is made of this material A grassy fiber which can be sewn onto cotton before the cloth is dyed to create adire The European imitation of hard paste porcelain; this material is fired at lower temperatures Face Mask is carved from one piece of wood; the roof of Royal Exhibition Building is made of slate, steel, and this material; St. Georges Cathedral is made mostly from this material
Hard paste porcelain (61)
Indigo (53) Ivory (47) Raffia (53) Soft paste porcelain (61) Wood (54, 69, 70)
MEDIUMS PAINTING
Acrylic (27, 38)
Invented after World War II; ingredients include plastic, polymers, and synthetic materials; much more versatile compared to oil paint but less rich in colors; artists allergic to oil paint and turpentine prefer this medium; along with the airbrush, this invention allowed sharp lines in Minimalist painting, particularly hard-edge paintings Literally, true fresco; uses wet plaster, which makes any application of paint permanent Along with the paint tube, this invention allowed Impressionists to paint outdoors without difficulty The ancient Egyptians applied this durable wax based paint to grave markers using hot irons In this medium, artists add a mixture of water and pigments to plaster set on a wall or ceiling; notable artists who worked in this medium include the citizens of Pompeii, the Minoans, painters of medieval and Renaissance churches, Giotto di Bondone (1267 1337), Masaccio (1401 1428), Raphael (1483 1520), and Pietro Perugino A type of fresco that uses dry plaster
Buon fresco (37) Chemical paint (24) Encaustic (38) Fresco (11, 15, 16, 17, 33, 37)
Fresco secco (37)
Gouache (38)
Thick, opaque, and slow-drying water-based paint; resembles schoolquality tempera but has superior quality; produces radiant colors and precise details First gained popularity in the 15th century in northern Europe; succeeded tempera as the standard painting medium; highly versatile compared to tempera; unlike tempera artists, oil painters can apply thin glazes; medium for Paul Revere, Penns Treaty with the Indians, HMS Resolution and Adventure with Fishing Craft in Matavi Bay, Slave Ship, Purple and Rose: The Lange Leizen of the Six Marks, and A Lady Receiving Visitors (The Reception) Water-based paint; egg yolk serves as the binder in this medium; water functions as a solvent; artists cannot blend this paint after application because it dries quickly; this media restricts artists to a narrow range of either light or dark tones; the most common medium before oil paint gained popularity in the 15th century See Buon fresco Artists allergic to oil paint and this compound turn to acrylic Commonplace water-based paint; this mediums translucent nature bares the white of the paper underneath; artist working in this medium usually add water instead of using the color white; mistakes can have drastic effects in compositions using this paint; medium used for A Common Indian Nightjar; Joseph Mallord William Turner exhibited his first painting in this medium at the Royal Academy in 1790
Oil paint (18, 38, UAREG 11, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19)
Tempera (38)
True fresco (37) Turpentine (38) Watercolor (38, 80, UAREG 10)
MEDIUMS PHOTOGRAPHY
Albumen silver print from glass negative (UAREG 12) C-print mounted on aluminum
Medium for photograph of Victoria Terminus Building Medium of The Sleep of Reason Produces Monsters (Asia)
MEDIUMS STONES, MINERALS, AND METALS

Bluestone (9) Bottle caps (56) Brass (50) Brick (69) Bronze (50) Copper alloy (49)
Stonehenges middle ring uses this type of rock native to England El Anatsui flattened metal cans and this material then wove everything together with copper wire to create Fading Cloth Copper alloy with zinc The exterior walls of Royal Exhibition Building are made of this material Copper alloy with tin According to the National Museum of African Art, material of Plaque
Decorated tile (67) Feldspar (61) Flint (40) Kaolin (61) Limestone (12) Marble (11, 12, 17, 20, 67)
Secondary material used in the construction of Victoria Terminus Building along with poly-chromatic stone, marble, and stained glass This rock is crushed, mixed with kaolin, and fired at very high temperatures to create hard paste porcelain Along with sand, quartz, and other raw materials, one of the ingredients in silica, which makes glass A fine white clay which is mixed with feldspathic rock and fired at high temperatures to create hard paste porcelain Common material for Archaic Greek sculptures Material in Cycladic bowls and jars, Archaic Greek sculptures, Michelangelos David (1504), and Berninis Ecstasy of Saint Teresa (1647 1652); secondary material used in the construction of Victoria Terminus Building along with poly-chromatic stone, decorated tile, and stained glass El Anatsui flattened bottle caps and this material then wove everything together with copper wire to create Fading Cloth Secondary material used in the construction of Victoria Terminus Building along with decorated tile, marble, and stained glass Along with flint, sand and other raw materials, one of the ingredients in silica, which makes glass Main material used in the construction of Victoria Terminus Building; found locally Along with quartz, flint, and other raw materials, one of the ingredients in silica, which makes glass Stonehenges outermost and innermost rings use this type of sandstone Sand, flint, quartz, and other raw materials produce this compound, which makes glass The roof of Royal Exhibition Building is made of timber, steel, and this material Secondary material used in the construction of Victoria Terminus Building along with poly-chromatic stone, marble, and decorated tile The roof of Royal Exhibition Building is made of timber, slate, and this material
Metal cans (56) Poly-chromatic stone (67) Quartz (40) Red sandstone (67) Sand (40) Sarsen (9) Silica (40) Slate (69) Stained glass (67) Steel (69)
MISCELLANEOUS
Akan (50) Artisan (16)
The language group on the Gold Coast; botht he Fante and Asante are part of this group Social status of artists before the Renaissance; Greek tradition established this view of artists as manual laborers
Caravaggesque (19) Elm (77) Founder of modern sculpture (16) Fumo (17) HMS Adventure (79) HMS Resolution (79) Lange Leizen (84)
Describes artworks containing intense chiaroscuro; Caravaggio, an Italian Baroque painter, specialized in the technique According to the story, William Penn settled his famous treaty with the Indians in Shackamaxon under this kind of tree Art historians title for Donatello Italian word for smoke; word root of sfumato During his second voyage to the Pacific, Commander James Cook was accompanied by this ship During his second voyage to the Pacific, Commander James Cook commanded this ship Dutch pattern on porcelain depicting long, willowy Chinese women; James Abbott McNeill Whistler included this design in his painting, Purple and Rose, in order to reference the relationship between Great Britain and Holland International language during the medieval period Yinka Shonibares family stayed in London so his father could study this subject James Abbott McNeill Whistler sued John Ruskin, accusing him of this crime James Abbott McNeill Whistlers name for the Lange Leizen design In 1550, groups speaking this language arrived in the Sapi Kingdom, disrupting the Sapi trade with the Portuguese Literally, great stones; during the New Stone Age, humans erected formations of these rocks in Western Europe; these rocks weighed up to 50 tons and measured as much as 17 feet tall This ritual involved wooden fang masks and supposedly exposed sorcerers; culture groups in 19th-century Gabon practiced this ceremony The Romantic perception of foreigners; this is illustrated by William Hodges Tahitian natives in Classical drapery or Benjamin Wests stately, mostly naked Native Americans Michelangelo and Leonardo inspired this term, which refers to a person with many diverse skills Benjamin Franklin and Quaker leaders attempted to convince the King of England to abandon proprietorships in the colonies in favor of this system; the advocates used the Walking Purchase as part of their evidence Perception of the exotic East which was popular during the era of Imperialism and in the decades that followed; John Frederick Lewis paintings played a large part in forming this perception
Latin (14) Law (86) Libel (83) Long Eliza (84) Mande (47) Megaliths (9)
Ngil (30) Noble savage (74, 77, 80)
Renaissance Man (16) Royal charter system (78)
Western Orientalist (85)
NUMBERS
2 (9, 45, 48, 50, 60, 61, 76)
Number of decades the Scramble for Africa lasted, types of stone used in Stonehenge (bluestone and sarsen), saltcellars Albrecht Drer bought, Portuguese men in Plaque, musicians in Plaque, horses in Plate, and European men presenting the bolt of cloth to the Lenape Indians in Penns Treaty with the Indians; minimum amount of months needed for a Canton production of a porcelain piece and minimum amount of years needed for a Jingdezhen production Number of rings of stones in Stonehenge, cultures Wrapper blends110 , and runners hired for the Walking Purchase; max amount of months needed for the completion of a Canton porcelain production; age of Yinka Shonibare when his family moved back to Nigeria Minoans built this many palaces on Crete; Michelangelo painted the Sistine Chapel ceiling over this many years; number of rudimentary sculptural techniques111; number of legs around the central column of the finial of Lidded Saltcellar, birds in Asafo Flag, green fish in Asafo Flag, snakes the snake charmer plays to in Face Mask, and dishes in the set of porcelain Mary and Leake Okeover ordered Approximate height in inches of Venus of Willendorf The innermost ring of Stonehenge contains this number of upright sarsen stones topped by horizontal stones arranged into the shape of a horseshoe; number of classical orders112 in architecture; length in feet of Asafo Flag; total number of fish present in Asafo Flag; number of photographs in Yinka Shonibares set of The Sleep of Reason Produces Monsters Number of tertiary colors available through mixing a primary color (like red) and a secondary color (like orange) next to it on the color wheel; total number of figures in Plaque; number of snakes in Face Mask Height in human heads of a human figure in Classical Greek sculpture Some Asafo flags are this length in feet or longer Number of painted panels on Matthias Grnewalds Isenheim Altarpiece (c. 1510 1515)
3 (9, 53, 61, 78, 86)
4 (12, 17, 38, 48, 51, 54, 60)
4 (8) 5 (9, 12, 51, 88)
6 (33, 50, 54)
7.5 (35) 8 (51) 9 (19)
110 111
Yoruba, Great Britain, Islam Carving, modeling, casting, and construction. 112 Namely Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, Tuscan, and Composite.
10 (19, 56, 66, 67, 85)
Number of surviving works by Matthias Grnewald; height in feet of Fading Cloth; cost in pounds of one of Paul Reveres teapots in the 1760s; number of years Frederick William Stevens worked for the Public Works Department of India before he received the assignment of designing the Victoria Terminus Building; number of years between the completion of St. Pancras Railway Station and Frederick William Stevens creation of the design for Victoria Terminus Building; number of years John Frederick Lewis lived in Cairo (from 1841 to 1851) Number of islands in Florida that Christo and Jeanne-Claude wrapped in pink plastic Number of hues on the color wheel Age at which Joseph Mallord William Turner enrolled in classes at the Royal Academy in London Age at which Joseph Mallord William Turner exhibited his first watercolor painting at the Royal Academy; occurred in 1790 Height in feet of the largest megaliths (great stones) in rock formations erected during the Neolithic Period; the Pope recognized Baroque artist Gianlorenzo Bernini when the latter was this age Age at which Yinka Shonibare suffered paralysis from transverse myelitis Length in miles of the cloth fence Christo and Jeanne-Claude built in California Queen Mary and King George Vs silver jubilee commemorated this anniversary of their rule Lorenzo Ghiberti worked for this many years on his second set of doors for the Florence baptistery, which Michelangelo christened the Gates of Paradise Age at which Joseph Mallord William Turner became a full member of the Royal Academy; occurred in 1802 In ideal circumstances, the average Boston worker earned this many pounds per year; number of years Benjamin West worked as court painter for King George III In the early 18th century, this percent of shipping from the colonies passed through Boston
11 (27) 12 (34) 14 (80) 15 (80) 17 (9, 20)
19 (86) 24 (27) 25 (53) Over 25 (16)
27 (81) 30 (66, 75)
40 (66)
50 (9, 10, 26, 54, 87)
Weight in tons of the largest megaliths (great stones) in Stonehenge and other rock formations erected during the Neolithic Period; approximate length in years of the Guti barbarians reign in Mesopotamia between the civilizations of Akkad (c. 2,334 2,150 B.C.E) and Neo-Sumer (established in c. 2,100 B.C.E); approximate number of years after World War II during which the artistic centers of England, France, Italy, and Germany stood in the shadow of New York City; approximate number of villages of the Guro peoples; artists must be under this age and British to be eligible to receive the Turner Prize Number of paintings Benjamin West created for King George III while he was court painter; in this capacity he painted both royal portraits and historical scenes The number of teapots Paul Revere made in his lifetime Francisco Goyas The Sleep of Reason Produces Monsters is one in a set of this many etchings During the time that James Abbott McNeill Whistler created Purple and Rose, this percent of eta in England was imported from China Height of St. Georges Cathedral in feet; this height makes the cathedral one of the tallest wooden churches in the world Size in acres of Louis XIVs palace at Versailles; amount of time in years the East India Company held a dominant position in India and parts of Asia The Anti-Slavery Society Convention of 1840 in London was attended by over this number of delegates from around the world During the ten years John Frederick Lewis lived in Cairo, he created this number of watercolors and drawings Size in square yards of Michelangelos fresco covering the entire Sistine Chapel ceiling Maximum degrees Celsius at which hard paste porcelain is fired Number of languages and dialects in India Length in miles of the Great Wall of China; the majority of archaeological finds related to cultures in present-day Canada and the United States only date back this many years due to an environment unfavorable to preservation Classical Greek sculptors formulated ideal human proportions this many years ago Total number of objects Paul Revere made during his lifetime; most of these were common items such as buckles, buttons, and spoons The oldest archaeological finds in present-day Canada and the United States date back this many years; most of these relics only come from the last 2,000 years due to an environment unfavorable to preservation
60 (75)
64 (66) 80 (88) 90 (84) 143 (70) 200 (21, 62)
500 (82) 600 (85) 700 (17) 1,400 (61) 1,600 (28) 2,000 (28, 32)
2,500 (35) 5,000 (66) 12,000 (32)
45,000 (76) 1,000,000 (66) 1,500,000 (69) 3,000,000 (66) 4,000,000 (68) 30,000,000 (52)
Number of square miles of land the King of England gave William Penn in 1681 in payment for a debt to his father In 1877, when the Victoria Terminus Building was completed, the population of Bombay was less than this number Approximately this many people from around the world attended the Melbourne International Exhibition from October 1880 to May 1881 Currently more than this number of people go through the Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus every day Melbourne is one of the most populous cities in Australia with a population of this number Currently, over this number of Yoruba people live in Nigeria
ORGANIZATIONS FIRMS AND GROUPS
Great Indian Peninsular Railway (67) Jesuits (19) Oxford Street shop (84) Reed and Barnes (69)
Frederick William Stevens designed Victoria Terminus Building for this company Founded in the Baroque era, this mission and other Catholic orders aimed to convert natives of European colonies Shop featuring Chinese imports; owned by Murray Marks; frequented by James Abbott McNeill Whistler Architectural firm of Joseph Reed and his partner, Frederick Barnes; this firm designed the Royal Exhibition Building See Oxford Street shop A political group in Boston led by Samuel Adams; founded in August 1765; opposed British colonial policies; Paul Revere joined this group in 1765; most of the members kept their political affiliations secret
Sloan Street shop (84) Sons of Liberty (65)
PEOPLE ARTISTS THE RENAISSANCE AND MANNERISM
Botticelli (16) Brunelleschi, Filippo (16)
c. 1444 1510; lived a generation after Donatello; painted The Birth of Venus (c. 1482); crafted an enduring ideal of female beauty 1377 1446; placed runner-up to Lorenzo Ghiberti in the competition to sculpt doors for the Florence baptistery; he turned to architecture and triumphed in another competition to construct the dome of the Florence cathedral; this architect invented the double-shelled dome and linear perspective See Leonardo
Da Vinci, Leonardo (16)
Di Bondone, Giotto (15)
1267 1337; best known artist from the transitional period between the Gothic and Renaissance eras; invented simple perspective, in which overlapping figures imply distance; based his figures on threedimensional models; departed from flat and stylized Gothic figures; well known for his frescoes See Michelangelo See El Greco c. 1386 1466; founder of modern sculpture; applied classical ideas in his work, such as the bronze David (1430 1432); this artists later sculptures express more naturalism, character, and theatricality 1471 1528; he and Matthias Grnewald remain the most influential northern Renaissance artists; his early training revolved around late Gothic works; in the 15th century, this artist turned to combining Italian Renaissance techniques and northern European naturalism; visited Italy to peruse Renaissance pieces; propagated Renaissance ideas in Germany; published sets of copper engravings, woodcuts, and discourses on art theories; created The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse (c. 1498); between 1520 and 1521, this artist purchased two saltcellars Eminent Mannerist painter who worked during the Counter Reformation; Tintorettos paintings impacted this artist; trained under Titian in Venice; moved from Italy to Toledo in Spain in 1576; painted elongated subjects c. 1378 1455; in 1400, his classical-inspired depiction of the Sacrifice of Isaac won a design competition for the doors of the Florence baptistery; afterwards, the city of Florence commissioned this sculptor to craft a different set of doors for the same baptistery; he spent over 25 years sculpting the second set of doors, which became known as the Gates of Paradise c. 1477 150; seminal landscape painter of the Renaissance in Venice; painted The Tempest (c. 1508) c. 1475 1528; he and Albrecht Drer remain the most influential northern Renaissance artists; only ten known works by this artist exist today; famous for religious images, especially those of Christs crucifixion; painted the Isenheim Altarpiece (c. 1510 1515) 1497 1593; perhaps the finest Renaissance portraitist; born in Germany but gained the most fame in England; served as court painter to King Henry VIII; masterfully reproduced details and psychological characters; a model for English painters well into the 19th century
Di Buonarotti, Michelangelo (17) Dominikos Theotokopoulos (18) Donatello (16)
Drer, Albrecht (19, 48)
El Greco (18)113
Ghiberti, Lorenzo (16)
Giorgione (17) Grnewald, Matthias (19)
Hans Holbein the Younger (19)
113
USAD does not provide this artists lifespan.
Leonardo (16)
1452 1519; inspired the term Renaissance Man; an avid inventor, architect, engineer, painter, sculptor, scientist, and musician; painted The Last Supper (c. 1495 1498) and Mona Lisa (c. 1503 1505); invented sfumato 1401 1428; although Brunelleschi invented linear perspective, this fresco painter first applied the technique; this artist also adapted aerial perspective 1475 1564; inspired the term Renaissance Man; sculpted the marble David (1504) and decorations for the tomb of Pope Julius II; when Julius II cancelled the commission for his tomb, this artist agonized over the wasted effort; later, he reluctantly accepted another commission from the same pope to paint the 700-square yard Sistine Chapel ceiling (1508 1512); along with Raphael and Titian, particularly inspired Benjamin West Painted a Sistine Chapel fresco containing linear perspective 1483 1520; monumental High Renaissance painter; received commissions from Pope Julius II to paint School of Athens (1509 1511) and other opulent frescoes in the Popes chambers; conceived a lasting image of the Virgin Mary in Sistine Madonna (c. 1513 1514) and other masterpieces; along with Titian and Michelangelo, particularly inspired Benjamin West 1518 1594; masterful Mannerist painter from Venice; employed the dramatic angles and twisted figures of Mannerism but not the styles acidic colors; applied emotional chiaroscuro contrasts of light and dark; this artists perspectives and lighting contrasts precede Baroque art c. 1488 1576; revolutionary portrait painter of the Renaissance in Venice; introduced curtains, columns, and other objects as acceptable backgrounds for portraits; greatest colorist of the Renaissance; along with Raphael and Michelangelo, particularly inspired Benjamin West
Masaccio (16)
Michelangelo (16, 17, 75)
Perugino, Pietro (33) Sanzio, Raphael (17)
Tintoretto (17)
Vecelli, Titian (17, 75)
PEOPLE ARTISTS THE BAROQUE
Bernini, Gianlorenzo (20)
1598 1680; primary Baroque artist; born to a sculptor; gifted in architecture, painting, and drawing; his career as a theater designer affected his works; sculpted the Ecstasy of Saint Teresa (1647 1652) 1573 1610; Italian Baroque painter; used dramatic contrasts of light and dark which influenced generations of later artists; pursued naturalism to a controversial degree, as seen in his depictions of the Virgin Mary and apostles as poor people; even recruited impoverished commoners as models c. 1593 c. 1652; female Baroque artist; privileged because her father worked as a painter; trained in her fathers studio; painted Caravaggesque self-portraits and Old Testament scenes
Caravaggio (19)
Gentileschi, Artemisia (20)
Rubens, Peter Paul (21) Van Rijn, Rembrandt (21, 83)
1577 1640; Flemish Baroque artist; set up a large workshop in Flanders; his poignant energy and color inspired generations of artists 1606 1669; famous Dutch Baroque painter, printmaker, and draftsman; painted The Night Watch (1642) and later in life, extraordinarily intimate self-portraits; died in poverty; admired and studied by James Abbott McNeill Whistler; through studying this artists work, Whistler learned to convey great emotion with a limited range of tones 1599 1660; court painter of Spanish King Philip IV; contemporary of Bernini; based his pieces on colors and not lines, which inspired Impressionists and other later artists
Velzquez, Diego (21)
PEOPLE ARTISTS ROCOCO, NEOCLASSICISM, AND ROMANTICISM

Blake, William (22) Boucher, Franois (21)
1757 1827; prominent Romantic artist 1703 1770; Watteaus delicate paintings inspired this major Rococo artist; Madame Pompadour favored him; this painters art brought classical mythical characters, especially sensuous female nudes, into scenes of aristocratic revelry 1748 1825; Neoclassicist; painted Oath of the Horatii (1784) and other exemplary republican images protesting the Rococo aristocracy; after the Revolution of 1789, joined 1798 1863; primary Romantic artist and rival of Jean Dominique Ingres; painted the popular Romantic subjects of exotic settings, violence involving animals, and scenes from history 1732 1806; major French Rococo artist; received patronage from Madame Pompadour; painted in a style akin to his teacher, Franois Boucher; created the painting The Swing which Yinka Shonibare imitated in The Swing (after Fragonard) in 2001 1791 1824; prominent Romantic artist 1780 1867; Neoclassicist and student of Jacques-Louis David; painted using the Neoclassical preferences of sharp outlines, unemotional subjects, and rational as well as geometric organization 1684 1721; major Rococo artist; spearheaded the Rococo generation and the new genre of fte galante; inspired Franois Boucher
David, Jacques Louis (21)
Delacroix, Eugne (22)
Fragonard, Jean Honor (21, 88)
Gericault, Thodore (22) Ingres, Jean Dominique (22)
Watteau, Jean-Antoine (22)
PEOPLE ARTISTS REALISM AND IMPRESSIONISM
Courbet, Gustave (22, 83)
1819 1877; prominent Realist artist; presented an exuberant and outgoing personality; painted The Stonebreakers (1849 1850); friend of James Abbott McNeill Whistler 1808 1879; Realist artist
Daumier, Honor (23)
Degas, Edgar (24) Manet, douard (23)
1834 1917; Impressionist; emulated the slight overhead perspective of Japanese prints and the snapshot appearance of photographs 1832 1883; professed himself a non-Impressionist; some art historians still regard him the first Impressionist; his style contrasts intense colors to mimic light; painted Luncheon on the Grass (1863) 1814 1875; Realist artist 1840 1926; painted and exhibited Impression Sunrise (1873), which inspired the name of the Impressionist movement; encouraged Impressionist artists to paint outdoors; often painted recognizable landscapes as opposed to abstract, universal situations like what Joseph Mallord William Turner painted; known to have collected hundreds of Japanese woodprints 1830 1903; notable Impressionist artist 1839 1899; notable Impressionist artist
Millet, Jean Franois (23) Monet, Claude (23, 81, 83)
Pissarro, Camille (23) Sisley, Alfred (23)
PEOPLE ARTISTS POST-IMPRESSIONISM & THE LATE 19TH CENTURY
Czanne, Paul (23)
1839 1906; leading Post-Impressionist; reacted to Impressionisms incoherent forms through geometrically structured paintings; proposed dividing compositions into well-defined foreground, middle ground, and background planes; believed that arrangements of geometric forms such as cubes, cones, or spheres defined all objects in a painting; influenced Cubism 1843 1903; while in his forties, this Post-Impressionist deserted his wife, family, and stockbroker career to study art; briefly trained under van Gogh; traveled to Tahiti seeking rich tropical colors and the islands aborigines as painting subjects 1859 1891; prioritized color science; applied the technique of optical mixing in which tiny dots of complementary colors blend into spectacular colors; unfortunately, this artist could not paint active compositions due to his focus on technique 1853 1890; Dutch painter who based his colors on emotions in works such as Night Caf (1888); depicted the sunlit country of southern France in compositions with thick paint and contrasting colors; applied energetic, twisting brushstrokes; known to have collected hundreds of Japanese woodprints
Gauguin, Paul (24)
Seurat, Georges (24)
Van Gogh, Vincent (24, 83)
PEOPLE ARTISTS MODERNISM, ABSTRACTION & POSTMODERNISM
Albers, Josef (26)
1888 1976; renowned painter, graphic artist, and designer; one of the Bauhaus professors who moved to the United States after Nazis closed the institute in Germany 1876 1957; painted The Kiss, a feature at the Armory Show (1913)
Brancusi, Constantine (24)
Braque, Georges (25, 39) Dal, Salvador (26) Duchamp, Marcel (26)
1882 1963; along with Pablo Picasso, invented Cubism (c. 1908) and the collage (c. 1912) 1904 1989; Surrealist artist 1887 1968; masterminded the Cubist Nude Descending a Staircase (1912) and the Dadaist Fountain (1917) as well as LHOOQ (1919); invented ready-mades, in which common objects in a new context equate art 1930 ; reacted against abstraction through naturalistic artworks involving commonplace objects such as flags, numbers, maps, and letters 1906 2005; renowned International Style architect who shifted to decorative Postmodernism in 1970, built the AT&T Building (1984) 1866 1944; Russian artist at the head of the German group of Expressionist artists, Der Blaue Reiter; painted purely abstract paintings in c. 1913 1880 1938; member of the German Expressionist group Die Brcke 1910 1962; Abstract Expressionist artist 1904 1997; Abstract Expressionist artist 1908 1984; Abstract Expressionist artist 1898 1967; Surrealist artist 1878 1935; Russian painter; one of the first purely abstract artists 1869 1954; led the Fauves in painting with controversially bright arbitrary colors 1893 1983; Surrealist artist 1872 1944; Dutch artist who invented the De Stijl paintings wildly popular in modern art; his De Stijl images contain only flat areas of primary color; one of the first purely abstract artists 1863 1944; this Norwegian painters emotionally moving work inspired the German artist group Die Brcke to create Expressionism 1867 1956; member of the German Expressionist group Die Brcke 1881 1973; along with Georges Braque; invented Cubism (c. 1908 and the collage (c. 1912); painted Les Demoiselles d Avignon (1907); created Bulls Head (1943) out of a bicycle seat and bicycle handlebars 1912 1956; archetypal Abstract Expressionist artist; dripped paint onto the canvas instead of using a brush; his work fits into the actionpainting category of Abstract Expressionism 1925 2008; reacted against abstraction through naturalistic artworks involving commonplace objects; assembled discarded objects into combines; treated his bedclothes as a canvas in Bed (1955); created Monogram (1959) out of items like a stuffed goat, tire, police barrier, shoe heel, tennis ball, and paint
Johns, Jasper (26)
Johnson, Philip (27) Kandinsky, Vassily (25)
Kirchner, Ernst Ludwig (25) Kline, Franz (26) Kooning, Willem de (26) Krasner, Lee (26) Magritte, Ren (26) Malevich, Kazimir (25) Matisse, Henri (25) Mir, Joan (26) Mondrian, Piet (25)
Munch, Edvard (25) Nolde, Emil (25) Picasso, Pablo (25, 39)
Pollock, Jackson (26)
Rauschenberg, Robert (26, 39)
PEOPLE ARTISTS POP ART, MINIMALISM, AND PHOTOREALISM

Close, Chuck (27) Cornell, Joseph (39) Flavin, Dan (27) Hanson, Duane (27) Indiana, Robert (27) Lichtenstein, Roy (27) Smith, David (27) Stella, Frank (27) Warhol, Andy (27)
1940 present; Photorealist who painted lifelike portraits 1903 1972; placed assorted objects in open boxes; symbols and metaphors unite the various objects in his boxes 1933 1996; Minimalist sculptor; worked with neon tubing 1925 1996; Photorealist who crafted humorous sculptures of common people 1928 present; Pop Artist who used commercial sign stencils 1923 1997; Pop Artist who imitated the colored dots of comic books on a massive scale 1906 1965; Minimalist sculptor; worked with stainless steel 1877 1946; Minimalist artist who created hard-edge paintings containing precise outlines 1928 1987; Pop Art celebrity who drew silkscreens of soup cans, Brillo boxes, and movie stars; followed a mechanical approach that mocked fine art
PEOPLE ARTISTS ENVIRONMENTAL AND PERFORMANCE ART
Christo (27)
1935 present; along with his wife Jeanne-Claude, pioneered Earthworks through packaged architecture or landscapes; his creations include fabric wrapping around public monuments, a 24-mile long fence of cloth in California, pink plastic wrapping around 11 islands in Florida; and gateways of orange fabric in Central Park Feminist group founded in 1985 in New York; the anonymous members wear gorilla masks in public; through posters, public speeches, and other guerilla warfare tactics, this faction protests white male dominance in the art world 1944 present; created Earthworks 1935 present; coordinated the creation of Earthworks by her husband, Christo 1938 1973; created Earthworks
Guerilla Girls (27)
Heizer, Michael (27) Jeanne-Claude (27) Smithson, Robert (27)
PEOPLE ARTISTS ARCHITECTS
Gaudi, Antonio (41)
1852 1926; in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, planned cut stone buildings in Spain, this architect disregarded flat surfaces and straight lines to give his structures a highly organic appearance Arthur Blomfield apprenticed himself to this architect before establishing his own practice
Hardwick, Philip Charles (70)
PEOPLE ART HISTORIANS
Ben-Amos, Paula (50)
Professor of anthropology and African studies; in relation to the original function of plaques said that very few of them now appear to us to convey narratives Dubbed the ivory carvings produced by the Sapi for the Portuguese as Afro-Portuguese ivories in 1959; this designation indicated that the production was a combination of the two cultures Interpreted Joseph Mallord William Turners Slave Ship as a judgment sentence on slavers and a retribution for the innocent lives lost 23 79 C.E.; ancient Roman historian; analyzed artworks from the past and his time in Natural History Analyzed the importance of tea to the British during the time of James Abbott McNeill Whistlers painting, Purple and Rose; claimed that by the late 18th and first half of the 19th centuries, tea had become Great Britains national beverage 1511 1574; wrote The Lives of the Artists on biographies of illustrious Italian artists up to the Renaissance; established artist-centric art history; this historians work showcases the Renaissances influence on the new role of the artist and the concept of artistic genius Analyzed the historical accuracy of John Frederick Lewis A Lady Receiving Visitors; determined that the painting is extremely accurate with the exception of the setting: a woman would never be allowed in the mandarah in a Muslim home 1717 1768; German Enlightenment scholar; promoted art history focused on parallels between history and stylistic changes; departed from Vasaris art history centered on artist biographies; exemplifies the effect of Enlightenment ideas on art history
Fagg, William (48)
Landow, George (82) Pliny the Elder (6) Ray, Romita (84)
Vasari, Giorgio (7)
Weeks, Emily (85, 86)
Winckelmann, Johann Joachim (7)
PEOPLE ART SUBJECTS, TEACHERS, AND STUDENTS
Gleyre, Charles (83) Hannibal (81)
Mentor to many French Impressionist painters; James Abbott McNeill Whistler attended classes in this artists studio in France Ancient Roman military leader; this man and his troops were caught in a snowstorm in the mountains in 218 B.C.E.; this event inspired Joseph Mallord William Turners painting, Snow Storm Hannibal Crossing the Alps Model for Purple and Rose: The Lange Leizen of the Six Marks, Symphony in White, No. 1: The White Girl, Symphony in White, No. 2: The Little White Girl, and some paintings by Gustave Courbet; James Abbott McNeill Whistlers mistress in the 1860s; mistress of Gustave Courbets as well
Hiffernan, Joanna (83)
Peale, Charles Willson (75)
American artist; traveled to London to study under Benjamin West; returned to the United States, bringing the influences of European classicism 1644 1718; founder of Pennsylvania; associated with the Quakers, religious tolerance, and fair relationships with the Native Americans; subject of Benjamin Wests Penns Treaty with the Indians 1734 1818; famous for his midnight ride in April 1775; accomplished silversmith, goldsmith, and even dentist; from the 1760s on, produced engraving for magazines, bookplates and trading cards; active in church and politics; joined the Sons of Liberty in 1765; sat for Paul Revere in 1768 when he was about 34 years old See Peale, Charles Willson See Peale, Charles Willson William Hodges apprenticed himself to this artist in 1758; landscape painter and member of the Royal Academy General; died in the 1759 Battle of Quebec; inspired Benjamin Wests controversial painting, The Death of General Wolfe
Penn, William (76)
Revere, Paul (64)
Stuart, Gilbert (75) Trumbull, John (75) Wilson, Richard (78) Wolfe, James (75)
PEOPLE CULTURES, CIVILIZATIONS, AND EMPIRES
Akkadian (10)
c. 2,340 2,150 B.C.E.; Sargon led this civilization in conquering Sumer; this culture assimilated Sumerian society despite a language barrier; under this dynasty, subjects revered the king and not the city state; fashioned freestanding and relief portrait sculptures of monarchs; an invasion of Guti barbarians toppled this dynasty in c. 2,150 B.C.E. Hiberno-Saxon art combines the innovations of Celtic Ireland and this English culture with Viking styles Cultural group connected to the Guro Cultural group connected to the Guro The northern coast of South America was originally populated by the Carib peoples and this tribe; after much European conquest and debate, the area became British Guiana and, eventually, Guyana Neighbors to the Fante; part of the Akan language group; located in Ghana; traded the Europeans slaves for luxury goods; used gold and copper alloys in royal art; famous for creating woodcarvings and textiles, especially kente cloth, woven by men for royalty Cultural group on Melanesia in Oceania; designated art traditions centered on warfare; formerly a head-hunting culture; created wooden shields adorned with black, red, and white patterns; currently uses wooden shields as cultural symbols and not war equipment
Anglo-Saxon (15) Anyi (54) Attie (54) Arawak (70)
Asante (45, 46, 50, 52, 55)
Asmat (31)
Assyrian (10)
Reigned over northern Mesopotamia during the eras of Sumerian, Akkadian, and Babylonian influence in southern Mesopotamia; dominated the Near East from c. 900 B.C.E. to c. 600 B.C.E.; produced relief sculptures commemorating sieges, battles, hunts, and other noteworthy events; faltered throughout the 7th century B.C.E. and succumbed to the Neo-Babylonian civilization (c. 612 538 B.C.E.) One of the early civilizations in the Americas Cultural group neighboring and much larger than the Guro; created Mami Wata masks very similar to Face Mask Nigerian civilization from the 13th through 18th centuries; founded in 900 C.E.; produced objects related to lavish court life, bronze portrait busts, and relics emphasizing the authority of the oba, or king; in 1897, the British raided this kingdoms palace and destroyed or seized innumerable artifacts; neighbors of the Yoruba; dubbed Beny Kingdom and admired by the Portuguese Portuguese name for the Benin Kingdom Descendant of the Sapi in Sierra Leone African culture; along with the Dan, produced fascinating ritual masks Eastern half of the Roman empire; survived the fall of Rome; crafted meticulous mosaics of ceramic tiles or pieces of stone and glass; placed mosaic work on church walls such as those in Ravenna; built the Hagia Sophia (532 537 C.E.) in Constantinople The northern coast of South America was originally populated by the Arawak peoples and this tribe; after much European conquest and debate, the area became British Guiana and, eventually, Guyana Hiberno-Saxon art combines the innovations of Anglo-Saxon England and this Irish culture with Viking styles First Aegean Sea civilization; c. 3,200 2,000 B.C.E.; crafted decorative pottery, marble vessels, and simple, geometric nude female figurines; settled on the Cyclades archipelago; the Minoan culture dethroned this society African culture; along with the Bwa, produced fascinating ritual masks See Lenape Inhabitants of the Benin Kingdom Greek art influenced early Roman art through this civilization that existed in Italy during the 1st millennium B.C.E.; this cultures art Male weavers in this cultural group and the Asante create kente cloth; El Anatsui is the son and brother of weavers from this group Located in coastal area of Ghana, or the Gold Coast; neighbors to the Asante and part of the Akan language group; power in culture held by chiefs and Asafo companies; created Asafo Flag
Aztec (32) Baule (54, 55) Benin Kingdom (30, 48, 52)
Beny Kingdom (48) Bolum (47) Bwa (30) Byzantium (14)
Carib (70)
Celtic (15) Cycladic (11)
Dan (30) Delaware (76) Edo (48) Etruscan (13) Ewe (55, 57) Fante (50)
Fon (52) Guro (53)
Cultural group nearby and closely connected to the Yoruba Cultural group in Cte dIvoire; neighbored by the Baule, connected to the Yaure, Wan, Anyi, and Attie groups; known for masquerade tradition; ruled by a council of elders which can appoint a war council if necessary; populated by approximately 50 villages; focused on agriculture, family, woodcarving, and blacksmithing; produced Face Mask These barbarians vanquished Akkad and controlled Mesopotamia from c. 2,150 B.C.E. to c. 2,090 B.C.E. Traditional motifs of this group are called uli; artists from the Nsukka Group, especially Uche Okeke, favored the use of this motif See Aztec Descendant of the Sapi in Sierra Leone Located in the Western Congo Basin; traded the Europeans slaves for luxury goods; created and used minkisi which were wiped out by Belgian conquerors Native Americans in Pennsylvania; William Penn offered this tribe gifts in exchange for rights to the land; also known as Leni Lenape or Delaware tribe See Lenape Cultural group on New Zealand; exemplifies Oceanic cultures that adapt older traditions to modern contexts The native people and culture of Mumbai, India; many of the name changes in Mumbai promote this identity; Chhatrapati Shivaji founded this nation One of the early American civilizations; carved patterns on buildings Adjective form of a word meaning great stones; refers to a New Stone age culture that erected rock formations in Western Europe Second Aegean Sea civilization; most prominent in the 2nd millennium B.C.E.; based around the city of Knossos on the island of Crete; in this cultures legends, the labyrinthine royal palace of Knossos housed the Minotaur, a bull-man creature that consumed intruders; painted naturalistic pottery designs and palace frescoes depicting sea life; sculpted statues of a female snake goddess; built four unfortified palaces on Crete in light and organic styles In the 17th century, the Hindu king Chhatrapati Shivaji led a resistance against this group and founded the Marathi nation in Mumbai, India Third Aegean Sea civilization; peaked at the same time as the decline of the Minoan culture, leading historians to believe that this culture wiped out the Minoans; the city of Mycenae on mainland Greece served as this civilizations capital; constructed elegant tombs that preserved many relics; proficient in goldsmithing and relief sculpture
Guti (10) Igbo (56) Inca (32) Kissi (47) Kongo (45, 46)
Lenape (76)
Leni Lenape (76) Maori (31) Marathi (68)
Maya (32) Megalithic (9) Minoan (11, 12)
Mughals (68) Mycenaean (11, 12)
Native Americans (32) Nazi Germany (26) Neo-Babylonian (10)
Crafted pueblo complexes in the Southwest; Bentons Indiana Murals depicts the deportation of these people from Indiana This regime closed the Bauhaus school of design in 1933 c. 612 538 B.C.E.; succeeded Assyria as the major power in the Near East; constructed the famed hanging gardens and the Ishtar Gate, the entrance to the temple of Bel In c. 2,090 B.C.E., dethroned the Guti barbarians in the Near East; the King of Ur was the first monarch to rule this civilization; erected ziggurats at city centers, which fulfilled administrative, economic, and, most importantly, religious purposes Blossomed in present-day Nigeria in c. 500 B.C.E.; crafted highly realistic terracotta sculptures, mostly likely portraits of political and religious leaders; perhaps affected later cultures like the Yoruba Source of abstract, decorative, and geometric metalwork in the form of small jewelry or ornaments from the early medieval period (c. 375 1025); used bronze, silver, and gold in gem-encrusted metalwork Native American culture; currently crafts boxes and house boards bearing traditional decorative patterns Ruled a wide expanse of Africa south of Egypt; controlled Egypt during one period of the civilizations history; pharaohs came from Nubia during this time See Aztec This Empire competed with France and Great Britain for control of North Africa; when France attacked, this empire and the British Empire allied and drove the French out; in 1805, Muhammed Ali gained power and drove the British out as well; when John Frederick Lewis lived in Cairo, the region was ruled by the Turks under this empire; in 1882, due to financial difficulties, this empire surrendered control of the region to the British Civilization based in present-day Iran; c. 538 330 B.C.E.; proficient in architecture; built the Palace of Persepolis Drew from Etruscan art early on; emulated Greece by the 2nd century B.C.E.; invented concrete and the curved arch; constructed aqueducts, bridges, the Colosseum, and the Pantheon; sculpted triumphal arches celebrating emperors or military victories; crafted relief sculptures for funerals; created works in an idealized rather than naturalistic style. Located along the coastline of Guinea and Sierra Leone; ancestor to the Temne, Kissi, and Bolum; admired by the Portuguese; organized into small communities ruled by local chiefs; during the 15th and 16th centuries, produced many ivory carvings for Portuguese explorers; created Lidded Saltcellar
Neo-Sumerian (10)
Nok (30)
Nomadic Germanic (14)
Northwest Coast Indians (41) Nubian (11)
Olmec (32) Ottoman Empire (85, 86)
Persian Empire (10) Roman (14)
Sapi (47)
Sumerian (10)
c. 4,000 2,340 B.C.E.; first major civilization in Mesopotamia; revolved around religion; over time, this cultures simple platform temples became stepped pyramids, or ziggurats; valued loyalty to the city-state; Sargon of Akkad subjugated this society in 2,340 B.C.E. Descendant of the Sapi in Sierra Leone See Aztec Hailed from Scandinavia; most skilled in wood carvings, especially on ships; Hiberno-Saxon art arose from this cultures invasions and combines the innovations of Anglo-Saxon England and Celtic England with this cultures styles Cultural group connected to the Guro Cultural group connected to the Guro The Nok civilization (originated in c. 500 B.C.E) in present-day Nigeria perhaps shaped this culture and other later societies; large ethnic group in Nigeria; one of the most ancient urban groups on the African continent; known for creating terra cotta and cast metal heads; closely connected with the Benin Kingdom and the Fon; royalty dons beaded crowns to assert power and draw connections between the royal and the orishas, or deities; the slave trade and wars with neighboring kingdoms caused a period of decline in the 18th century; in the 19th century, the slave trade was abolished and the kingdom revived; this resurgence, however, ended with the arrival of the British; created Wrapper
Temne (47) Toltec (32) Viking (14, 15)
Wan (54) Yaure (54) Yoruba (30, 52)
PEOPLE FAMILIES AND PARTNERS OF ARTISTS
Barnes, Frederick (69)
1824 1884; architect influenced by Classical and Greek styles; began a partnership with Joseph Reed in 1862, forming the firm Reed and Barnes; helped design the Royal Exhibition Building; retired in 1883 Engraver and landscape painter; father of John Frederick Lewis John Singleton Copleys mother married this painter and engraver in 1748; introduced Copley to artistic techniques; died in 1751 Painter; uncle of John Frederick Lewis
Lewis, Frederick Christian (85) Pelham, Peter (63) Robert, George (85)
PEOPLE HARLEM RENAISSANCE
Bearden, Romare (25) Lawrence, Jacob (25)
Artist from the generation after the Harlem Renaissance who drew inspiration from the movement See Bearden, Romare
PEOPLE MISCELLANEOUS
Baldensperger, Phillip (31) Calder, Alexander (39) Collingwood, Luke (82)
Published a picture of the Dome of the Rock in The Immovable East: Studies of the People and Customs of Palestine in 1913 1898 1976; this sculptor created mobiles in which forms hang from wires Captain of the slave ship in the infamous Zong Affair in 1781; threw over 100 slaves overboard in order to collect more insurance benefits; reached his destination of Jamaica safely; died on land in 1783; inspired a portion of Thomas Clarksons The History of the Abolition of the Slave Trade and Joseph Mallord William Turners Slave Ship; J.M.W. Turners Slave Ship sentenced judgment on this captain Commander in Great Britains Royal Navy; William Hodges accompanies this commander on his second journey to the Pacific from 1772 to 1775; commanded the ship HMS Resolution and was accompanied by the HMS Adventure 1951- present; works to promote traditional African techniques; creates textiles for local and international markets Famous British artist; work quoted by Yinka Shonibare 1746 1828; Spanish painter and printmaker; created the Sleep of Reason Produces Monsters as part of a set of 80 etchings in a folio called Los Caprichos between 1796 and 1798; inspired Yinka Shonibares Sleep of Reason Produces Monsters Famous British artist; work quoted by Yinka Shonibare Thomas Penns secretary; assisted with the Walking Purchase 17th century landscape painter; while in Europe, Joseph Mallord William Turner studied this artists work along with that of Jacob van Ruisdael Owned the Oxford and Sloan Street Shops where James Abbott McNeill Whistler purchased his Chinese imports Founding member of the Nsukka Group; favored the use of Igbo traditional motifs called uli Used engraving to illustrate the Roman Colosseum in 1757 British Rear Admiral; ordered to head the British Punitive Expedition of 1897 and attack Benin City Painter at the Royal Academy; along with King George III, criticized Benjamin Wests use of contemporary clothing in The Death of General Wolfe
Cook, James (79)
Davies-Okundaya, Nike (53) Gainsborough, Thomas (88) Goya, Francisco (88)
Hogarth, William (88) Logan, James (78) Lorrain, Claude (81)
Marks, Murray (84) Okeke, Uche (56) Piranesi, Giovanni Battista (13) Rawson, Harry (49) Reynolds, Joshua (76)
Ruisdael, Jacob van (81)
17th century landscape painter; while in Europe, Joseph Mallord William Turner studied this artists work along with that of Claude Lorrain British art collector; organized the YBA 1997 show called Sensation Provost at the College of Pennsylvania; noticed Benjamin Wests work in the late 1750s; helped provide the artist with patrons and opportunities
Saatchi, Charles (87) Smith, William (75)
PEOPLE PATRONS AND PATRON FAMILIES
Lord Impey (63)
Served as Chief Justice of the High Court from 1777 to 1785; commissioned many Company School paintings, helping the style to develop Aristocrat in Staffordshire, England; commissioned the set of 50 plates and four dishes that contained Plate; wife to Leake Okeover 1735 1800; French collector; previously French military officer; became a Major General in the British East India Company; lived in Lucknow from the 1770s until his death in 1800; commissioned A Common Indian Nightjar as part of an album of documentary images he was collecting The invention of paper money before the Renaissance enabled this family and other upper-class patrons to amass their wealth 1702 1765; aristocrat in Staffordshire, England; commissioned the set of 50 plates and four dishes that contained Plate; husband to Mary Nichol 1702 1775; son of William Penn; turned against the Quakers and joined the Church of England; infamous for unfair treatment of the Native Americans and the Walking Purchase; commissioned Benjamin Wests Penns Treaty with the Indians to remind the public of the virtue of his family heritage In 1505, hired Michelangelo to plan his tomb but later cancelled the commission; Michelangelo still, albeit reluctantly, accepted his commission to paint the Sistine Chapel ceiling (1508 1512); commissioned Raphael to paint School of Athens (1509 1511) and other upscale frescoes in his offices Served as governor-general from 1798 to 1805; commissioned many Company School paintings, helping the style to develop
Nichol, Mary (60) Martin, Claude (63)
Medici family (15) Okeover, Leake (60)
Penn, Thomas (78)
Pope Julius II (17)
Wellesley, Marquess (63)
PEOPLE POLITICIANS
Adams, Samuel (65) Ali, Muhammed (86)
Led the Sons of Liberty, a Boston political group founded in August 1765 which opposed British colonial policies Ottoman leader; despite their help in expelling the French in the late 18th century, this leader gained control in 1805 and eradicated the British from Egypt Supported royal charters; used the Walking Purchase to help convince the British Crown of the evils of proprietorships Governor-General; supported William Hodges trip to India from 1780 to 1784 Controversial leader of the radical political party, Maharashtra Navnirman Sena; in 2010, referred to the Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus as VT in a speech; had previously criticized a movie director for calling the city Bombay instead of Mumbai in his video
Franklin, Benjamin (78) Hastings, Warren (79) Thackery, Raj (68)
PEOPLE RELIGIOUS AND MYTHICAL FIGURES
Isaac (16)
Lorenzo Ghibertis (c. 1378 1455) first relief for the doors of the Florence baptistery feature the sacrifice of this Christian figure; Ghibertis depiction of this boy borrowed from classical Greek art Leader of a lost Christian kingdom believed to be located in Ethiopia; inspiration for Portuguese explorers Female West African deity; finds balance in opposition; mediates between the earth and the water; often depicted as half-fish, halfhuman; name is a pidgin English name meaning Mother Water; most common image originated from a German chromolithograph According to legend, this man-bull creature feasted on those who entered the labyrinthine royal palace of the Minoan city of Knossos c. 570 632; this prophet founded Islam in the Arabian peninsula; his winged horse appears in Wrapper Hindu goddess that inspired the name Mumbai for the city in India Benin god of the waters; referenced with crocodiles and mudfish; since the Portuguese traveled across the waters, the people of the Benin Kingdom associated them with this deity In a relief sculpture towards the top of the Code of Hammurabi stele, this sun god inspires Hammurabi to write the code Hindu deity; possesses multiple sets of arms; Indian art depict him engaged in elegant dances Raphael painted Sistine Madonna (c. 1513 1514) and other highly influential images of this Christian figure
John, Prester (43) Mami Wata (55)
Minotaur (11) Muhammad (31, 53) Mumbadevi (68) Olokun (50)
Shamash (10) Shiva (29) Virgin Mary (17)
PEOPLE RULERS AND ARISTOCRATS

Alexander the Great (10) Bonaparte, Napoleon (21)
This conqueror ended ancient Egyptian civilization in 332 B.C.E Neoclassical painter Jacques Louis David worked for this emperor; Davids propaganda pieces under this ruler seem to contradict his earlier republican works Russian empress of the Baroque era; one of the most powerful monarchs in history 17th century Hindu king; wise and just; led the resistance against the Mughals and founded the Marathi nation; symbolizes independence in Mumbai Criticized William Hodges The Effects of War and the Consequences of Peace for fear of political statements regarding the British conflict with France United China in c. 210 B.C.E; this rulers tomb contains a life-size army of realistic terracotta statues, including weapons and horses The British named Georgetown in 1812 in honor of this monarch; created the Royal Academy in 1768; commissioned a painting from Benjamin West in 1769 and later appointed him as court painter; along with Joshua Reynolds, disapproved of the use of contemporary dress in Benjamin Wests The Death of General Wolfe; awarded William Penn a proprietary grant for 45,000 square miles in 1681 Celebrated silver jubilee, or 25th anniversary of rule, with Queen Mary in 1935; image on Wrapper In c. 1,792 B.C.E., this king centralized the city-states of Mesopotamia under the rule of Babylonia and wrote the first legal code Renaissance portraitist Hans Holbein the Younger served this English king as a court painter; Holbein painted a detailed and psychological portrait of this ruler Portuguese prince; supporter of explorations in Africa; made important trips to the Atlantic coast of Africa First Neo-Sumerian monarch; succeeded the Guti barbarians in Mesopotamia in c. 2,090 B.C.E. French king of the Baroque era; christened himself the Sun King; one of the most powerful monarchs in history; his reign in France may represent the pinnacle of the Baroque period; initiated construction of the splendid Palace of Versailles in 1669; French aristocrats began dispensing patronage through Salon exhibitions during his rule; this king presided over the founding of the Acadmie Royale de Peinture et de Sculpture (the Academy) Madame Pompadour was a mistress of this king
Catherine the Great (19) Chhatrapati Shivaji (68)
Duke of York (79)
Emperor of Qin (28) George III (70, 75, 76)
George V (53) Hammurabi (10) Henry VIII (19)
Henry the Navigator (43) King of Ur (10) Louis XIV (19, 20)
Louis XV (21)
Madame Pompadour (21) Maria Theresa (19) Mary (53) Narmer (10, 11) Oba Ewuare (49) Oranmiyan (48)
Mistress of Louis XV; supported Rococo artists such as Franois Boucher (1703 1770) and Jean-Honor Fragonard (1732 1806) Austrian empress of the Baroque era; one of the most powerful monarchs in history Celebrated silver jubilee, or 25th anniversary of rule, with King George V in 1935; image on Wrapper Ruled Old Kingdom Egypt in c. 3,000 B.C.E.; in his namesake palette, holds an enemy by the hair and prepares to strike a deathblow Ruler of the Benin Kingdom in the late 15th century; greatly expanded the Obas palace compound Prince who traveled from the nearby Yoruba kingdom at Ife to start the second Benin dynasty in the end of the 14th century; the Oba is said to be the divine descendant of this ruler Russian emperor of the Baroque era; one of the most powerful monarchs in history Spanish King who modeled his court after that of Louis XIV; employed Diego Velzquez (1599 1660) as a court painter In c. 2,340 B.C.E, subjugated Sumer and began the Akkadian dynasty in Mesopotamia See Louis XIV 1361 1352 B.C.E.; while thieves plundered most Pharaohs tombs by the 20th century, the tomb of this boy king remained untouched due to a well-hidden location; in 1922, archaeologists excavated a wealth of treasures from this kings crypt, most famously his burial mask made of gold, blue glass, and semi-precious tombs The Victoria Terminus Building was given its name to celebrate the jubilee of this monarch; this ruler recognized Melbourne, Australia as a city in 1847
Peter the Great (19) Philip IV (20) Sargon (10) Sun King (20) Tutankhamen (11)
Victoria (66, 68)
PEOPLE SCIENTISTS
Freud, Sigmund (26) Newton, Sir Isaac (34)
This psychologists theories inspired the Surrealist movement in which artists depicted the inner human mind During the 17th century, this scientist formulated the concepts that gave rise to the color wheel in the 18th century
PEOPLE WRITERS, POETS, AND CRITICS
Clarkson, Thomas (82)
Abolitionist author; expanded his 1786 treatise called An essay on the slavery and commerce of the human species, particularly the African, translated from a Latin dissertation to write The History of the Abolition of the Slave Trade in 1808; inspired Joseph Mallord William Turners painting Slave Ship; addressed the 1840 Anti-Slavery Society Convention and republished his abolitionist writings for the occasion Along with Harold Rosenberg and other art critics, this writer controlled the art scene in New York in the 1950s; favored abstract artists Wrote a famous poem, romanticizing Paul Reveres midnight ride, in 1861; account taken to be factual; failed to recognize the people that rode with Revere Along with Clement Greenberg and other art critics, this writer controlled the art scene in New York in the 1950s Enlightenment writer who criticized the dominant Baroque ruling class Art critic and supporter of Joseph Mallord William Turner; criticized James Abbott McNeill Whistlers Nocturne in Black and Gold: The Falling Rocket; accused Whistler of flinging a pot of paint in the publics face; sued by Whistler for libel Wrote Notes of a Journey from Cornhill to Grand Cairo in 1846; described John Frederick Lewis life in Cairo as the lifestyle and dress of an Ottoman pasha or governor
Greenberg, Clement (26)
Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth (64) Rosenberg, Harold (26) Rousseau, Jean-Jacques (19) Ruskin, John (83)
Thackery, William Makepeace (85)
PHRASE AND WORD TRANSLATIONS

Asafo (50) Bombay (68) Ise kosehin oluwa (53) Lange (84) Mami Wata (55) Mandarah (86)
War people Good bay; English version of the Portuguese words; original name for the city Mumbai Everything is known to God; words in Yoruba at the bottom of Wrapper Long in Dutch Mother Water; pidgin English name; female deity in West Africa Area of a Muslim house that only men were allowed in; John Frederick Lewis painted a woman in this area in order to possibly make a political statement about the treatment of women Rulers of the Sky; original leaders of the Benin Kingdom; replaced by the Oba Forests in Latin; William Penns name for his territory; named Pennsylvania by King George III in honor of Penns father
Ogiso (48) Sylvania (76)
PHRASES AND QUOTES
Art for arts sake (84)
James Abbott McNeill Whistlers philosophy that art could simply be created for its beauty and powers for evoking emotions; Whistler denied any deeper meanings to his artworks; to support this philosophy, Whistler named his works with musical terms While attending Brym Shaw School of Art, Yinka Shonibare was asked why he did not create this; this question cause him to question African identity and art The offense John Ruskin accused James Abbott McNeill Whistler of doing with his Nocturne in Black and Gold; The Falling Rocket; due to this quote, Whistler sued John Ruskin for libel and won William Makepeace Thackerys account of John Frederick Lewis life in Cairo fascinated British audiences since he had adopted the lifestyle and done this Description of the Benin Kingdom by a Portuguese explorer in the 1490s
Authentic African art (86)
Flinging a pot of paint in the publics face (83) Gone native (85)
The Kingdom of Beny is about eighty leagues long and forty wide; it is usually at war with its neighbours and takes many captives, whom we buy at twelve or fifteen brass bracelets each, or for copper bracelets, which they prize more (49)
POSITIONS AND PROFESSIONS
Admiral Sir (76) Assistant engineer (67) Bishop of the Church of England (70) Captain (82) Chief Justice of the High Court (63) Commander (79) Engineer (83) Governor-General (70, 79)
Position of William Penns father, also William Penn; this position provided Penn with a connection to the British monarchy Frderick William Stevens was assigned to this position in the Public Works Department of India in 1867 Arthur Blomfields father served in this role Role of Luke Collingwood on the slave ship in the Zong Affair Lord Impey, prominent patron of the Company School style, served in this position from 1777 to 1785 James Cooks position in the British Royal Navy James Abbott McNeill Whistlers fathers work in this profession led the family to move to Russia when Whistler was young Marquess Wellesley, prominent patron of the Company School style, served in this position from 1798 to 1805; rank of Warren Hastings, supporter of William Hodges trip to India
Major General (63) Master of ceremonies (21) Member of the Order of the British Empire (87) Oba (30, 48, 52)
Rank of French collector Claude Martin in the British East India Company; Claude Martin commissioned A Common Indian Nightjar Neoclassical artist Jacques Louis David (1748 1825) fulfilled this role in Frances post-revolutionary government Title awarded to Yinka Shonibare in 2005; ironic title considering Shonibares work criticizing imperialism Many relics of Nigerias Benin Kingdom from the 13th through 18th centuries embellish the might of this figure; the ruler of the Benin Kingdom since Oranmiyan founded the second dynasty in the end of the 14th century; each ruler is a divine descendant of Oranmiyan; also ruler of Yoruba kingdom Governor; William Makepeace Thackery described John Frederick Lewis lifestyle as an Ottoman man in this position William Smiths position at the College of Pennsylvania Rank of Harry Rawson when he was ordered to lead the Benin Punitive Expedition Before his midnight ride, Paul Revere was primarily recognized for his abilities in this profession; over the course of his career, Revere created 5,000 objects, 64 of which were teapots
Pasha (85) Provost (75) Rear Admiral (49) Silversmith (64)
PUBLICATION
Los Caprichos (88)
Translates to Los Capriches or The Follies; title of Francisco Goyas set of 80 etchings produced between 1796 and 1798; includes The Sleep of Reason Produces Monsters
RELIGIONS AND BELIEF SYSTEMS
Anglican Church (70, 71, 76)
The official religion of the British Empire; religion of William Penns family and Thomas Penn; opposing toward Catholics, Puritans, Quakers, and followers of other religions; religion of St. Georges Cathedral; also known as Church of England Alongside Hinduism, influenced art in India; also impacted China and Japan The Protestant Reformation in the 16th century protested this religions corruption and lavish decorations; in response to the Protestants, this religion commenced a Counter Reformation, which further pursued upscale decorations and melodramatic art Determined the subjects of most Byzantine mosaics; treasures Jerusalem as a sacred city; the rise of this religion shaped medieval art
Buddhism (28, 29) Catholic Church (18)
Christianity (14, 32, 42)
Church of England (76) Hinduism (28, 68)
See Anglican Church Alongside Buddhism, influenced art in India; this religion inspired a lively and sinuous style in Indian art, as seen in depictions of the god Shiva dancing with his multiple arms; origin of goddess Mumbadevi who inspired the new name for Mumbai, India The prophet Muhammad (c. 570 632) founded this world religion in the Arabian peninsula; the Quran, a text sacred to this religion, records Muhammads edicts; rules in the Quran restrict most art from this religion to abstract patterns or calligraphy; Jerusalems Dome of the Rock (687 692) and mosque temples demonstrate the style of architects from this religion; treasures Jerusalem as a sacred city; expansion of this religion into the Mediterranean alarmed Europeans and sparked the Crusades This religion grew out of the Reformation that shaped 15th century art; followers of this Catholic denomination spurned the Catholic Church for its corruption and luxury Religion of William Penn; purchased land in North America to create a refuge for this religion and others that were persecuted for their faith; rejected by Thomas Penn; dressed in highly ornamental clothing with silk stockings and lace detailing in the 17th century; wore plain, sober clothing in the 18th century; opposed to proprietorships; faith of the majority of the membership of the Society for Effecting the Abolition of the Slave Trade; also known as the Society of Friends See Quaker
Islam (31, 43)
Protestantism (18)
Quaker (76, 77, 78, 82)
Society of Friends (78)
TERMS ARCHITECTURE

Aqueduct (14) Arch (40) Barrel vault (15) Curved arch (14) Dome (14, 16, 40)
Rome built these water bridges after inventing the curved arch The vault and dome extend this concept Tunnel of arches; common form for Romanesque churches Rome invented this structural element; visible in Roman bridges and aqueducts This element extends the concept behind the arch; concrete allowed the Romans to build large variations of this structure; Brunelleschis double-shelled version of this element tops Florence cathedral; The outer side of the arch An ornamental top portion of a building; seen in Philip Johnsons Postmodernist AT&T Building (1984) Pivotal advance in Gothic architecture; arches and other structures stand on the exterior side of a wall and resist the walls outward as well as downward thrust; enabled large stained glass windows
Extrados (14) Finial (28) Flying buttress (15)
Gothic pointed arch (15) Horseshoe Islamic arch (14) Impost (14) Intrados (14) Key-stone (14) Mosque (32) Pier (14) Post-and-lintel (9, 40) Qibla (32) Ribbed vault (15) Roman arch (15)
Instrumental in Gothic architecture; culminates in a point to increase the height of both the arch and the ceiling the arch supports An arch that bulges out before terminating at the bottom In an arch, this base separates the arch and the posts on which the arch stands The inner side of the arch Central voussoir of the arch Islamic structure for communal prayer; includes a qibla wall facing Mecca One of the posts on which the arch rests In this construction method, two vertical pieces hold up a horizontal piece; seen in Stonehenge, the Greek Parthenon, and modern buildings In Muslim mosques, this wall faces Mecca In this construction method, stone arches support the underside of intersecting barrel vaults Church architects from the earlier part of the late medieval period (c. 900 1500) based their designs on this structural element, inspiring the name Romanesque The ancient Romans erected these massive arches and carved in relief sculptures to commemorate military victories Structure shaped like an arch; serves as a roof support or ceiling; challenges in building an enormous version of this structure prevented architects from completing Florence Cathedral for years; Romes Colosseum features this type of construction These wedge-shaped bricks are the building blocks of an arch
Triumphal arch (14) Vault (15, 16, 40)
Voussoir (14)
TERMS ART HISTORY

Anthropology (5) Aesthetics (5) Art (5)
Along with sociology and history, sister discipline of art history This type of philosophy explores beauty and its expression; art history intersects with this field Modern concept that encompasses not only fine art but also crafts (such as pottery, textiles, and body art) and mass-produced objects (such as posters, advertisements, and household items); almost any manmade visual object with special meaning or aesthetic appeal fits this classification Informs the public of events in the art world through news media This field peruses an artworks social, cultural, and economic contexts in an attempt to understand the original meaning of the artwork Peruses an artworks historical context to discover its meaning
Art criticism (5) Art history (5) Contextual analysis (6)
Fine art (5)
The focus of early art historians; limited to paintings, prints, drawings, sculptures, and architecture; only objects produced for an audience (which perceives the object as an artwork) fit this classification Peruses an artworks formal qualities to discover its meaning Along with anthropology and sociology, sister discipline of art history Along with anthropology and history, sister discipline of art history This category of art encompasses film, photography, television, advertisement posters, and other similar works; these mediums have eclipsed historic masterpieces and artistic genius
Formal analysis (5) History (5) Sociology (5) Visual culture (5)
TERMS DRAWING
Crosshatching (36)
Shading technique; uses a mass of crisscrossing lines; Albrecht Drer applied this technique to shade darker areas of his engraving Veronica; can imply three-dimensionality This type of spray prevents drawing mediums like pastel from smearing Shading technique; uses a mass of parallel lines; Albrecht Drer applied this technique to shade the background and other darker areas of his engraving Veronica; can imply three-dimensionality Shading technique; uses a mass of dots; dense dots produce darker values and sparse dots produce lighter values
Fixative (36) Hatching (36)
Stippling (36)
TERMS ELEMENTS OF ART
Color (34) Elements of art (32) Form (32) Line (32) Perspective (17, 33) Shape (32) Space (32) Texture (34)
Hue, value, and intensity all describe this element of art; artists may use local, optical, or arbitrary variations of this element of art The rudimentary aspects of an artwork, including line, shape, form, space, color, and texture Three-dimensional geometric or organic volume Fundamental element of art; refers to a points path through space The impression of depth as achieved through various techniques; Mannerist art deforms scale and this element of art Two-dimensional geometric or organic area The figures in an artwork form this positive area; the other areas in an artwork form this negative area The surface feel of a real or perceived object
TERMS ELEMENTS OF ART COLOR

Adjacent color (34) Arbitrary color (34)
A color next to another color on the color wheel A colors value altered to reflect special emotions or aesthetics
Color relativity (34)
According to this 19th-century discovery, colors next to another color change the colors intensity: similar colors decrease the colors intensity and contrasting colors increase the colors intensity This 18th-century invention built on Sir Isaac Newtons discoveries in the 17th century; this diagram of the 12 hues provides a chart which predetermines the results of mixing colors The hue directly across from another color on the color wheel; red versus green, for example Green, blue, and violet; seem to recede away from the viewer; hearken to cool forests, mountain lakes, or snow The name of a color; black, white, and gray do not fit in this category Identifies a colors brightness or purity; the three primary colors red, yellow, and blue represent the highest points of this attribute; mixing in neutrals or complementary colors detracts from this attribute A colors value without reflections or lighting effects Includes black, white, and all values of gray; these colors are not hues A colors value with special lighting effects, such as moonlight or candlelight Red, blue, and yellow; all other colors derive from mixtures of these colors Orange, green, and violet; produced through combining two primary colors (red and yellow make orange, for example) Darker value of a color; opposite of a tint Red-violet, red-orange, yellow-orange, yellow-green, blue-green, and blue-violet; produced through combining a primary color and a secondary color next to it on the color wheel (blue and green make blue-green, for example) Lighter value of a color; opposite of a shade Describes the amount of light or dark in a hue or gray Red, orange, and yellow; seem to move towards the viewer; hearken to warm sunlight, fire heat, or dry summer grass
Color wheel (34)
Complementary color (34) Cool colors (34) Hue (34) Intensity (34)
Local color (34) Neutrals (34) Optical color (34) Primary colors (34) Secondary colors (34) Shade (36) Tertiary colors (34)
Tint (36) Value (34) Warm colors (34)
TERMS ELEMENTS OF ART LINE
Horizontal line (32) Implied line (32) Vertical line (32)
This type of line adds stability, peace, and tranquility to a composition, unlike active curved or jagged lines A path of dots or lines forms this type of line This type of line adds stability and draws the eye upward; medieval churches use this line to engender spiritual awe
TERMS ELEMENTS OF ART PERSPECTIVE
Aerial perspective (16, 33)
Renaissance painter Masaccio (1401 1428) used linear perspective and this technique in fresco paintings; replicates the effect of fog, smoke, and airborne particles on distant objects; artists using this method reduce color or shading contrasts and lower saturation when depicting distant objects; also called atmospheric perspective See Aerial perspective The outlines of objects; artists alter these outlines to imitate light shining on the objects In this approach, the relative sizes of different figures or objects mirror their relative importance; as seen in the Egyptian Palette of King Narmer (c. 3,000 B.C.E.): King Narmer towers over other subjects Along with flat areas, popular in traditional Japanese art; in this technique, all objects appear at the same size regardless of distance Florentine architect Filippo Brunelleschi (1377 1446) invented this method; also known as single vanishing point perspective; Renaissance painter Masaccio (1401 - 1428 first applied this technique in art; even though northern Renaissance painters learned this approach, they used it in a different manner; lines converge towards one or more vanishing points on a real or imaginary horizon Invention of Giotto di Bondone (1267 1337), a fresco painter from the transition between the Gothic and Renaissance periods; this technique overlaps objectives to imply distance See Linear perspective In linear perspective, lines converge towards this point on the horizon
Atmospheric perspective (33) Contours (32) Hierarchical scale (10)
Isometric perspective (29) Linear perspective (16, 19, 33)
Simple perspective (15)
Single vanishing point perspective (16) Vanishing point (16)
TERMS ELEMENTS OF ART SHAPE AND FORM
Foreshortening114 (32) Geometric (11, 14, 21, 26, 32)
Along with shading and perspective, a method for implying form in a two-dimensional artwork Refers to precise, regular, and mathematically defined shapes or forms; add order or stability to an artwork; this term describes Cycladic nude female statuettes, medieval Germanic metalwork, paintings by Neoclassical artist Jean Dominique Ingres (1780 1867), and Abstract Expressionist color field paintings
114
Recall that in foreshortening, artists shorten lines so as to create an illustration of depth (Princeton WordWeb).
Organic (12, 32, 41)
Refers to natural, irregular, and freeform shapes or forms; add movement or rhythm to an artwork; this term describes the four Minoan palaces on Knossos and Antonio Gaudis (1852 1926) architecture Along with foreshortening and perspective, a method for implying form in a two-dimensional artwork
Shading (32)
TERMS ELEMENTS OF ART SPACE

Figure (32) Negative space (32) Positive space (32)
See Positive space The areas of an artwork other than the figures, such as the background The figures of an artwork occupy this area; also called the figure
TERMS ELEMENTS OF ART TEXTURE

Actual texture (34) Visual texture (34)
Yarn, rope, shells, and the like create this type of texture The impression of texture, as seen in a painting of coarse grass
TERMS PAINTING
Airbrush (27) Binder (37)
Along with acrylic paint, this invention allowed sharp lines in Minimalist painting, particularly hard-edge paintings Along with a solvent and pigment, one of the three main ingredients of paint; this ingredient synthesizes the grains of a pigment and bonds these grains with the surface; consists of egg yolk, linseed oil, or wax Artists using oil paint may thin the paint into this translucent layer, which they place over a color to tweak the color Thick application of oil paint creates this lumpy surface Along with chemical paint, this invention allowed Impressionists to paint outdoors without difficulty Along with a binder and solvent, one of the three main ingredients of paint; grains of natural or artificial materials form this component; clay, gemstones, minerals, plant materials, and insect substances offer examples of natural materials Along with a pigment and a binder, one of the three main ingredients of paint; this ingredient alters the paints consistency or drying time; paint uses substances such as oil or water for this ingredient
Glazes (37) Impasto (38) Paint tube (24) Pigment (37)
Solvent (37)
TERM PHOTOGRAPHY
Daguerreotype (58)
This low-cost alternative to painted portraits enjoyed a booming business in the mid-19th century United States; Americans believed this medium replicated an individuals true character
TERMS POTTERY
Coil pottery (40) Kiln (40)
In this method, potters roll out clay into coils and then stack them to form a vessel Potters use this oven to purge moisture from clay forms; after applying paint to the hardened clay, artists place their product in this oven once again to melt the paint into a glassy surface Common tool in ancient and modern art; this invention spins a ball of clay which potters shape with their hands; thrown pottery refers to pottery created using this method In this method, potters cut out pieces of clay and use slip (liquid clay) to paste together the building blocks of a pot Liquid clay; potters use this as an adhesive material Refers to pottery created on a potters wheel
Potters wheel (40)
Slab pottery (40) Slip (40) Thrown (40)
TERMS PRINCIPLES OF COMPOSITION AND TECHNIQUES
Approximate symmetry (35) Asymmetrical balance (35)
In this type of balance, one side of a central axis mirrors the other side but with slight variations, which reduce rigidity In this type of balance, artists organize dissimilar objects through several methods such as placing larger objects near the center of a composition and moving smaller objects away from the center This principle of composition relies on the arrangement of visual weight; artists may use symmetrical, approximate, and asymmetrical variations of this concept This element contrasts the rest of the artwork; the viewers eye rests on this point A pattern repeats this element to achieve rhythm in an artwork Repeating motifs form this element to achieve rhythm in an artwork This principle of composition relies on relative sizes in an artwork; scale defines different types of this concept This principle of composition relies on repeating elements of art, or motifs in a pattern, which creates a sense of movement and guides the viewers eye
Balance (35)
Focal point (35) Motif (35) Pattern (35) Proportion (35) Rhythm (35)
Scale (35)
Describes the size of artwork elements relative to other elements in the same artwork or the entire artwork; also concerns the size of the entire artwork alone In this type of balance, one side of a central axis mirrors the other side
Symmetrical balance (35)
TERMS PRINTMAKING

Brayer (37) Burnisher (37) Engraving (18, 19, 31, 37)
Relief printmakers roll this tool over the matrix, inking areas in relief Relief printmakers rub paper with this tool to force ink from the matrix onto the paper Intaglio process; printmakers use carving tools to cut out an image in the matrix; this art form disseminated images of Renaissance masterpieces throughout northern Europe; Albrecht Drer preferred woodcuts along with this medium; this art form has preserved images of Polynesian body art Intaglio process; printmakers incise images through a matrix covered in wax or varnish; in the second step, an acid bath etches away exposed metal; the artist then fills the grooves with ink; Francisco Goyas Los Caprichos was a set of 80 works of this type Along with the woodcarving or linoleum knives, an example of tools available for carving the image in relief printmaking Opposite of relief printmaking; artists cut lines into a plate made of wood or soft metal; centers on the element of line; processes include engraving and etching Along with the gouge or woodcarving knife, an example of tools available for carving the image in relief printmaking In this process, a waxy pencil or crayon delineates an image on a matrix made of stone, zinc, or aluminum; the printmaker applies water then ink to the plate; only the wax lines become inked; finally, a press applies the ink to the paper; much less difficult compared to engraving or woodcut The printing plate Opposite of intaglio printmaking; woodcarving knives, linoleum knives, or gouges cut areas out of a plate made of wood, linoleum, or another synthetic material; the artist rolls a brayer over the plate to ink the uncut surface of the plate; finally, a press or rubbing burnisher applies the ink to the paper In this process, the artist uses a squeegee to apply ink through a stencil; inks specific areas of silk or another synthetic fabric stretched across a frame See Screen printing Screen printmakers scrape this tool over a stencil, inking exposed fabric
Etching (37, 88)
Gouge (37) Intaglio printmaking (37)
Linoleum knife (37) Lithography (37)
Matrix (37) Relief printmaking (37)
Screen printing (37)
Silk-screening (37) Squeegee (37)
Woodcarving knife (37)
Along with the gouge or linoleum knife, an example of tools available for carving the image in relief printmaking
TERMS SCULPTURE

Additive (38) Bas relief (33) Carving (38) Casting (39)
Sculptural process; opposite of subtractive sculpture; defines modeling See Low relief One of the four basic sculptural methods; subtractive process; uses chisels, hammers, and files to cut source material One of the four basic sculptural methods; in this approach, sculptors cover an existing sculpture in plaster; after the plaster hardens, artists use it as a mold to duplicate the original sculpture one or more times; materials for the cast sculptures may include plaster, metal, plastic One of the four basic sculptural methods; examples are welding metal, bending wire, or combining paper, board, wood, or found objects Italian for counter positioning; brainchild of sculptors from Greeks Early Classical Period (c. 475 448 B.C.E.); in this standing pose, figures shift their weight to one leg; appears relaxed and realistic See Contrapposto Synonymous with in the round (three-dimensional) sculpture; Akkadian art portrays rulers in both this type of sculpture and relief sculpture; Archaic Greek sculptors borrowed frontal poses from Egyptian art while working in this medium; famous Hellenistic works in this medium include the Venus de Milo and Laocon Group; Giotto di Bondone (1267 1337) modeled his figures into this type of sculpture and based fresco subjects on these sculptures, which aided his simple perspective; Michelangelo created his Pieta in this medium Sculpture that protrudes significantly from the carrier surface See Freestanding Method used for producing Plaque; first, a full-scale wax model is created; this model is used to create a mold and the mold is used to create the final work; in this process, both the original wax model and the mold are destroyed, so the artwork is not reproducible Sculpture that only protrudes slightly from the carrier surface Moving sculpture; typically involves forms hanging from wires; wind, air, or machines such as pulleys set these forms into motion One of the four basic sculptural methods; additive process; artists build forms out of soft and pliable materials such as clay, wax, plaster, or papier-mch
Construction (38) Contrapposto (12)
Counter positioning (12) Freestanding (10, 12, 13, 15, 38)
High relief (33) In the round (33) Lost wax casting (50)
Low relief (33) Mobile (39) Modeling (38)
Relief (10, 12, 14, 15, 33)
This type of sculpture protrudes from a carrier surface; Akkadian art portrays rulers in both this type of sculpture and freestanding sculpture; Assyrians depicted battles, sieges, hunts, and significant events in this medium; Mycenaeans were proficient in this medium; Romans crafted these for funerals and carved them into triumphal arches; many Romanesque church windows contain this art form Sculptural process; opposite of additive sculpture; defines carving
Subtractive (38)
TERMS TEXTILES
Applique (51)
In creating Asafo Flag, Kweku Kakanu attached the symbols to the background using this technique; essentially, he sewed the symbols directly on the background Method used to produce adire; parts of the fabric are covered in a different material and then the cloth is dyed; this produces fabric with lighter and darker spots, making a pattern
Resist dying (53)
TRADE

Beef (66) Cotton (62, 86)
Important American export to Great Britain Key trade item of the East India Company; previously supplied to Great Britain by the American south; after the American Civil War, Great Britain turned to Egypt as a possible new source See Beef Key trade item of the East India Company See Beef In the 19th century, the Benin Kingdom regained some power due to its control of trade of this item; desire for this item partially inspired the Benin Punitive Expedition Important British export to America See Rum See Rum; key trade item of the East India Company See Rum
Furs (66) Indigo (62) Lumber (66) Palm oil (49)
Rum (66) Sugar (66) Tea (62, 66) Tools (66)
POWER TABLES
TABLES AND DIAGRAMS
Selected Artists
Name & Vital Stats
Kweku Kakanu Born 1810 in Mankassim, Ghana Most active in 1930s and 1940s College of Art at the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology Independent studies of traditional Ghana sculptures and textiles Middle or lower class family Introduction to art by stepfather Peter Pelham Largely self-taught Probably gained tailoring skills through an apprenticeship Fante culture Created Asafo Flag for an Asafo company as an emblem of identity and power Ewe weaving of kente cloth influenced his design Strove to comment on the effect and consequences of imperialism and African cultural identity with the materials he used Benjamin West saw Copleys work and convinced the artist to move to England Many of his portraits depicted American revolutionary figures Influenced by the Gothic style in all his designs Formal training as an architect in Bath For Victoria Terminus Building, Stevens was influenced by Italian and English churches and especially by St. Pancras Railway Station in London Influenced by Gothic and Classical styles in all his designs N/A The design of Royal Exhibition Building borrowed from churches, the Florentine Cathedral, and a Romanesque portal
Family Background & Education
Influences, Inspirations & Goals
Artworks
Asafo Flag (1935)
El Anatsui Born 1944 in Anyako, Ghana
Fading Cloth (2005)
John Singleton Copley Born 1738 in Boston Died 1815 in England Frederick William Stevens Born 1847/1848 in Bath, England Died 1900
Boy with a Squirrel (1765)

Numerous portraits of wealthy merchants and American aristocrats such as Samuel Adams, Thomas Mifflin, and John Hancock
Paul Revere (1768)
Victoria Terminus Building (1887)

Municipal Corporation Building (1893)
Royal Exhibition Building (1880)

State Library of Victoria (1854) Bank of New South Wales Geelong Town Hall Wesley Church Carleton Gardens
Joseph Reed Born 1823 in Cornwall, England Died 1890
Selected Artists
Name & Vital Stats Family Background & Education Influences, Inspirations & Goals
Designed many churches in the Gothic revival style Arthur Blomfield Born 1829 Died 1899 Father was a Bishop of the Church of England Attended Rugby School and Trinity College in Cambridge Apprentice to architect Philip Charles Hardwick For St. Georges Cathedral, drew on the influences of a Latin Cross, Gothic styles, and the architecture of Georgetown, Guyana Wished to combine the Gothic style with the surrounding architecture economically and visually William Smith provided West with many opportunities and patrons Benjamin West Born 1738 in Springfield, Pennsylvania Died 1820 in England Learned through practice and informal study His trip to Europe allowed him to study Italian Renaissance masters such as Raphael, Michelangelo, and Titian This background allowed him to paint history paintings The Romantic idea of the noble savage influenced his portrayal of Native Americans Travels with James Cook to the Pacific inspired his work William Hodges Born 1744 in London Died 1797 Started art school as a young man Apprentice to Richard Wilson (1758) He viewed himself as an artist historian in his travels to India The British fascination with foreign exotic lands and the Romantic idea of the noble savage influenced his painting Studied work of great 17th century landscape painters such as Claude Lorrain and Jacob van Ruisdael Landscapes during his travels and at home inspired him Painted landscapes on the large scale normally used for historical paintings Landscape scenery for London theatrical productions Many drawings and paintings of his travels Many portraits in teenage years Historical scenes 60 paintings for King George III St. Andrews Church (1872) College of Music in London (1882) Numerous churches in the Gothic revival style
Artworks
St. Georges Cathedral (1894)
The Death of General Wolfe (1770) Penns Treaty with the Indians (1771 -1772)
The Effects of War (1794) The Consequences of Peace (1794) HMS Resolution and Adventure with Fishing Craft in Matavi Bay (1776)
Picturesque and sublime landscapes Many landscapes feature shipwrecks
Joseph Mallord William Turner Born 1775 in London Died 1851
Enrolled in art classes at the Royal Academy in London (age 14)
Dido Building Carthage (1815) Snow Storm -- Hannibal Crossing the Alps (1812)
Self-portrait (1799)
Slave Ship (slavers Throwing Overboard the Dead and Dying, Typhoon Coming On) (1840)
Selected Artists
Name & Vital Stats Family Background & Education Influences, Inspirations & Goals Artworks
Worked as a cartographer Father was an engineer so Whistler traveled much as a boy Took art classes in St. Petersburg (1845 -1848) Briefly attended West Point Military Academy Studied in the studio of Charles Gleyre
Symphony in White, No.1: The White Girl

Whistler copied ad admired the works of Rembrandt van Rijn Believed in art for arts sake and denied any deep meaning to his artworks Fascinated with Chinese imports, especially porcelain (1862)
James Abbott McNeill Whistler Born 1834 in Massachusetts Died 1903
Symphony in White, No.2: The Little White Girl (1864 -- 1865) Arrangement in Grey and Black: The Artists Mother (1871) Nocturne in Black and Gold: The Falling Rocket (1874) Purple and Rose: The Lange Leizen of the Six Marks (1864) Arrangement in Gray: Portrait of the Painter (1872)
Over 600 watercolor paintings from Cairo (1841 -- 1851) -
John Frederick Lewis Born 1805 in London Died 1876
Father, Frederick Christian Lewis, was an engraver and landscape painter Uncle, George Robert, was a painter Member of the Royal Academy in 1865
Fascinated by the East Traveled much, living in Cairo for a decade While in Cairo, produced over 600 watercolors that he later used to create large scale paintings Cross cultural background of living in Lagos, Nigeria, and visiting London during the summers
A Lady Receiving Visitors (The Reception) (1873) The Street and Mosque of the Ghoreeyah, Cairo
Nigerian parents Yinka Shonibare Born 1962 in London Attended boarding school in England, Wimbledon College, Brym Shaw School of Art (1984 -- 1989), and Goldsmiths College, all in London
Paralysis from transverse myelitis inspired some of his art The contradictions of British imperialism African identity and Dutch wax cloth Many iconic images which he copied and slightly altered (including Francisco Goyas The Sleep of Reason Produces Monsters)
Paintings using Dutch wax cloth as a ground Sculptural works, photographs, films Artworks quoting William Hogarth and Thomas Gainsborough
Nelsons Ship in a Bottle The Swing (After Fragonard) (2001) The Sleep of Reason Produces Monsters
(Five photographs) (2008)
Selected Cultures
Name & Location History Influences & Traditions
Created ivory carvings for European patrons based on European prototypes Small communities ruled by local chiefs European motifs and syles evident on Saltcellar Founded in 900 C.E. Edo Benin Kingdom Nigeria Expanded with warfare Portuguese arrived in the area in 1484 Raided by the British in the Benin Punitive Expedition of 1897 17th century European records mention Asafo companies Fante Ghana or the Gold Coast Gold Coast was a British colony The Asafo companies no longer wage war but rather play important roles in society Ruled initially by Ogiso, then
Artworks
Sapi Sierra Leone
Traded ivory carvings with the Portuguese in the 15th and 16th centuries
Lidded Saltcellar (15th -- 16th century) Many ivory carvings such as saltcellars, oliphants, spoons, spoons, forks, and knife handles
Oba
Cultivated an impressive Oba palace and produced many artworks to glorify the Oba Greatly influenced by trade with the Portuguese Part of the Akan language group Power held by chiefs and balanced by Asafo companies Asafo companies communicate through flags or frankaa and based many of their practices on European models Ruled by Oba
Most prized artworks were made of cast metals, ivory, and coral Many cast metal sculptures were used in rituals and on altars
Plaque (mid 16th -- 17th century) -
Posuban (shrines) Frankaa (Asafo flags)

Early flags included the flag of the European state for which the company fought After 1957, flags included the Ghanaian flag
Asafo Flag (1935)
Ile-Ife populated in 350 B.C.E. Yoruba Nigeria Suffered from the slave trade and wars with neighboring kingdoms Colonized by Great Britain Before the arrival of the French, the Guro interacted much with other groups in Guinea Guro Cte dIvoire Cte dIvoire became a French colony in 1897 The French forced assimilation, so the persistence of the masquerade tradition became a form of rebellion for the Guro
Indicate royalty with regalia such as beaded crowns British imperialism had a large influence as indicated by the image of the British king and queen in Wrapper Islam led to some motifs present on Wrapper Known for masquerades Fifty villages ruled by a council of elders which can appoint a war chief if necessary Focus on agriculture, family groups, woodcarving, and blacksmithing Trade with Europeans brought the Mami Wata image
Naturalistic and detailed heads of terracotta and cast metal (12th -- 15th century) Adire (height in early 20th century) Beaded crowns Wrapper (Mid 20th century)
Art produced for masquerades such as carved wooden masks and sculptures
Face Mask (mid 20th century)
Selected Cultures
Name & Location History
Developed hard paste porcelain in 600 C.E. Southern China adopted the practice in the 10th century China Porcelain arrived in Europe by the early 14th century By the 16th century, Chinese artists were creating porcelain specifically for European patrons The Company School style, or kampani kalam, flourished in the late 18th through 19th century Lucknow School India The East India Company held a position of dominance in India for 200 years In 1856, the East India Company took control of the Awadh Region, including Lucknow The Chinese had a monopoly on porcelain production for centuries Chinese artists adopt European designs and styles to satisfy foreign patrons
Influences & Traditions
Artworks
Hard paste porcelain objects for European patrons These include teacups, candleholders, mugs, dishes, and Plate (1739 -- 1743) -
Company School painters, after working for the Mughal Court, documented Indian life for European patrons Traditional Indian miniature painting affected the style Typically Company School painters created highly detailed paintings in gouache
Traditional Indian miniature painting: highly detailed, small paintings of architecture and scenery for the Mughal Court Company School paintings: documentary images of Indian life for European patrons
A Common Indian Nightjar (18th century)
Selected Artworks
Artwork Vital Stats Visual analysis Influences & Style
Sapi traditional motifs: presence of dogs and snakes Ivory 11 3 4 in 29.8 cm Created by a Sapi artist for Portuguese patron Base: Abstract designs and figures of a man, a woman, and dogs confronting snakes hanging from the level above Second tier: snakes hang from a pillow-like circle Bowl: lidded bowl decorated with flowers Finial: Four legs around a central column topped by a flower European patron: creation of a European luxury item (saltcellar) Medieval sculptures: stiff formality of figures and abstract form of dogs Celtic manuscripts: design of interlocking ribbons on base Medieval stained glass rose windows: abstracted floral designs on bowl, finial, and shield Copper alloy 18 1 2 x 13 7 16 x 3 1 in 4 A high ranking warrior or the Oba stands in the center, wears armor and headdress, and carries a sword and shield (most important) A page carrying a sword stands on the main figures right (medium important) Two musicians stand on either side of the central figure (medium important) Two Portuguese men in profile float in both upper corners (least important) The importance of each figure is indicated by the level of relief, detail, and amount of regalia depicted
Lidded Saltcellar
(15th --16th century) SapiPortuguese
Plaque
(mid-16 -- 17 century) Edo peoples
th th
47 x 34.2 x 8.2 cm Originally a Benin Kingdom court piece, removed during the Benin Punitive Expedition
Important trade with Portuguese merchants: presence of the two Portuguese in the corners, use of material likely gained from trade with the Portuguese Benin Kingdom court style: importance of possible Oba figure
Commercial cotton cloth 42 1 2 x 60 in 108 x 152.4 cm Created for an Asafo company of the Fante peoples in Ghana
White, black, and yellow triangles border the flag The British Union Jack flies in the top left Red cloth with a fleur-de-lis pattern makes up the background A black crocodile fills the left half In the right, four blue fish walk around a fish pond In the pond, four green fish swim around a gold fish
Asafo company culture: flag asserts power and identity of the Asafo company Akan traditional proverbs: each of the things on the flag is a symbol with multiple possible interpretations British ownership of the Gold Coast: presence of the British Union Jack
Asafo Flag
(1935) by Kweku Kakanu
Selected Artworks
British imperialism: central medallion depicting a British king and queen Cotton with indigo dye Central medallion depicting Queen Mary and King George V Various motifs surrounding the medallion include Mohammeds winged horse, an Islamic mosque, birds, an elephant, a lion, a man with a gun, and many flowers Text at the bottom reads Ise kosehin oluwa meaning Everything is known to God Islam: Mohammeds winged horse and the mosque Yoruba tradition: frontal stiff poses of the king and queen, production of adire cloth, the motifs of the birds, elephant, lion, and the man with a gun Trade with Europe: use of imported cotton
Wrapper (mid20 century) Yoruba peoples

th
77 x 34 516 in 195.6 x 87.2 cm Commemorative adire cloth made possibly for display
Wood and paint 21 1 4 x 11 1 4 x 6

11 16
Mask: stylized, calm face displaying Guro ideals of beauty Scarification marks on the face and the hairstyle accentuate the symmetry of the face which, in Yoruba tradition, represents beauty and moral strength Superstructure: A calm and pleasant Mami Wata with a red dress, lipstick, painted toenails, and two snakes A snake charmer sits on the right, playing the flute to four snakes Flattened bottle caps and metal cans woven together with copper wire Dimensions and lighting change depending on installation which is up to the curators Asante and Ewe kente cloth: bright colors and rhythms of Fading Cloth Trade and imperialism: use of bottle tops from African distilleries Guro ideals of beauty: depiction of the main mask German chromolithograph based off East Indian calendar: image of Mami Wata
Face Mask
(mid-20th century)
in
54 x 28.6 x 17 cm Created for the Guro masquerade tradition Bottle caps, metal cans, copper wire 126 in x 21 ft 320 x 640 cm
Guro peoples
Fading Cloth
(2005) by El Anatsui
Hard paste porcelain Diam. 9 in
Gold enamel decorates the rim The combined coat of arms of Leak and Mary Okeover rises out of a blue pool of water, surrounded by two horses carrying banners The initials of Leake and Mary Okeover decorate the edge Flowers fill any open space
Plate (1739 1743) China
22.9 cm Produced by Chinese artists for Leake and Mary Okeover, aristocrats in England
Chinese artists: production of hard paste porcelain which the Chinese monopolized for centuries English patrons: English design and motifs
Selected Artworks
Artwork Vital Stats
Watercolor on paper 8 5 8 x 11 18 in 21.9 x 28.3 cm Created by the Lucknow School in the Company School style for French collector, Claude Martin Oil on canvas A detailed, brown, black, and gray bird stands in profile in the center Very small trees and shrubs dot the background The sky and ground are plain and neutral-colored
Visual analysis
Influences & Style

Traditional Indian miniature painting: The small scale of the background and the great detail of the painting European patron: depiction of a common Indian bird; the painting serves as a form of documentation Company School painting: paintings created by Indian artists for European patrons
A Common Indian Nightjar (Caprimulgus asiaticus) (18th

century) Lucknow School India
Paul Revere sits casually behind a highly polished table containing engraving tools He wears an open white linen work shirt, an open waistcoat with gold buttons, and no jacket or wig He considers a tea pot in his hand and looks up, as though surprised, at the viewer This is a highly detailed, meticulous, and expensive portrait
Paul Revere
(1768) by John Singleton Copley
35 18 x 28 1 2 in 89.22 x 72.39 cm Portrait of the famous Patriot and silversmith, Paul Revere
Paul Reveres trade as a silversmith: the engraving tools, the teapot, his dress Paul Reveres trade as a goldsmith: the gold buttons on his waistcoat Political conflict over British trade policies with the colonies: the inclusion of the teapot Combination of Europe and India: construction using local red sandstone, Italianate Gothic pointed arches, presence of the lion and the tiger St. Pancras Railway Station in London: completed a decade before Stevens created this design British imperialism: allegorical statue representing progress Gothic and Classical influences Church architecture: cruciform design
Victoria Terminus Building (1887)

by Frederick William Stevens
Albumen silver print from a glass negative Red sandstone, polychromatic stone, decorated tile, marble, stained glass 7 x 9 in 18.3 x 23.6 cm
3 16 5 16
Sprawling railroad station Towers and turrets emphasize verticality Pointed arch in windows and doors Allegorical statue representing Progress tops the building Statues of a lion and a tiger surround the door
Royal Exhibition Building

(1880) by Joseph Reed
Exterior of brick, interior of timber, roof of timber, slate, and steel
Long central space with two crosswise shorter spaces (cruciform) Open, well-lit, filled with galleries Large dome on an octagonal drum Large entryway Situated in Carleton Gardens
Florentine Cathedral: large dome Romanesque style: Large entryway resembles a Romanesque portal Intended for the Melbourne International Exhibition: plentiful well-lit galleries Cost and speed concern: use of local timber for the interior
Selected Artworks
Latin cross: cruciform design wood
St. Georges Cathedral

(1894) by Arthur Blomfield
The third in a line of Anglican churches constructed in Georgetown, Guyana
Cruciform design with a central tower Pointed arches in widows and doorways Flying buttresses Numerous large windows, some with stained glass Painted white
Gothic influences: pointed arches, flying buttresses Bible: the stained glass windows depict Biblical scenes Caribbean location: use of wood instead of stone and painting the building white to match the surrounding architecture William Penns reputation: Penn is depicted as fair, equitable, and generous
In the center, two European men kneel and offer a bolt of cloth to the Lenape chief, surrounded by elders and male warriors Oil on canvas Women, children, and European men look on A mother nurses her child in the right foreground Another child points both the woman and the viewer toward the exchange in the center Penn stands, gesturing toward the bolt of cloth and other pieces of cloth nearby Two young European men sit on boxes in the corner Lenape tents are quickly being replaced by European buildings Men are unloading supplies from ships in the harbor
Penns Treaty with the Indians (1771 1772) by Benjamin West
75 1 2 x 107 3 4 in 191.8 x 273.7 cm Commissioned by Thomas Penn to shed a positive light on his family name
Benjamin Wests imagination: with a lack of any documentation, West painted what he thought the scene would have looked like Romantic idea of the noble savage: the stately Native Americans are brightly and scantily clad and live in tents This contrasts with the conservative dress of the Europeans and the construction in the background Christianity: the mother and her child resemble the Virgin Mary and the Christ child
Selected Artworks
Artwork Vital Stats Visual analysis
Secluded and peaceful bay in Tahiti Volcanic mountains in the background including Mount Orofena
Influences & Style

Christianity: the woman and child resemble the Virgin Mary and the Christ child Romantic idea of the noble savage: the native Tahitians stand in contrapposto poses and wear only Classical drapery Imperialism: the Tahitians are portrayed as being pleasantly welcoming toward the Europeans Documentation is the first step of imperialism Thomas Clarksons The History of the Abolition of the Slave Trade: Turner depicts the Zong Affair which Clarkson narrated in detail in his book Anti-slavery: Dramatic lighting, graphic detail, accents on how horrible the slave trade is Turners own opinion: the inclusion of a typhoon and implied death for the captain of the slave ship The British obsession with Chinese porcelain: the numerous porcelain objects present, likely all from Whistlers own collection The British obsession with every else Chinese: the womans hairstyle and robe, the brushes, and the other objects in the room Conflict between Great Britain and Holland over access to Chinese tea exports: the inclusion of the Lange Leizen design Whistlers expertise with porcelain: the inclusion of the six marks, a symbol of authenticity
HMS Resolution and Adventure with Fishing Craft in Matavi Bay (1776) by
William Hodges
Oil on canvas 54 x 76.1 in 137.2 x 193.2 cm Inspired by William Hodges journey with Commander James Cook to the Pacific
Two European boats float slightly left of center Europeans work on the ship and sit in small boats nearby Tahitian figures stand and sit in the left foreground A mother and child sit near a chicken In the center, two men paddle a canoe Tahitian boats sit in the right foreground with casual Tahitian figures doing daily activities A white tent stands in the left background on Point Venus The horizon line and the setting sun divide the painting into four quarters
Slave Ship (Slavers Throwing Overboard the Dead and Dying, Typhoon Coming On)
(1840) by Joseph Mallord William Turner
Oil on canvas 35 3 4 x 48 1 4 in 90.8 x 122.6 cm Created in support of the abolitionist movement
In the center left, a slave ship is tossed by a turbulent sea In the foreground, slaves thrown overboard struggle in the water In the right foreground, ocean creatures attack the slaves The sharp contrasts between colors evoke emotions and accentuate the horrors of the slave trade
Oil on canvas
Purple and Rose: The Lange Leizen of the Six Marks

(1864) by James Abbott McNeill Whistler
image: 36 3 4 x
24
1 8
A woman wearing a Chinese brocade robe and holding a brush and a porcelain object lounges in the center Her robe is decorated with peach and rose flowers and a dark purple underlayer and trim Her hair is pulled up into a bun, imitating Chinese court fashion She is surrounded by a blue and white porcelain tea cup and ginger jar, a fan painted with a crane, a tray, and Chinese brushes
in
93.3 x 61.3 cm framed: 46 9 16 x 34 3 8 x 2 3 4 in 118.3 x 87.3 x 7 cm
Selected Artworks
Artwork Vital Stats Visual analysis
A lady lounges on a divan in the main chamber of a room with two side chambers A servant fans the lady Several servants are lined up on the left side of the composition Wood screens, decorative glass windows, and a sunken pool in the foreground add to the beauty of the room Another servant crouches near a gazelle by the pool All look expectantly at the lady as though seeing how she would react to the arrival of visitors The painting is extremely detailed and mostly historically accurate Francisco Goyas print: Shonibare copied the print almost exactly in photograph form British imperialism: the different ethnicities and continents on the desk imply the broad and mixed impact of imperialism African culture: the clothing of Dutch wax cloth and the African man Lewis ten years living in Cairo: accurate depiction of the interior of a Muslim home Political statement: the woman is seated in the mandarah, a location normally reserved for men This is a possible political statement on the Muslim treatment of women
Influences & Style
A Lady Receiving Visitors (The Reception)

(1873) by John Frederick Lewis
Oil on panel 25 x 30 in 63.5 x 76.2 cm Inspired by Lewis decadelong stay in Cairo
The Sleep of Reason Produces Monsters (Asia) (2008)

by Yinka Shonibare, MBE
C-print mounted on aluminum image: 72 x 49.5 in framed: 81.5 x 58 x 2.5 in One of a set of five photographs
A bald African man sits at a desk, asleep The desk reads The sleep of reason produces monsters in Asia? Owls and bats surround the man while a lynx lies by his feet and a black cat creeps toward him The figure wears clothing made of Dutch wax cloth
Chronology of Ancient and Nonwestern Art

Time
c. 30,000 B.C.E. c. 28,000 -- 25,000 B.C.E. c. 23,000 B.C.E. c. 15,000 -- 10,000 B.C.E. c. 7,000 -- 4,000 B.C.E. c. 4,000 B.C.E. 4th millennium B.C.E. c. 3,500 B.C.E. c. 3,200 B.C.E. c. 3,000 B.C.E. 3rd millennium B.C.E. c. 2,334 B.C.E. c. 2,150 B.C.E. c. 2,100 B.C.E. c. 2,000 B.C.E. 2nd millennium B.C.E. c. 1,792 B.C.E. 1,361 -- 1,352 B.C.E. 1st millennium B.C.E. c. 900 -- 600 B.C.E. 7th century B.C.E. c. 612 -- 538 B.C.E. c. 538 -- 330 B.C.E. c. 500 B.C.E. 332 B.C.E. c. 210 B.C.E. c. 570 -- 632 618 -- 907 C.E. -
Event
Creation of the Chauvet Cave paintings Creation of Venus of Willendorf Creation of cave paintings in Namibia in Africa Creation of cave paintings in Lascaux and Altamira Creation of rock shelter paintings in eastern Spain Origin of Sumerian civilization; creation of the first Neolithic megaliths in Western Europe Extent of known Chinese pottery Origin of Ancient Egyptian civilization and the predynastic period Origin of Cycladic civilization Creation of the Palette of King Narmer Invention of glass in the Middle East Sargon of Akkad subjugated Sumerian cities; beginning of Akkadian dominance in Mesopotamia Guti barbarians invaded the Near East; end of Akkadian dominance in Mesopotamia Construction of Stonehenge; end of Guti dominance in Mesopotamia; origin of NeoSumerian civilization Decline of Cycladic civilization and origin of Minoan civilization Peak of Minoan civilization Hammurabi united Mesopotamia under the city-state of Babylonia Lifespan of King Tutankhamen Origin of the Etruscan civilization in Italy Assyrian civilization ruled the Near East Decline of Assyria in the Near East Neo-Babylonian civilization thrived in Mesopotamia The Persian Empire ruled from present-day Iran Origin of the Nok civilization in Nigeria in West Africa Alexander the Great vanquished Egypt; end of Ancient Egyptian civilization The Emperor of Qin became the first ruler to unite China Lifespan of the prophet Muhammad Under the Tang Dynasty, China experienced a golden age
Chronology of Ancient and Nonwestern Art

Time
13th century 18th century 1897 1922 1949 Late 1970s 1994
Event
Rise of the Benin Kingdom in Nigeria Decline of the Benin Kingdom in Nigeria British troops raid the royal palace of the Benin Kingdom and wreck or confiscate treasures Excavation of King Tutankhamens tomb A communist uprising founded the Peoples Republic of China Chinese art began to move away from politics Discovery of the Chauvet Cave paintings
Chronology of Western Art

Time
c. 660 -- 475 B.C.E. c. 480 B.C.E. c. 475 -- 323 B.C.E. c. 475 -- 448 B.C.E. c. 448 -- 400 B.C.E. c. 447 B.C.E. c. 400 -- 323 B.C.E. c. 331 -- 23 B.C.E. 2 century B.C.E. 23 -- 79 C.E. 70 -- 80 C.E. 118 -- 125 C.E. c. 375 -- 1025 532 -- 537 C.E. c. 800 and c. 800 -810 c. 900 -- 1500 c. 1070 -- 1120 Early 12th century 1134 After 1194
nd
Event
Archaic Period in Greece Persians obliterated the Greek Parthenon Classical Period in Greece Early Classical Period in Greece Middle Classical Period in Greece Reconstruction of the Greek Parthenon Late Classical Period in Greece Hellenistic Period Roman art emulated Greek art by this century Lifespan of Ancient Roman art historian Pliny the Elder Construction of the Roman Colosseum Construction of the Roman Pantheon Earlier medieval era; time period of Nomadic Germanic, Viking, and Hiberno-Saxon art Construction of the Hagia Sophia in Constantinople Creation of the Book of Kells and the Coronation Gospels, respectively Later medieval era; time period of the church-building craze Construction of the Romanesque church of Saint-Sernin in Toulouse, France Origin of Gothic art Construction of Frances Gothic Chartres Cathedral began Architects rebuilt Chartres Cathedral

Time
15th century
Event
Invention of the printing press; origin of printmaking Northern European artists painted smaller and more naturalistic pieces relative to Italian artists Southern Germany thrived artistically
15th -- 19th centuries 1400 c. 1430 -- 1432 1481 -- 1482 c. 1482 c. 1495 -- 1498 c. 1498 Early 16 century 16 century c. 1503 -- 1505 1504 1505 c. 1508 1508 -- 1512 1509 -- 1511 c. 1510 -- 1515 1511 -- 1574 c. 1513 -- 1514 c. 1513 -- 1515 1513 -- 1516 Late 16th century c. 1567 1576 17th century 1642
th th
Artists emulated Greek sculpture In Florence, Lorenzo Ghiberti won a baptistery door design competition with a classical Greek-inspired image of the sacrifice of Isaac Donatello sculpted his bronze David, the first known freestanding nude since the classical period Pietro Perugino painted a fresco containing linear perspective in the Sistine Chapel, propagating Renaissance ideas Botticelli painted a lasting image of female beauty in The Birth of Venus Leonardo painted The Last Supper, now a popular culture icon Albrecht Drer engraved The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse Extent of increased art production in southern Germany Extent of Gothic arts popularity; the Protestant Reformation and Counter Reformation shaped European art; the Renaissance spread to northern Europe; Leonardo painted the sfumato-laden Mona Lisa Michelangelo sculpted his marble David, a symbol of the Florentine republic Pope Julius II hired Michelangelo to create his tomb Giorgione painted The Tempest, which established the genre of landscape painting Michelangelo painted the 700 square-yard Sistine Chapel ceiling Raphael painted the fresco School of Athens in the official chambers of Pope Julius II Matthias Grnewald painted the Isenheim Altarpiece Lifespan of Italian Renaissance art historian Giorgio Vasari Raphael painted Sistine Madonna, a pivotal image of the Virgin Mary Michelangelo sculpted Moses for the tomb of Pope Julius II Michelangelo sculpted The Dying Slave and The Bound Slave for the tomb of Pope Julius II Advent of Mannerism and the Baroque Vasari painted a self-portrait Mannerist artist El Greco (Dominikos Theotokopoulos) traveled from Venice to Toledo, Spain The ruling classes began to dominate European based on self-professed divine right; Sir Isaac Newton formulated the concepts behind the color wheel Baroque artist Rembrandt van Rijn painted Night Watch

Time
1647 -- 1652 1669 18th century 1717 -- 1768 Mid-18th century 1784 19th century
Event
Gianlorenzo Bernini sculpted the Ecstasy of Saint Teresa at the Cornaro Chapel Louis XIV centralized France and initiated construction of the Palace of Versailles Enlightenment philosophy shaped art history; extent of the power of the Baroque ruling class; invention of the color wheel Lifespan of German Enlightenment art historian Johann Joachim Winckelmann Art history becomes an academic discipline Neoclassical artist Jacques Louis-David painted Oath of the Horatii Extent of Hans Holbein the Youngers (1497 -- 1593) influence over English painting Extent of the French Salons power over art Scientists formulated color relativity
19th -- 20th centuries 1848 1849 -- 1850 By the late 19th century 1851 1863 1873 1888 Late 19th -- early 20th centuries Early 20th century 20th century
th st
Art historians increasingly emphasized historical context in relation to a works formal qualities Multiple revolutions originated in Europe, giving The Stonebreakers political implications Realist artist Gustave Courbet painted The Stonebreakers Residential lampshades and windows used stained glass Construction of the Crystal Palace; London hosted a Worlds Fair douard Manet painted Luncheon on the Grass and exhibited it at the Salon de Refuss Claude Monet painted Impression Sunrise, the inspiration for the term Impressionism Post-Impressionist artist Vincent van Gogh painted Night Caf Antonio Gaudi designed organic-styled buildings in Spain Art Nouveau enjoyed popularity Advent of modernism Immigration to the United States from Europe and Asia surged Accelerating technological advances, electronics, and atomic power impacted art Arbitrary color became more common
20 century -- 21 century c. 1900 1907 c. 1908 c. 1912 1912 c. 1913
Photography gained acceptance as an art form Peak of Art Nouveaus popularity in Europe and the United States Pablo Picasso painted Les Demoiselles d Avignon, later a piece in the Armory Show Picasso and Georges Braque invented Cubism in Paris Picasso and Braque established the colleague as an art form Marcel Duchamp painted Nude Descending a Staircase, later a piece in the Armory Show Kandinsky introduced abstract paintings

Time
February 17, 1913 -March 15, 1913 1917 1919 1920s 1933
Event
The Barnes Foundations Armory Show brought modern art to America Duchamp displayed Fountain, an ordinary porcelain urinal, as an artwork Duchamp painted LHOOQ, a mustachioed Mona Lisa with an offensive title Beginning of the Harlem Renaissance and the peak of jazz culture Nazis closed the Bauhaus architecture school in Germany Bauhaus professors moved to the United States
1940s 1943 1950s 1955 1959 1960s 1970 1970s 1984 1985
Abstract Expressionism grew out of Kandinskys early explorations of abstract subjects Picasso fashioned the ready-made Bulls Head out of a bicycle seat and bicycle handlebars Harold Rosenberg, Clement Greenberg, and other critics controlled the art world in New York Robert Rauschenberg painted Bed, in which he used his bedclothes as a canvas Rauschenberg cobbled together a stuffed goat, tire, police barrier, shoe heel, tennis ball, paint, and various other found objects to create Monogram Origin of Earthworks and Pop Art; the flower children created artworks inspired by the floral swirls and Asian styles of Art Nouveau Postmodernist architect Philip Johnson postulated that architecture required decoration Earthworks gained popularity Philip Johnson built the ornamental AT&T Building Founding of the Guerilla Girls in New York
History of Portuguese imperialism

Time
1434 1455 -- 1456 1484 Mid 15 century
th
Event
Portuguese explorers traveled south of Cape Bojador Explorers reached the Gulf of Guinea Reached the Kingdom of Benin Europeans began to develop a passion for African goods especially ivory and bronze
Colonization and Decolonization

Time
1822 1880s 1884 -- 1885 End of 19th century Late 1940s 1950s 1957 1960 1961
Event
American Colonization Society founded Liberia as a refuge for African-American settlers The abolition of the slave trade began the scramble for Africa; beginning of the systematic control of the interior regions of Africa The Berlin Conference; major European powers met to determine the fate of Africa Europe ruled almost all of Africa except Ethiopia and Liberia Ill treatment during World War II increased the push for independence Imperial control of Africa began to diminish Ghana gained independence from Great Britain; this country was the first sub-Saharan country to gain independence Nigeria and Cte dIvoire gained independence Sierra Leone gained independence
History of the Sapi

Time
15th -- 16th centuries Early 16th century 1520 - 1521 1550 1959
Event
Traded ivory carvings with the Portuguese, produced Lidded Saltcellar West African ivory carvings began to arrive in Europe German artist Albrecht Drer purchased two saltcellars Mande-speaking groups arrived in the area and started political conflict, and the Portuguese began to look elsewhere for ivory Art expert William Fagg identified these ivory objects as Afro-Portuguese ivories
History of the Edo peoples and the Benin Kingdom

Time
900 C.E. Late 13th -- early 14th century Late 14th century 15th century 1484 1490s Late 15th century
Event
Benin Kingdom founded in Nigeria, ruled by Ogiso Kingdom became a thriving political state Prince Oranmiyan came from the Yoruba kingdom and founded the second dynasty and tradition of rule by Obas Kingdom had become much larger through warfare The Portuguese arrived on the west coast of Africa and encountered the Beny Kingdom A Portuguese explorer writes an enlightening account of the Beny Kingdom Oba Ewuare expanded the Obas palace compound
History of the Edo peoples and the Benin Kingdom

Time
16th century 16th -- 17th century 19th century 1897
Event
Height of the Benin Kingdom and start of decline Created Plaque Brief restoration of Benin power due to control of the palm oil trade Benin Punitive Expedition
History of the Fante peoples and Kweku Kakanu

Time
17th century 1910 1930s -- 1940s 1935 1957
Event
European accounts from this time talk about highly organized military groups in the region Kweku Kakanu was born in Mankassim, Ghana Kweku Kakanu was his most active Kweku Kakanu created Asafo Flag Flags produced after this date usually include the Ghanaian flag
History of the Yoruba peoples

Time
350 B.C.E. 11th century 12th -- 15th century 18th century 19 century Early 20th century 1935 Mid 20th century 1951
th
Event
Earliest known time of Ile-Ifes population Ile-Ife became a flourishing city-state Creation of terracotta and cast metal heads Due to the slave trade and wars with other tribes, the Yoruba kingdom declined The abolition of the slave trade allowed the Yoruba to recover briefly before the British arrived Adire reached the height of its popularity; commonly women used imported cotton to make the cloth Popular image of Queen Mary and King George V produced to commemorate their silver jubilee Created Wrapper; adire fell out of favor and was replaced by imported, multi-colored factory-produced cloth Nike Davies-Okundaya, advocate of traditional African textile techniques, was born
History of the Guro peoples

Time
15th century Late 19th century 1897 Mid 20th century
Event
Europeans, specifically the Portuguese, first arrived in Guinea German chromolithograph of Mami Wata created Cte dIvoire became a French colony Enamel pigments were popular; Face Mask was created
Life of El Anatsui (1944 -)

Time
1944 1957 Late 1960s 1975 1970s 1990 2004 - 2007
Event
Born in Anyako, a town in Ghanas Volta Region Ghana, previously the Gold Coast, gained independence from Great Britain, becoming the first sub-Saharan African country to do so El Anatsui attended the College of Art at the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology and received a heavily European-focused education Moved to Nsukka, Nigeria, to teach sculpture at the University of Nigeria and became associated with the Nsukka Group El Anatsui gained local and international recognition Work included in the international exhibition Venice Biennale Work included in the international exhibition Africa Remix which traveled through major cities such as London and Tokyo
History of porcelain and specifically Plate production

Time
600 C.E. 10th century Early 14th century 16th century 1702 Early 18th century 1739 -- 1743 1740 -- 1743 18th century 1765
Event
First porcelain developed in northern China Southern China began to make porcelain The first porcelain arrived in Europe by way of the Silk Road Chinese artists began to create porcelain goods specifically for trade Leake Okeover, commissioner of Plate, was born Knowledge of porcelain production became available in Europe
Plate produced in southern China Plate and the set arrived in England
Wealthy European patrons ordered specific designs and shapes from Chinese potters Leake Okeover died
History of porcelain and specifically Plate production

Time
18th -- 19th century -
Event
Great Britain sought for a position of power in China, wanting a market for British goods and access to valuable Chinese exports
History of Company School painting and A Common Indian Nightjar

Time
18th -- early 19th century 18th century 1735 1770s 1777 -- 1785 1798 -- 1805 Late 18 century 1800 1840s 1856
th
Event
Company school paintings refer to paintings produced by Indian artists for European patrons during this time period Strong European presence in India Claude Martin was born Claude Martin settled in Lucknow; he commissioned A Common Indian Nightjar sometime between this date and 1800 Company School painting patron, Lord Impey, served as Chief Justice of the High Court Company School painting patron, Marquess Wellesley, served as governor-general During this time, the East India Company wanted control of the agriculturally-rich Awadh region in northern India Claude Martin died Photography was introduced to India; the Company School paintings began to fade The East India Company took control over the Awadh Region
Life of John Singleton Copley (1738 -- 1815) Time

1738 1748 1751 1750s 1760s 1763 1765 1766 1768 Early 1770s
Event
Born in Boston His mother married Peter Pelham, the painter and engraver Peter Pelham died Began to establish as a name as a portrait painter Gained recognition in Europe Had met Paul Revere by this date and ordered a gold bracelet Painted a portrait of his half-brother, Boy with a Squirrel Exhibited Boy with a Squirrel in London Painted Paul Revere Painted portraits in New York and Philadelphia
Life of John Singleton Copley (1738 -- 1815) Time

1774 1815
Event
Traveled to London; later he traveled to Paris, Rome, and Florence and eventually London again Died in England
Life of Paul Revere (1734 -- 1818) Time

Early 18th century 1734 1760s 1763 March 1765 August 1765 1765 November 1765 1766 1768 1773 April 1775 1861 1928
Event
40% of shipping out of the colonies passed through Boston Born Began to produce engravings for magazines, bookplates, and trading cards Had met John Singleton Copley by this date British Parliament passed the Stamp Act Samuel Adams formed the Sons of Liberty in Boston Joined the Sons of Liberty and produced his first political print, response to the Stamp Act Parliament enforced the Stamp Act Parliament repealed the Stamp Act Sat for his portrait, Paul Revere; 34 years old Boston Tea Party Midnight ride from Boston to Lexington Henry Wadsworth Longfellow wrote a poem about Reveres midnight ride Portrait displayed publically for the first time; given to the Museum of Fine Arts in Boston shortly afterward
Life of Frederick William Stevens (1847/1848 -- 1900) and History of Mumbai Time
1847 or 1848 1867 1877 1878 1887
Event
Born in Bath, England Appointed assistant engineer in the Public Works Department of India; St. Pancras Railway Station completed in London Began design of Victoria Terminus Building Construction of Terminus began and the building was named to commemorate Queen Victorias jubilee Construction of Terminus ended
Life of Frederick William Stevens (1847/1848 -- 1900) and History of Mumbai Time
1893 1900 1947 1995 1996 2010
Event
Stevens Municipal Corporation Building was completed; Stevens had already retired from public service Died India gained independence A new political party came into power and promoted name changes; Bombay became Mumbai, named after the Hindu goddess, Mumbadevi The Victoria Terminus Building became the Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus, named after a 17th century Hindu king that represented independence Raj Thackery mentioned VT rather than CST in a public address
Life of Joseph Reed (1823 -- 1890) Time

1823 1853 1854 1862 1880 1883 1884 1890
Event
Born in Cornwall, England Settled in Melbourne, Australia, and became a renowned architect Won a competition to design the State Library of Victoria; soon afterwards, he designed the Bank of New South Wales, Geelong Town Hall, and Wesley Church Began to work with Frederick Barnes (1824 -- 1884) and formed the firm, Reed and Barnes -
Royal Exhibition Building completed

Frederick Barnes retired, forcing Reed to find other partners Married Died
History of Melbourne, Australia

Time
1835 1847 1851 1880 October 1880 -- May 1881 1888
Event
First settled by Europeans which arrived by way of Tasmania Queen Victoria recognized the city Gold was discovered in Victoria and Melbourne prospered; Great Exhibition in London and the unveiling of the Crystal Palace
Royal Exhibition Building completed; the structure became the largest building in Australia
and the tallest building in Melbourne The Melbourne International Exhibition received 1.5 million visitors from around the world The Melbourne Centennial Exhibition celebrated 100 years of Europeans in Australia
History of Melbourne, Australia

Time
1901 Mid to late 20th century
Event
Australia became a commonwealth and first opened the Australian Parliament
Royal Exhibition Building used for Olympic competitions, car shows, school examinations,
and graduation ceremonies
Life of Arthur Blomfield (1829 -- 1899) Time

1829 1872 1882 1888 1891 1899
Event
Born Designed St. Andrews Church in Surbiton, England Designed the College of Music in London Designed St. Georges Cathedral Received the Royal Gold Medal of the Royal institute of British Architects Died
History of Georgetown, Guyana

Time
17th and 18th century 1782 1810 1812 1814 1834 1842 1877 1888 1889 November 8, 1894 1966
Event
The Dutch established colonies in the northern coast of South America, driving out the native Arawak and Carib; Georgetown became a European colony in the 18th century The French briefly occupied Georgetown and called it Longchamps The first chapel dedicated to St. George in Georgetown was completed The British named the city Georgetown after King George III The British named the colony British Guiana The abolition of slavery forced the region to find a new source of cheap labor in immigrants to the area The second church in Georgetown was completed; within a few months, Georgetown became the seat of the Diocese of Guiana and the church became a cathedral St. Georges Cathedral was determined unsuitable for use due to an unsteady foundation Arthur Blomfield designed the third church dedicated to St. George Construction of St. Georges Cathedral began
St. Georges Cathedral was consecrated

The colony gained independence and changed name to Guyana
Life of Benjamin West (1738 -- 1820) Time

1738 Late 1750s 1759 1763 1764 1769 1768 1770 1771 1771 -- 1772 1792 -- 1805 1806 - 1820 1820
Event
Born in Springfield, Pennsylvania Work noticed by William Smith, provost at the College of Pennsylvania Traveled to Rome, Venice, and Florence; General James Wolfe died in the Battle of Quebec Settled in London Exhibited his work at the Society of Artists in London which brought him to the attention of British art critics Received a commission from King George II; would soon become court painter and work in this capacity for the next thirty years Royal Academy was founded by King George III with West as one of the founding members Painted The Death of General Wolfe Exhibited The Death of General Wolfe at the Royal Academy Painted Penns Treaty with the Indians Served as president of the Royal Academy Served as president of the Royal Academy Died
Life of William Penn (1644 -- 1718) Time

1644 1670 1677 1681 1682 -- 1683 -
Event
Born to a wealthy family in London Father, Admiral Sir William Penn, died Joined a group of Quakers who purchased a section of land in North America The King of England presented him a 45,000 square mile proprietary grant in payment to a debt to his father; became Pennsylvania According to the story, Penn met with leaders of the Lenape tribe and presented them gifts in exchange for land rights and peace under a large elm tree in Shackamaxon; after this event, he returned to England and there faced financial difficulties and prison Died
1718
Life of Thomas Penn (1702 -- 1775) Time

1702 1737
Event
Born Walking Purchase
Life of Thomas Penn (1702 -- 1775) Time

1756 -- 1763 1771 - 1772 1775
Event
French and Indian War; the Native Americans led raids on the settlers in Pennsylvania because of the Walking Purchase Benjamin West created Penns Treaty with the Indians because Thomas Penn commissioned the painting Died
Life of William Hodges (1744 -- 1797) Time

1744 1758 1768 -- 1771 1772 - 1775 August 1773 1776 1780 -- 1784 1786 1787 1787 -- 1794 1793 1794 -- 1795 1797
Event
Born in London Worked as an apprentice to Richard Wilson, a landscape painter in the Royal Academy Commander James Cook of the British Royal Navy traveled to Cape Horn, New Zealand, Australia, and Tahiti Traveled with James Cook to the Antarctic Circle, Tahiti, Easter Island, and New Caledonia Along with James Cook, reached Matavi Bay in Tahiti Returned to London and exhibited his paintings inspired by the voyage at the Royal Academy; painted HMS Resolution and Adventure Traveled to India with the support of Governor-General Warren Hastings and the East India Company; upon his return, he established a studio and displayed his paintings of India Became an associate member of the Royal Academy Became a full member of the Royal Academy Exhibited at the Royal Academy Published a book of his drawings from India Exhibited The Effects of War and the Consequences of Peace on Bond Street; criticized by the Duke of York; forced to close the exhibition; abandoned painting Died embroiled in scandal about his investments; possibly committed suicide
Life of Joseph Mallord William Turner (1775 -- 1851) Time

1775 1789 (age 14) 1790 (age 15) 1799
Event
Born in London Enrolled in classes at the Royal Academy in London Exhibited first watercolor at Royal Academy Created self portrait
Life of Joseph Mallord William Turner (1775 -- 1851) Time

1802 (age 27) 1812 1815 1840 1851
Event
Became a full member of the Royal Academy Painted Snow Storm -- Hannibal Crossing the Alps; depicted snow storm of 218 B.C.E. and the ancient Roman military leader, Hannibal Painted Dido Building Carthage; depicted ancient Roman history in a large landscape Exhibited Slave Ship at the Royal Academy, showing support for the abolitionist cause Died
History of Slavery115
Time
Early 1440s 17th century Late 17th and 18th century 1781 1783 1786 1787 1807 1808 1833 1839 1840
Event
Portuguese led the first slave-raiding exhibition in Mauritania Rise of large-scale sugar production in the Caribbean and Brazil caused a rise in demand for cheap labor, or slaves Demand for slaves grew in North America and African slaves were the main source; as a result, British, Dutch, Spanish, and Portuguese traders grew wealthy The Zong Affair; Captain Luke Collingwood threw 100 slaves overboard to collect insurance benefits; his ship reached Jamaica safely Insurers entered a court case challenging Luke Collingwoods claims for lost slaves; the Captain had already died Thomas Clarkson wrote the treatise, An essay on the slavery and commerce of the human species, particularly the African, translated from a Latin dissertation The Society for Effecting the Abolition of the Slave Trade was established in London with Thomas Clarkson and many Quakers as founding members The British Parliament abolished the slave trade and took on the responsibility of enforcing this ban militarily Thomas Clarkson expanded his treatise to write The History of the Abolition of the Slave
Trade
The British Parliament abolished slavery throughout the British Empire The British and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society was formed The British and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society held a convention in London attended by 500 delegates from around the world; Thomas Clarkson addressed the convention and republished some of his anti-slavery works
115
These timelines must be mentally exhausting. Ive had to eat two Reeses peanut butter cups, a Butterfinger, and a bowl of Oreos and pudding to get through all of this. Congratulations, decathlete, for reading so far. Have some chocolate.
Life of James Abbott McNeill Whistler (1834 -- 1903) Time

Late 18th -- 19th century First half of the 19th century 1834 1845 -- 1848 1847 -- 1848 1855
Event
Tea became Great Britains national beverage Rise in the demand for Chinese tea produced a rise in the demand for Chinese porcelain Born in Massachusetts Enrolled in art classes in St. Petersburg Traveled in London with his mother Worked briefly as a cartographer then left the United States for Europe where he would live the rest of his life; adopted the lifestyle of a typical bohemian artist in Paris; studied with Charles Gleyre Had Joanna Hiffernan as a mistress Painted Symphony in White, No.1: The White Girl; exhibited in National Gallery of Art in Washington D.C. Painted Purple and Rose: The Lange Leizen of the Six Marks; exhibited at the Royal Academy Painted Symphony in White, No.2: The Little White Girl; exhibited in Tate Gallery in London
1860s 1862 1864 1864 -- 1865 -
Life of James Abbott McNeill Whistler (1834 -- 1903) Time

1870s 1871 1872 1874 1903
Event
French Impressionist artists became fascinated with Japanese art, especially imported woodblock prints Painted Arrangement in Grey and Black: The Artists Mother; exhibited in Muse dOrsay in Paris Created self-portrait called Arrangement in Gray: Portrait of the Painter Painted Nocturne in Black and Gold: The Falling Rocket; exhibited in the Detroit Institute of Arts; criticized by John Ruskin Died
Life of John Frederick Lewis (1805 -- 1876) Time

Late 18th century 1805 1832 - 1834 1841
Event
Napoleon invaded North Africa and was driven out by the allied Ottoman Empire and Great Britain Born in London to an engraver and landscape painter, Frederick Christian Lewis; Muhammed Ali took control of the Ottoman Empire and drove out Great Britain Traveled to Spain; later journeyed to Greece and Turkey Settled in Cairo for one decade and created over 600 watercolor paintings there
Life of John Frederick Lewis (1805 -- 1876) Time

1846 1851 1860s 1869 1870s 1873 1876 1882
Event
William Makepeace Thackery documented Lewis lifestyle in his book Notes of a Journey
from Cornhill to Grand Cairo

Returned to England The American Civil War increased Great Britains interest in Egypt as a possible source of cotton The French built the Suez Canal Great Britain became the largest shareholder in the Suez Canal Lewis painted and exhibited A Lady Receiving Visitors (The Reception) Died The Ottoman Empire handed control of Egypt over to Great Britain
Life of Yinka Shonibare (1962 -- ) Time

19th century 1962 Age 3 Late teens Age 19 1984 -- 1989 1997 Late 1990s and early 21st century 2001 2004 2005 2008 2009 2009 -- 2010 -
Event
The Dutch first created Dutch wax cloth for sale in Indonesia Born in London to Nigerian parents Father finished study of law and the family moved to Lagos, the capital city of Nigeria Attended boarding school in England and Wimbledon College in London Suffered paralysis from transverse myelitis Attended Brym Shaw School of Art in London The Young British Artists exhibited their work in the show Sensation organized by Charles Saatchi Prominence in the art world increased Created The Swing (after Fragonard) Nominated for the exclusive Turner Prize Received the title of MBE or Member of the Order of the British Empire Solo exhibition at the Museum of Contemporary Art in Sydney; created The Sleep of Reason
Produces Monsters
Solo exhibition at the Brooklyn Museum Solo exhibition at the National Museum for African Art
Life of Francisco Goya (1746 -- 1828) Time

1746 1796 -- 1798 1828
Event
Born Produced the set of 80 etchings called Los Caprichos which included The Sleep of Reason
Produces Monsters
The Spanish painter and printmaker died
ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Anna Hainsworth is enormously relieved not to have to say goodbye to her dear friend, Academic Decathlon, quite yet. After four years of competing as an Honors with Canyon del Oro High School, she is experiencing a bit of separation anxiety. Fortunately, she has her wonderful stuffed moose and a plethora of chocolate to keep her company. She watches NOVA every Tuesday night, can quote the entirety of the BBC version of Pride and Prejudice, has read far too many Terry Pratchett books, loves spending time with her copious amount of super cute nieces, and sews incredibly elaborate costumes (Zelda dress, anyone?). The only sport she has ever been good at is foosball. Next year she will make the big leap into the frozen world of Northern Arizona University. She has bought her first actual jacket and is slightly terrified. If you have any words of comfort, criticism, want to obsess about NOVA, or any other random thoughts, feel free to e-mail her at hundredacrehug@gmail.com. Vital Stats Competed with Canyon Del Oro High School at the Regional competitions of 2009, 2010, and 2011, Arizona State competitions of 2010 and 2011, and National competition of 2011 Team placed 1st in State and 5th in Nationals in 2011 Individual top score of 8,828 Decathlon philosophy in a phrase: Use every second. Youre running out of them. Joined DemiDec in May 2011
ABOUT THE EDITOR

If you go to the Chteau de Versailles on a Saturday evening, you can pop one of the millions of bubbles pumped into the air, as Sophy Lee is doing here. If you wait a little bit longer, you can walk down through the garden and listen to classical music. If youre really careful, you can sneak past the security guards into the area by the fireworks. If youre really hungry and thirsty, you can buy too-expensive gelato at one of the corner stands in the maze of trees and shrubs and bushes and flowers and statues. If youre feeling like pyromaniac, you can stare at the explosions of fire shooting into the air to the sound of classical music. If youre super sneaky, you can make it all the way to the front of the crowd. If youre super short, like Sophy, you should stay at the front of the crowd. Because If youre super patient, youll see the most beautiful fireworks display of your life, played to the accompaniment of classical music and dancing fountains. Keep up with her ballin adventures at thefullmontee.wordpress.com. And if you want, email her at sophy@demidec.com.
Vital Stats Attends Harvard University Competed with Pearland High School at Texas Region V and Texas State competitions in 2007; competed at Region, State, and Nationals in 2008 Team placed 13th at State in 2007; individual scores of 7,741 and 7,542 Team placed 1st at State and 3rd at Nationals in 2008; individual scores of 9,041, 9,007, and 9,304 Decathlon philosophy in a phrase: No regrets Joined DemiDec in June 2007
ABOUT THE BETA TESTERS

Jasmin Rahesh is and forever will be H3 at Mansfield Summit High School. She likes to study EVERYWHERE. In the shower, the movie theater, and even while scuba diving. Starbucks is her best friend during Acadec season. And if you even dream of beating her you better wake up and apologize........with some Alpaca related items. Katharine "Special K" Tyndall spent two years as a scholastic on Waukesha West's AcaDec team. In that time she gained (and gave) many nicknames and many more friends. In the fall, Katharine will attend the University of Illinois at UrbanaChampaign. Though she must part from AcaDec, her spirit remains with TyTy, Fersch, AP, and all of the other Westies, nicknamed or not. Anto George is affectionately known by his teammates by "freshy" and "Tech support." He is returning to South Mountain High School to compete as part of the "Three Musketeers" Honors. Someday, he plans to make the vast open skies his cubicle and grow a beard that challenges that of Mr. Yetman. In his spare time, he likes to sleep, play video games (mostly shooters) and laze his days away on the couch. Eric Schumann is a former Honors competitor from New Berlin Eisenhower's team. Currently, he is studying Actuarial Science at UW-Madison where he spends much of his time explaining what actuarial science is to those who don't know. Eric especially enjoyed the mathematics, economics, and language & literature categories while competing, and was honored to have a chance and place first in the Medium Schools Online National Competition his first year on the team. Madison Brown is a Harry Potter-loving, literature obsessing nerd who unfortunately received the nickname of Madi-5 her sophomore year for only getting five questions right in the Super Quiz Oral Relay. She is going into her third season of AcaDec as an Honors (an upsetting change from her normal Scholastic position) for Chaffey High School and hopes to prove to her teammates once again that height is insignificant. Robb Dooling enters his third year at Rochester Institute of Technology in upstate New York without any clue about the future. He studies a mix of Computer Science, Writing Studies, Art History, and Game Design & Development, and is considering Architecture, Interior Design, or Graphic Design, but will always remain true to his favorite pastime, working for DemiDec. Three years of beta testing have cultivated his love for alpaca-related camaraderie and Harry Potter jokes in footnotes. Tony Truong (AKA Tommy) is a senior at Sachse High School in Texas. When he is not studying, Tony enjoys spending his time with his friends, tumblr-ing, and eating out. After high school, he plans to travel the world with a few of his closest friends and possibly take on a career in design. Ronnie Chandra also beta tested this Power Guide.

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EDITION

DEDICATED TO CHOCOLATE MY FAITHFUL COMPANION FOR THE ENTIRETY OF THIS PROJECT

Art Power Guide | 2

WHAT IS A POWER GUIDE?

This actually happened at the Nationals awards ceremony in 2008. Sophy

Art Power Guide | 3

AUTHORS NOTE ON USAGE

Art Power Guide | 4

Art Power Guide | 5

Europe Envisions the Empire 25%

Art Fundamentals 20%

Art and Imperial Power 25%

Africa and Europe 30%

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Section I: Art Fundamentals

Section II: Africa and Europe

Section III: Art and Imperial Power

Section IV: Europe Envisions the Empire

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ELEMENTS OF ART AND PRINCIPLES OF COMPOSITION

Paths of dots or dashes may qualify as lines

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Less Distant Figures

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Orange Red Yellow

Green Yellow Blue

Violet Blue Red

The color wheel

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Intensity labels a colors brightness or purity

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Today, the stubborn Americans still measure distance in feet.

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PROCESSES AND TECHNIQUES

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Primary printmaking processes

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Common substances for the three ingredients in painting

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High relief sculpture

Low (bas) relief sculpture

All sculptures come from four basic methods

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Fabric wrapping around famed monuments

Gates of orange fabric on Central Park's pathways

Pink plastic wrapping around 11 Florida islands

Other Art Forms

Partial view of Christos Surrounded Islands

USAD loves this fact.

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Overview of Art History

The artwork's The artwork's original function formal qualities

The original audience's social class and perspective

The artist's goal and intention