Cassie Greco Bio Midterm Review o Scientific method- ask question do background research construct hypothesis test with

experiment analyze results and draw conclusions if the hypothesis is true report results if the hypothesis is false report results and think again o This needs to be done to test a hypothesis: for setting up an experiment. o Variable- factors that change o 2 types of variables are dependent and independent. o Independent- the variable that is changed: example: temperature; water in a plant. o Dependent variable- the variable that changes as a result of the independent variable. Examples: plant growth; nutrition. o Cells- all living things have cells. Cells are very small, they grow and respond to their surroundings, and reproduce. They are complex and organized. o Unicellular- only has one cell and it is very small. Example: bacteria. o Multicellular- consists of many ells that and small and large. Example: humans. o Living things reproduce. o Organisms produce new organisms through reproductions. o Asexual- one parent. o Sexual- when you have two parents. o Universal genetic code- dna that determines the traits for every organism on earth. Very small variations in dna lead to very large differences in organisms. o Grow and develop- occurs at leas part of lifespan. Some organisms only grow in size, others develop. o Use materials and energy- energy used for development. Material taken is used for energy. Some organisms use photosynthesis while others consume to obtain energy. o Respond to environment- organism detect signals internally and externally and respond accordingly. o Maintain stable environment- homeostasis. o Homeostasis- process by which organisms maintain an internal balance. o Change over time- organisms evolve, basic traits inherited from parents. Do not change. Changes over long periods of time, can be dramatic. o MR.STRANGER o M-etabolism o R-espiration o S-ynthesis o T-ransport o A-ssimulation

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N-utrition G-rowth E-xcretion R-eproduction Discovery of Cell- Robert hooke observed a piece of cork using a compound light microscope. Noticed empty chambers and referred to them as cells. These cells contain living matter. Microscopes also used to observe pond water, which contains many tiny organisms. Cell theory- cells become known as the basic units if life. All living things are composed of cells. They are the basic units of structure and function in living things. Cells are produced from existing cells. Prokaryotic cells- cells that lack a nucleus. Most are unicellular. Smaller and similar than eukaryotic cells. Eukaryotic cells- contain a nucleus. Larger and more complex. Genetic material of cell is found in nucleus. Surface cell wall and cell membranes. Cell Wall - Found mostly in plant cells. Provides support for the cell. Extracellular structure that surrounds the cell membrane. Main functions are support for the cell and protection for the cell. Allows substances (water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, etc.) to pass into and out of cell. Made from carbohydrates and proteins made by cell. Cell Membrane - AKA plasma membrane. Outer membrane of the cell. Allows substances into and out of the cell. Contains proteins, which allow for the passage of materials. Proteins are surrounded by a phospholipid bi-layer (lipid bilayer) Centrioles -Cylindrical organelles that are near the nucleus in pairs. Involved in cellular division Chloroplasts - Found in plant cells. Contain green chlorophyll. Where photosynthesis takes place Cytoskeleton Supports cell and provides shape. Aids in movement of materials into and out of cell. Endoplasmic Reticulum- Tubular network fused to nuclear membrane. Is located from membrane, throughout the cytoplasm. Serves as cell s transport system. 2 types: smooth ER and rough ER. Smooth- lacks ribosomes. Rough contains ribosome Golgi- Protein packaging plant . Found near nucleus. Composed of layers forming a sac. lysosome Digests lipids, proteins and carbs. Transports undigested material to cell membrane for removal. If lysosome breaks down, cell explodes Mitochondria- Powerhouse of cell. Generate ATP. Double layered folded membrane. Controls level of water in cell. Forms urea Ribosomes Protein Factories. Embedded in Rough ER Vacuoles- Membrane bound sacs for digestion, storage, and waste removal. Contains water solution. Contractile vacuoles for water removal Chromosomes Usually in the form of chromatin. Contains genetic information. Composed of DNA. Set number for each species

o Nuclear envelope-Surrounds nucleus. Contains 2 layers. Contains pores to allow materials into and out of nucleus. o Nucleolus-Contains RNA for protein synthesis o Cell Membrane

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head- hydrophilic tail- hydrophobic Cell membranes are selectively permeable. Allows for passage of water and solution. Small molecules pass through large don t. 2 ways substances leave/ enter a cell: passive & active. Types f solutions: isotonic; hypotonic; hypertonic Isotonic: solution concentration of solute is equal.

o Hypotonic solution: starts with more water less solute outside than inside.

o Hypertonic solution: starts with more solute less water outside than inside.

o Diffusion- passive movement of particles goes from HIGH TO LOW concentration. NO ENERGY. Movement continues until concentration of substances is equal (equilibrium) example: gas exchange in lungs. Oxygen from air to blood carbon dioxide from blood to air. o Osmosis- special example of diffusion. The diffusion of water through membrane it is passive NO ENERGY. o Transport through the membrane. o Facilitate diffusion- movement of molecules down a concentration gradient passing through membrane via specific carrier protein. Each protein has its own shape. Only lets one molecule pass through selected by size shape and change. Common molecules include glucose and amino acids. Passive NO ENERGY. o Active transport- transport of a substance across a membrane against its concentration gradient. LOW TO HIGH. This requires energy. Proteins in cell membrane act as the protein carriers. The energy for active transport comes from ATP. o Biochem o atoms- Very small. Neutral. Consist of protons, neutrons and electrons. Protons = positive charge. Neutrons = neutral charge. Electrons = negative charge o Elements- Pure substance. Consists of only one type of atom. Over 100 known elements. 24 of the 100 exist in the living organism. Examples: Carbon, Nitrogen, Hydrogen, etc. o Chemical compounds- Substance formed by chemical combination of two or more elements. Written as chemical formulas. Ex: Water = H2O o Carbon COMPOUNDS- ORGANIC. o Macromolecules- giant molecules made from thousands of smaller molecules. Built by joining smaller molecules together. Organic compounds classified into groups: carbs, lipids, nucleic acid, and proteins. o Carbohydrates- made up of carbon hydrogen and oxygen. Living things use carbs as main energy source. Plants and animals use carbs for structural purposes. Extra sugar is stored as a complex carb aka starch.

o Monomers- in starches are sugar molecules. Single sugar molecules = monosaccharide s. (sugar) aka monomer. Ex: glucose, golactose, and fructose. Multiple sugar molecules= polysaccharides. Many animals store excess sugar aka glycogen. o Lipids- not soluble in water. Made from carbon and hydrogen. Categories are fats, oils and waxes. Used to store energy. Parts of biological membranes and waterproof coverings. Made from 3 fatty acids and 1 glycerol. o Fatty acid chains- can be saturated, unsaturated, or polysaturated. Saturated= no double bonds. Unsaturated= one double bond. Polysaturated= 2 or more double bonds. o Nucleic acids- macromolecules. Contain hydrogen, nitrogen, carbon, and phosphorus. Assembled from nucleotides. Nucleotides- have 3 parts. 5 carbon sugar phosphate group and nitrogen base. o Proteins- macromolecules containing nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Subunits called amino acids. More than 20 different amino acids exist. Some protein control the rate of reaction for self processes. Others form bones and muscles. Others transport substances into and out of cells and help to fight disease. o Chemical reactions- process that changes one set of chemicals to another set of chemicals. Some reactions are very fast. Reactants- elements or compounds at the beginning of a chemical reaction. Products- elements or compounds made by a chemical reaction. Every organism needs a source of energy to stay alive. Plants get energy from sun. animals get energy from consuming plants or other animals. o Activation energy- energy needed to get reaction started. o Enzymes- certain chemical reasons are too slow or have high activation energies. These reactions are made possible by using enzymes. They are specific and usually only catalyze one chemical reaction. Work in certain ph. levels and certain temperature. Cells contain proteins that turn enzymes on and off as they are needed by the organism. Proteins that act as catalysts. Cells use enzymes to speed up chemical reaction that take place within cell. o Catalyst- speeds up rate of reaction. Lower activation energy. o The enzyme- substrate complex. o Enzymes provide a site where reactants can be brought together to react. o This site reduces the energy needed for the reaction. o The reactants of these reactions are called substrates. o Activate- place where substrate binds to enzyme.

o Cells- specialized. They are given specific jobs that determine the tasks they accomplish. o Tissue- made of a group of cells. Carries out a specific function. Most multicellular organisms have 4 types: muscle, epithelial, nervous, connective. o Organs- groups of tissue working together. Takes are too complicated to be carried out by 1. o Organ systems- group of organs that work together to form a specialized function. 11 major organ systems. Muscularly, circulatory, respiratory, digestive, reproductive, endocrine, skeletal, urinary, lymphatic, nervous, and integumentary. o Smallest to largest: organelle-cell-tissue-organ-organ system- and organism. o Assigning scientific names- 18th century- referring to an organism by its common name was confusing. Common names vary among regions and languages, even in the same country. To eliminate confusion, it was agreed that one single name would be used for each species. Greek and Latin was used to name the organisms o Binomial nomenclature- Carrolus Linnaeus developed a two word naming system called binomial nomenclature. Each species is assigned a two part scientific name. Name is always written in italics. First word is always capitalized and the second is always lowercase. o Example: Grizzly Bear is Ursus arctos. Ursus is the genus name (genus to which the organism belongs). A genus is a group of closely related species o System classification- Taxon A group or level or organization. Linnaeus system uses seven taxonomic categories. Kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species o Classification- Species groups of organisms that are identical to each other. Genus group of closely related species. Family genera that share many

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characteristics. Order broad category of families that share characteristics. Class- composed of similar orders. Phylum- different classes with similar characteristics grouped together. Kingdom largest and most inclusive of the taxonomic categories. Waxy Cuticle - Forms a waterproof layer to stop any loss of water. Upper Epidermis - Consisting of epidermal cells. These have no chloroplasts. Palisade cells - These contain lots of chloroplasts, which contain lot of chlorophyll. This is where photosynthesis is carried out. Spongy Mesophyll Layer Air Spaces - allow for diffusion of water vapor etc... Guard Cells - These form stomata (pores), which allow for the diffusion of gases in and out of the plant. Leaf Vein - containing xylem and phloem tubes. Maintenance of water- plants need to regulate water loss and carbon dioxide intake for photosynthesis and other life activities . when plants do not keep enough water in their cells, they wilt and die Stomate- a microscopic hole in a plant leaf which allows gases to enter and leave and water vapor to leave as well. Stomata is the plural of stomate. Guard cells- open and close the stomata. the ability of the guard cell to close during periods of limited water availability for the plant allows the plant to maintain water homeostasis Photosynthesis in overview- Process by which plants and other autotrophs store the energy of sunlight into sugars. Requires sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide. Overall equation: 6 CO2 + 6 H20 C6H12O6 + 6 O2. Occurs in the leaves of plants in organelles called chloroplasts. Chloroplast Structure- Inner membrane called the thylakoid membrane. Thickened regions called thylakoids. A stack of thylakoids is called a granum. (Plural grana). Stroma is a liquid surrounding the thylakoids. Pigments- Chlorophyll A is the most important photosynthetic pigment. Other pigments called antenna or accessory pigments are also present in the leaf. Chlorophyll B. Carotenoids (orange / red). Xanthophylls (yellow / brown). These pigments are embedded in the membranes of the chloroplast in groups called photosystems. Photosynthesis- Occurs in two main phases. Light reactions. Dark reactions (aka the Calvin Cycle). Light reactions are the photo part of photosynthesis. Light is absorbed by pigments. Dark reactions are the synthesis part of photosynthesis. Trapped energy from the sun is converted to the chemical energy of sugars. Light reactions- Light-dependent reactions occur on the thylakoid membranes. Light and water are required for this process. Energy storage molecules are formed. (ATP and NADPH). Oxygen gas is made as a waste product. Dark reactions- Dark reactions (light-independent) occur in the stroma. Carbon dioxide is fixed into the sugar glucose. ATP and NADPH molecules created during the light reactions power the production of this glucose.

o Cellular respiration- In the powerhouse of the cell! Mitochondria- uses inner membranes of mitochondria to go through respiration. o Respiration equation- C6H12O6 + 6 O2 6 CO2 + 6 H2O What is ATP? ENERGY!!! o How is atp used? ATP is used by the organism to digest, transform and transport materials, and also to eliminate waste products o Aerobic- w.o oxygen o Anaerobic- with oxygen o Anaerobic- AKA fermentation. Makes alcohol in yeast and bacteria. Makes lactic acid in animals this is why your muscles are sore during and after exercise. This process makes less ATP and is not as efficient as aerobic respiration. o Respiratory systemo General Information o Passageways allow air to pass directly into tissues of the body. o Air entering must be warmed, moistened and filtered. o Warmed- the capillaries. o Moistened- mucus secreting cells. o Filtered- nose hairs and mucus. o Cilia sweep the trapped particles from the lungs toward pharynx. o The mucus is then swallowed or spit out. o Pathway o Air moves through nose into pharynx. o Pharynx-throat. o The pharynx is the passageway for both air and food. o Air moves from pharynx into the trachea. o Trachea is the windpipe. o A piece of Cartilage covers entrance to the trachea when you swallow. o Cartilage- epiglottis. o At the tip of the trachea is the larynx. o Larynx is the vocal cords. o When muscles pull the vocal cords together, the air moving between them causes vibrations that produce sounds. o From the larynx, air passes through he trachea into two large passageways called bronchi. o Each bronchus leads to one of the lungs. o Within each lung each bronchus divides into smaller bronchi. o Which divide into smaller bronchioles. o The bronchioles divide until they reach a series of dead ends. o Dead ends- alveoli. o Alveoli o They are grouped in clusters. o Clusters aka groups. o A network of capillaries. o Capillaries aka small blood vessels. o Surrounds each alveolus.

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This is the site of the gas exchange. Gas Exchange Oxygen dissolves in the moisture of the inner surface of the alveoli. Next they diffuse across capillaries into the blood. Carbon Dioxide in the bloodstream diffuses across membranes into the alveolus. The process of gas exchange is efficient. Air inhaled contains 21% oxygen and 0.04% carbon dioxide. Air exhaled contains less than 15% oxygen and 4% carbon dioxide. Hemoglobin Oxygen carrying protein in blood. It binds with oxygen. Increases carrying capacity of blood 60x. Without hemoglobin you would be 300L of blood. Breathing This is the movement of air into and out of the lungs. Air pressure is responsible NOT muscles. Lungs are sealed in 2 sacs. (Pleural Membranes) At the bottom of the respiratory cavity is the diaphragm. When you breathe in, the diaphragm contracts and expands the value of the chest cavity. This creates a vacuum like atmosphere because the chest cavity is sealed. Air gets sucked into the lungs. Why Smoking is Bad The upper part of the respiratory system is able to filter dust and dirt that could damage the lungs and the ability to filter. Nicotine, carbon monoxide and tar are 3 of the most dangerous substances in cigarettes. Nicotine-stimulant that increases heart rate and blood pressure. Carbon Monoxide- poisonous gas that blocks transport of oxygen by hemoglobin. Tar- contains compounds that cause cancer. These 3 compounds also paralyze cilia when inhaled in the respiratory system. Without cilia, inhaled particles stick to the walls of respiratory system and enter the lungs. Mucus becomes trapped which explains smokers cough. Also it causes inflammation of the respiratory system, which reduces airflow to alveoli. Diseases Caused by Smoking Chronic Bronchitis- bronchi becomes clogged with mucus and swollen. People have a hard time doing daily tasks. Ex: walking up stairs. Emphysema loss of elasticity in lungs. Makes breathing difficult. People cannot get enough oxygen to the body tissues. Therefore they cannot get rid of the CO2 produced by cellular respiratory.

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Human Digestive System (10% of test) Digestive System Made up of digestive tract and accessory glands. Digestive tract is 9 meters long. Purpose is to get energy and nutrients out of the food we eat. Digestive Tract Pathway This is the pathway that takes the food through the digestive system. Mouth-Esophagus-Stomach-Small Intestine- Large Intestine-rectum-Anus. Accessory Glands Exocrine glands that secrete digestive liquids through ducts into the digestive tract. 3 Main glands are: salivary glands-pancreas-liver. Mouth and Salivary Glands Mouth mechanically and chemically break up the food. Teeth mechanically break up food. Mechanical digestion- breaks down food into smaller pieces to increase surface area so it can be more easily digested. Salivary Glands-produce saliva. Saliva is made up of mostly water, which moistens food making it easier to swallow. Ptyalin and Amylase are 2 digestive enzymes in saliva, which begin the breakdown of starch to simple sugar. Esophagus Is aka gullet or a muscular tube. Peristalsis- waves of muscle contraction that push food through the digestive tract. It takes food from the throat and pushes it down through the neck and into the stomach. This takes 5-10 seconds. Stomach The thick muscles in the stomach wall contract to mash up the food. Chemical digestion of protein begins here. Gastric glands secrete glastic juice, which contains digestive enzymes acids and mucus. Pepsin- begins with protein digestion. Hydrochloric acid- produces acidic environment in stomach so digestive enzymes can work better. Mucus-protects the stomach wall from acids. Digestion here takes 2-6 hours. Small Intestine 6 meters long. Final digestion and nutrient absorption occur here. Takes 5-6 hours. In the beginning mostly digestion is occurring. In the end mostly absorption is occurring.

o Villi are the small finger like projections that increase surface area of the small intestine, which maximizes absorption. o Villi o Capillaries- simple sugars. o Amino acids, vitamins, and minerals are absorbed into the blood stream. o Lateral- fatty acids and glycerol are absorbed into these tiny lymphatic vessels. o Pancreas o Produces several digestive enzymes the chemically digest. o They break down proteins, fats, and nucleic acids in the small intestine. o Chemical Digestion o Protein to amino acids o Carbs to simple sugars o Lipids to fatty acids o Nucleic acids to nucleotides o Liver o Among many other functions in the body it produces bile, which doesn t contain any digestive enzymes. o Bile is stored in the gall bladder. o Bile emulsifies the fat into smaller globules. o This aids in the absorption of fats. o Large Intestine o For reabsorption o 12-24 hours. o Rectum and Anus o Feces are stored in the rectum until eliminated. o Pushed through muscle- the anus. o Disorders of the Digestive System o Heart burn- painful burning sensation in the center of the chest caused when the stomach acid moves out of the stomach into the esophagus. Caused by over eating or drinking. o Peptic Ulcer- holes in wall of stomach caused by acid. For years people thought this was caused by stress and spicy food. Really caused by a bacteria helicobacter pylori. 90% of ulcers cured by antibiotics. o Appendicitis- inflammation of the appendix small organ located below colon. No function in humans used for cellulose digestion in some animals. o Diarrhea- not enough water absorbed by large intestine. Loss of salts and water can be life threatening. o Human Circulatory System (10% of test) o We have a closed circulatory system. o Blood is pumped through a system of vessels. o System consists of heart (pump) blood vessels and blood. o The Heart o Located near the center of the chest. o Hallow o Composed almost entirely of muscle.

o Size of clenched fist. o In walls of heart 2 layers of tissue from a sandwich around a thick layer of muscle called myocardium. o Contractions of this pump blood through the circulatory system o The heart contracts about 73 times per min. o Pumps 70 mL of plod with each contraction. o Right and left sides of heart separated by septum. o Septum-wall prevents mixing of oxygen rich and oxygen poor blood. o R.R.L.L.L.B. o RAtrium. RVentricle. Lungs. LAtrium LVentricle. Body o Heart Beat o Composed of individual fibers. o Atrium and ventricles contracts as a unit. o It begins with a group of cardiac muscle cells in the right atrium known as sinoatrial node (sa node.) o SA node paces the heartbeat. o Aka pacemaker. o Impulse spreads from pacemaker to atria. o From atria signal is sent to atrioventricular node and then to bundle of fibers in ventricle. o When ventricle contracts blood flows out. o Blood Vessels o As blood moves through system it moves through 3 typed of blood. o Arteries, Capillaries, and Veins. o Arteries o Large vessels carry blood from heart to tissue of body. o Carries oxygen rich blood with exception of pulmonary arteries. o Thick walls need to withstand pressure produced when heart pushes blood into them. o Capillaries o Smallest blood vessels. o Walls are one cell thick and narrow. o Important for bringing nutrients and absorbing CO2 and other waste products. o Veins o Once blood passed through the capillary system it must be returned to the heart. o Done by veins. o Walls contain connective tissue and smooth muscle. o Largest veins contain one-way valves that keep blood flowing toward the heart. o Many found near skeletal muscles. o When muscles contract, blood is forces it thorough veins. o Disorders of Circulatory System o Atherosclerosis is fatty deposits (plaque) in walls of arteries Deposits can obstruct flow of blood, which can raise blood pressure. Increase risk of blood

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clots. If clot breaks free it can obstruct flow to tissues and heart attack is due to this. Coronary arteries may become blocked; Heart muscle begins to die due to lack of O2. Stroke- is when blood clot may be leading to brain. Brain cells are starved of oxygen and nutrients. Loss of function may occur. Can cause paralysis, loss of speech or death. Blood Is composed of plasma and blood cells. Types of cells are: red and white blood cells, and platelets. Plasma Straw colored. 90% water 10% dissolved gasses, salts, nutrients, enzymes, hormones, wastes and proteins. Red Blood Cells Most numerous types. Transport oxygen, and get color from hemoglobin. Disk shaped made in red bone marrow. Circulate for 120 days. White Blood Cells Guard against infection, parasites, and bacteria. They increase when body is fighting. Lymphocytes produce antibodies. Which fight against pathogens and remember them. Platelets Aid in body clotting. Small fragments. Stick to edges of broken blood cell and secrete clotting factor help from clot. Blood Clotting Problems Itemophelia-genetic disorder disrupts clotting. Very careful to avoid injury. Treated by injecting extracts that contain missing clotting factor. Excretory System: General Every cell in the body produces metabolic wastes, such as excess salts, carbon dioxide and urea (a toxic compound produced when amino acids are used for energy.) The process by which these metabolic wastes are eliminated is known as excretion. The skin lungs and kidneys make up the excretory system.

o The Kidneys Main organs of the excretory system. Located on either side of the spinal columns near the lower back. Each kidney is about the size of a clenched fist. A tube called ureter causes urine to the bladder from the kidney.

o Kidney Function Waste filled blood enters the kidney (via renal artery.) As blood travels through urea, excess water and other wastes are collected as urine. Clean filtered blood is returned to the body via the renal vein. o Kidney Structure 2 distinct regions. inner part: renal medulla outer part: renal cortex o Nephrons Functional units of the kidneys called nephrons. Each is a small individual processing unit. About 1 million per kidney. Nephrons located in the renal cortex. Each nephron has its own blood supply consisting of an arteriole, a venule, and a network of capillaries. Blood enters through arteriole. Blood is filtered as it passes through the capillaries. Waste products collected in a duct, leading to a ureter. Clean blood leaves the nephron through the venule. o Filtration Blood enters the nephron and flows into the glomerulus. Glomerulus- small network of capillaries in the upper end of the nephron. Encased by a cup shaped structure called the Bowman s capsule. Fluid flows from the bloods into Bowman s Capsule (aka filtration.) Materials filtered from the blood are called filtrate (contains water, urea, glucose, salts, amino acids, and vitamins.) Some particles such as plasma proteins, cells and platelets are too large to pass through capillary walls so they stay in the blood. o Reabsorption and Secretion Kidneys filter entire volume of blood every 45 mins. Not all filtrate is secreted. Most material removed from the blood at Bowman s Capsule returns to blood via reabsorption. Nutrients (amino acids and glucose) are removed from filtrate by active transport. Water follows these materials by osmosis and about 99% of water that enters Bowman s capsule is reabsorbed into blood. Material that remains after reabsorption, called urine, is emptied into a collecting duct. Urine is concentrated in loop of henle (water is

conserved and urine is minimized. Purified blood is returned to circulation. Urine is collected in the urinary bladder. Urine is stored until it is released from the body through urethra. o Disorders of the Excretory system Gout- caused by increased levels of uric acid. Crystallizes and deposits in joints tendons and tissues. May be caused by sugar, alcohol, dairy and seafood. Sweat- release of water and salts from the body through sweat glands. Function is to regulate body temperature. Increase in body temperature= sweating. Sweat evaporates, pulling heat from the body. o The Immune System o Vocabulary o Antigens- molecules on outer surfaces of cells that immune system recognizes as part of the body or an outside invader. GOOD OR BAD. o Pathogens- organisms that invade the body and cause disease. BAD. o Antibodies- proteins produced by immune system, either attacks invading pathogens or marks them from killing. GOOD o Histamines- a chemical that is released as the immune systems response to an allergy. o Antihistamines- a substance that reduces the effects of histamines and the symptoms they cause. o Vaccine- substances made of weakened pathogens to protect the body from future invasion of the pathogen. o Microbes- miscropic organism. o Immunity- destroy pathogens before they cause disease. o Passive Immunity- antibodies were acquired from outside source (injection would be temporary, or from mother to embryo.) o Active immunity- development of antibodies in response to an antigen (can be caused by vaccine.) o Factors that Upset homeostasis 1- viruses, bacteria, fungi, and other parasites may infect plants and animals

and interfere with normal life functions. 2- sometimes the immune system attacks something harmless inside the body, even the bodies own cells. Allergic reactions: caused by body s immune response to usually harmless environmental substances. Autoimmune diseases: immune system may attack some of the body s cells. Transplanted organs that contain cells unrecognized by the body can be attacked. 3- Gene mutations in a cell can result in uncontrolled cell divisions, called cancer. Exposure to certain chemical and radiation increases risk of cancer. 4- other doctors which may show up right away or not for many years include: toxic substances poor nutrition organ malfunction personal behavior o Immune System White blood cells- some of them engulf invaders others produce antibodies that attack them or mark them for killing. Some specialized WBC s will remain, able to fight off invaders of the same kind. This is how organisms become immune to an invader those WBC s already have antibodies. o Vaccinations use weakened microbes to stimulate the immune system to react. This reaction prepares the body to fight invasions by the same microbes. o Immune System Some viral diseases such as AIDS damage the immune system leaving the body unable to deal with multiple infectious agents and cancerous cells. o The Lymphatic System Network of vessels that works with circulatory system. As blood circulates some plasma leaks out of capillaries and surround the cells (intercellular fluid.) The blood needs some of this fluid lack so it uses a network of vessels to collects the lost plasma. This network of vessels makes the lymphatic system. One fluid inside this system is known as lymph. These vessels

connect and become larger. This system is released to the immune system. Along the vessels are enlargements called lymph nodes. Nodes act as filters trapping bacteria and other microorganisms; they become swollen (swollen glands.) o Fighting infectious Diseases research allows for developments in diagnosing preventing treating controlling and curing diseases of plants and animals. o Antibiotics- compounds that kill bacteria without harming cells. Work by interfering with cellular processes of microorganisms. o Penicillin was first discovered (Fleming.) o Streptomycin- disrupts the ribosomes of the bacteria.