PREFACE

Radar is an exhaustive source of detection and find the location of objects like aircraft, ships, space crafts, vehicles and the natural environment etc. Keeping this in mind the present dissertation is based on radar and to study its structure. The outline of the dissertation is as follows:In the chapter firstINTRODUCTION we have discussed about the meaning of radar and how radar works and general structure of radar. In the chapter secondFREQUENCIES RANGE USED IN RADAR we discussed in detail about frequency band which are used in radar system and about pulse consideration. In the chapter third OBJECTS OF RADAR we discuss about the various pest of radar like as radar antenna and radar display and the application of radar system. At last I hope it will be a successful effort in understood the important of radar system.

CONTENTS CHAPTER-1 INTRODUCTION OF RADAR     Meaning of radar/definition of radar History of radar Block diagram of radar Basic principle of radar

CHAPTER-2 FREQUENCIES RANGE USED IN RADAR      Radar frequencies Pulse consideration Pulse duration Pulse repetition frequency Maximum unambiguous range

CHAPTER-3 OBJECTS OF RADAR    Radar antennas and scanning Radar display Applications of radar

CHAPTER-4   Conclusion Refrences

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Meaning of RADAR:The term radar is the abbreviation for:-

Radar= Radio detection and ranging

Radar is not a single instrument but an electronic device which includes various techniques employed for the purpose of detection and location of objects at distances that for exceed the range of human vision .As the performance of radar is unaffected by darkness , fog and rain it therefore can be used all weather conditions to find the positions of mountains , icebergs in sea, share lines lakes etc. RADAR is an electromagnetic system which is used for detection and location of object (target) like aircraft, ships ,space crafts ,vehicles and natural environment. In others word radar is an object detection system which uses radio waves to determine the range altitude direction as speed of objects. It can be used to detect aircraft ,ships ,spacecraft guided missiles, motor vehicles, weather for motion. In the transmitted radar signal, the electric field is perpendicular to the direction of propagation, and this direction of the electric field is the polarization of the wave. Radars use horizontal, vertical, linear and circular polarization to detect different types of reflections. For example, circular polarization is used to minimize the interference caused by rain. Linear polarization returns usually indicate metal surfaces. Random polarization returns usually indicate a fractal surface, such as rocks or soil, and are used by navigation radars.

The information provided by radar includes the bearing and range (and therefore position) of the object from the radar scanner. It is thus used in many different fields where the need for such positioning is crucial. The first use of radar was for military purposes: to locate air, ground and sea targets. This evolved in the civilian field into applications for aircraft, ships, and roads. 1.2 History of radar:The history of radar starts with experiments by heinrich hertz. He experiments by radio waves were reflected by metallic objects. It was German engineer christion hudsmeyer who first used them to build a simple ship detection device intended to help avoid collision in fog. The name radar comes from the acronym radar coined in 1940 by the u.s. navy for public reference to their highly classified work in radio detection and ranging . Before 1934,no single system gave this performance, some systems were omnidirectional and provided ranging information, while other provided raugh directional information but not range. It was enolved deering the years just before world war II. Independently and more as less simultaneously in Great Britain. A key development was the use of pulses that were timed to provide ranging which were sent from large antennas that provided accurate directional

information, combining the two allowed for accurate plotting of target.

1.3 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF PULSED RADAR

1.

Transmitter:The transmitter may be:y y Microwave amplifier (klystron TWT) Microwave oscillator (magnetron)

Magnetron has been widely used because it provides high average power and its turned on and off by the pulse modulates for generating repetitive train of pulses. 2. Antenna:The electromagnetic wave generate by the transmitter travel through a wave guide to antenna. The electromagnetic wave radiated into free space as pulse of radio wave. Antenna can be mechanically sterred parabolic reflectors, plannar array as electronically streered phased array. For both transmitting and

receiving operation a single antenna is generally used as a special transmit/receive switch or duplexer divice,

3. Duplexer:The duplexer is the device which permits a single antenna can be used an a time shared basis for both transmitting and receving.when the transmitter is in operating mode, the duplexer produces a short circuit at the input to the receiver so that transmitting power flows to the antenna not to the receiver. In similar manner reflected signal is directed to receiver not to the transmitter. 4. Receiver:The receiver section of radar is always supesheterodyne type. The input (RF STAGE) can be low noise transistor amplifies. The mixer and local oscillator convert the RF signal into an intermediate frequency signal. In some radar application, the low noise input stage is excluded ,and the mixer receiver with a mixer as the input stage becomes less sensitive because of the mixer higher noise fig. A mixer has greator dynamic range. Less vulnearability to external electromagnetic interference and less susceptibilty to overload. 5. IF AMPLIFIER:The intermediate frequency amplifier boost the mixer output at the intermediate frequency without any distortion in the pulse waveform.The signal band width of a superheterodyne receiver is defind by the bandwidth of its if stages The centre frequency of a typical IF amplifier is in the range 30-60 MHz. while the bandwidth is of the order of 1 MHz. 6. DETECTORS:The IF amplifier stage is followed by a second detector, or demodulator. A diode detector may be used for demodulating as for detection of transmitting signal. The combination of IF amplifier, demodulator and video amplifier act as an envelope to pass the pulse modulation and remove the carrier frequency. 7. VIDEO-AMPLIFIER:-

The role of video amplifier in radar receiver is to provide sufficient amplification or to increase the level of the input signal to a magnitude where it can be seen easily on cathode ray tube (CRT).

8. DISPLAY:The signal from video amplifier is given for thres hold decision, which decides wheter target is present as not. The decision is based on the magnitude of reciver output. If the magnitude of received signal is large enough to exceed a pre-defined theeshold, the decision is that target is present. If the level of received signal below the predefined threshold only noise is present. The radar received receivers many echo pulse from a target, the process of adding these pulse together to obtain a greater SNR,is called integration. The integration is found is the video portion of the receiver. Display can be further divided into these types A-SCOPE  B-SCOPE  C-SCOPE  PPI 1.4 BASIC PRINCIPAL OF RADAR

-Transmitter generates an electromagnetic signal that is transmitted into free space by an antenna. -The transmitted electromagnetic signal strike on target and reradiates from target in from of echo-signal. -The echo-signal finally collected by radar receiver -Radar receiver determine the location and range of target. -The range of a target is determined by measuring the time it takes for the transmitted signal to travel to target and return back to radar If is the time of radar signal to travel to the target and return back then range

of a target

Where c is the velocity of light (3 X108m/s) The electro-magnetic waves are reflected if. They meet an electrically leading surface. If these reflected waves are received again at the place of their origin, them that means an obstacle is in the propagation direction. Electromagnetic energy travels through air at a constant speed at approximately the speed of light (3 X108m/s) or 186,000 statute miles per sec. or 162,000. This constant speed allows the determination of the distance between the reflecting objects (airplane, ships or cars) and the radar site by measuring the running time of the transmitted pulses. This energy normally travels through space in a straight line and will vary only slightly because of atmospheric and weather conditions. By using of special radar antennas. This energy can be focused into a desired direction. Thus the direction (in azimuth and elevation) of the reflecting objects can be measured. These principles can basically be implemented in a radar system and allow the determination at the distance, the direction and the height of the reflecting object.

CHAPTER II
FREQUENCIES RANGE USED IN RADAR
2.1 RADAR FREQUENCIES:The spectrum of the electromagnetic waves shows frequencies up to 1024 Hz. This very large complete range is subdivided because of different physical qualities in different sub range. The division of the frequencies to the different ranges was compacted on criteria formerly which arose historically and a new division of the wave bands which is used internationally is out dated and arose so in the mean time. Radar system work in a wide band of transmitted frequencies, the higher frequency of a radar system ,the more it is affected by weather condition such as rain or clouds. But the higher better is the accuracy of the radar system. The radar is generally operated in microwave frequency region. The radar operate in frequencies ranging from about 100MHz to 36 GHz.

BAND DISIGNATION VHF

NOMINAL FREQUENCY RANGE 30-300MHz

SPECIFIC RADAR BANDS ON ITU ASSIGNMENT (GHz) 0.138-0.144GHz 0.216-0.255GHz 0.42-0.45GHz

UHF L S C X Ku

300-1000MHz 0.85-0.94GHz 1-2GHz 2-4GHz 4-8GHz 8-12GHz 12-18GHz 1.21-1.40GHz 2.30-2.50GHz 2.30-2.50GHz 8.50-10.68GHz 13.4-14.0GHz 15.7-17.7GHz

K Ka

18-27GHz 27.40GHz

24.05-24.25GHz 33.40-36.00GHz

HF and VHF Band:-

These radar bands below 300MHz have a long

historically tradition because

these frequencies represented the frontier of radio technology at the time during the world war-II. Today these frequencies are used for early warning radars and so called OVER THE HORIZON (OTH) Radar. Using these lower frequencies, it is easier to obtain high power transmitters, the attenuation of the electro-magnetic waves is lower than using higher frequencies. On the other hand, the accuracy is limited because a lower frequency requires antennas with very which determines angle accuracy and angle resolutions. These frequency band are used by other communications and broadcasting services too, therefore the bandwidth of the radar is limited (at the expense of accuracy and resolution again.) these frequency bands are currently experiencing a comeback, while the actually used stealth have the desired effect at extremely low frequencies. UHF RADAR:There are some specialized radar sets developed far this frequency band (900MHz to 1GHz). Its a good frequency for the operation of radar for the detection and tracking of satellites and ballistic missiles over a long range these radar operate for early warning and target acquisition like the surveillance radar for the MEDIUM EXTENDED AIR DEFENSE SYSTEM (MEADS). Some weather radar application e.g. wind profiles work with these frequencies because the em waves are very low affected by clouds and rain. The new technology of ULTRA WIDE BAND (UWB). Radar uses all frequencies from A to C-band, UWB-radar transmit very low pulses in all frequencies simultaneously. They are used for technically material examination and as GROUND PENETRATING RADAR(GPR) for archaeological explorations. L-BAND RADAR:technologies dont large physical size

This frequency band (1-2 GHz) is preferred for the operation of long range air surveillance radar out to 850 NM (=400km). They transmit pulses with high power, broad band width and an intra pulse modulation often due to the curvature of the earth the achievable maximum range is limited for targets flying with low altitude .These objects disappear very fast behind the radar horizon. In air-traffic management (ATM) long range surveillance radar like the air route surveillance radar (ARSR) works in this frequency band coupled with a mono-pulse secondary surveillance radar (MSSR).They use a relatively large but slower rotating antenna. L-band is good as monomonic rhyme as large antenna as long range. S-BAND RADAR:The atmospheric attenuation is higher then in d-band. Radar sets need a considerably higher transmitting power than in a lower frequency range to achieve a good maximum range. As example given the medium power radar (MPR) with a pulse power of up to 20 MW. In this frequency range the influence of weather conditions is higher than in dband. Therefore a couple of weather radar work in s-band radar but more in sub tropic and tropic climate conditions. Because here the radar can see beyond a severe storm. Special airport surveillance radars (ASR) are used at airports to detect and display the position of aircraft in the terminal area with a medium range up to 50-60NM (=100km). An ASR detects aircrafts position and weather conditions in the vicinity of civilian and military airfields .The designators s-band (contrary to L-band) is good as mnemonic rhyme as smalls antenna or shorter range. C-BAND:-

In C-band radar there are many mobile military battle field surveillance radar sets with short as medium range. The size of the antenna provides an excellent accuracy. And resolution but the relatively small sized antenna doesnt bother a fast relocation. The influence of bad weather conditions is very high. Therefore air-surveillance radars use an antenna feed with circular polarization often. This frequency band is predetermined for most types of weather radar used to locate precipitation in temperate zone like Europe. X AND Ku-BAND RADAR):In this frequency band (8 to 12 GHz) the relationship between used wave length and size of the antenna is considerably better than in lower frequency bands. These band is a relatively popular radar band for military applications like airborne radars and performing the roles of interceptor, fighters and of ground target. A very small antenna size provides a good performance. Missile guidance systems at band are of a convenient size and are therefore of interest for applicable where mobility and light weight are important and very long range is not a major requirement. This frequency band is wide used maritime civil and military and cheap antenna with a high resolution speed are adequate for a fair maximum range and a good accuracy slotted wave guide and small patch antenna are used as radar antenna. Under a protective random mostly. This frequency band is also popular for space borne or airborne imaging radars based or synthetic aperture radars (SAR) both for military electronic intelligence and civil geographic mapping. A special inverse synthetic aperture radar (ISAR) is in use as a maritime airborne instrument of pollution control. K-AND Ka BAND RADAR:-

The higher the frequency, the higher is the atmospheric absorption and attenuation of the waves. Other wise the achievable accuracy and the range resolution rise too..Radar applications in this frequency band provide short range very high resolution and high data renewing rate. In ATM these radar sets are called surface movement radars(SMR). V-BAND RADAR:By the molecular dispersion (here this is the influence of the air humidity) This frequency band stay for a high attenuation. Radar applications are limited for a short range of a couple of meters here.

W-BAND RADAR:There are two phenomena visible a maximum of attenuation at about 15 GHz and a relative minimum at about 96GHz.

OPERATING CHARACTERISITCS OF A RADAR FREQUENCY/PULSE CONSIDERATIONS.

The performance of a radar system depends upon the factors such as the desired data and nature of the targets: and these factors on the others band, depend upon the choice of operating frequency. Pulse duration and repetition rate, the power out-put of the transmitter, choice of indicator type sensitivity and band-width of the receiver and radiation pattern of antenna.

CHOICE OF OPERATING FREQUENCY:Most pulse radar system operates all frequencies from above 1000mc/s to about 70,000mc/s. The use of such high frequencies has the advantages that:-

 At such high frequencies a sharp and well confined radiation beam can be achieved with an antenna structure of relatively small physical size.  Higher the frequency, shorter may be the transmitted pulses which provide good range resolution. The use of high frequencies also suffers with the following main disadvantages  Noise figure increases more with frequency  Power generated in the transmitter tends to the less as the frequency is increased. Radar pulses should have vertical sides and flat tops. The leading edge of the transmitted pulse must be vertical to ensure that the leading edge of the received pulse (echo) is also close to the vertical otherwise uncertainty will prevail as to at what precise instant echo has been received. Further pulse trailing edge should also be vertical (steep) otherwise (if not steep) It will have the effect of lengthening the period of time for which the receiver is disconnected from the antenna therefore it limit the minimum range of the radar. PULSE DURATION:For good resolving capabilities, short duration pulses in the form a narrow radiating beam should be employed. For a good range resolution, pulse duration of 1 sec or less are employee pulse width used in radar range from about 0.2 sec. long to values of the order of 30 sec. PULSE REPETITION FREQUENCY:The pulse repetition frequency is made sufficiently small so that the time spent is the path between radar and distant target may not exceed the interval between transmitted pulses repetition frequencies used in radar work usually vary for 350 to about 10,000 cycles, short range radar use high pulse repetition rates.

TRANSMITTER POWER OUTPUT:To detect target at range up to several hundred miles transmitter peak power output of more than are megawatt may be required. For a particular radar transmitter power is determined by the maximum distances over which it is desired to receiver target information. A typical radar used for the detection of conventional aircraft at range of 100 or 200 miles might employ a peak power of the order of lMW, a pulse width of several microseconds and a pulse repetition frequency of several hundred pulse per second.

MAXIMUM RANGE:It depends upon the energy content of the transmitted pulses and the sensitivity of receiver. For better sensitivity random noise generated in the input section of the receiver should be minimized. MAXIMUM UNAMBIGUOUS RANGE(Rumb):The signal is radiated into space by a radar in the form of pulse modulated sine wave. Once a transmitted pulse radiated by the radar, sufficient length of time must be allowed so that all echo signal due to this pulse may be return to the radar before next pulse is transmitted. Therefore the rate by which the pulse may be transmitted is define by the longest range at which the target are expected. It pulse repetition time Tp is too short echo signal from target and ambiguities in the measuring might result. It clearly indicates, if Tp is too short an echo signal from a long distance target might arrive after the transmission of next

pulse. Echoes that arrive after the transmission of next pulses are called second time around echoes(multiple time around echoes) The maximum unambiguous range is defined by range beyond which target appear as second time around echoes The Rumb is given by C=velocity of light =3X108 m/s TP=pulse repetition period The Rumb can be defined in terms of pulse repetition frequency.

=
  

CHAPTER III OBJECTS OF RADAR

ANTENNAS AND SCANNING
The majority of radar antennas use dipole or horn-fed paraboloid reflectors, or at least reflectors of a basically parabolid shape. In each of the latter the beamwidth in the vertical direction (the angular resolution) will be much worse than in the horizontal direction, but this is immaterial in ground-to-ground or even radars. It has the advantages of allowing a significantly reduced antenna size and weight reduced wind loading and smaller drive motors. Antenna scanning radar are often made to scan a given area of the surrounding space, but the actual scanning pattern depends on the application .

The first of these is the simplest but has the disadvantage of scanning in the horizontal plane only. There are many applications for this type of scan in

Searching the horizon, e.g.-in ship to ship radar, the nodding scan

is an

extension of this; the antenna is now rocked rapidly in elevation while it rotates more slowly in azimuth, and scanning in both planes is obtained. The system can be used to scan a limited sector or else it can be extended to cover the complete hemisphere. Another system capable of search over the complete hemisphere is the helical scanning system, in which the elevation of the antenna is raised slowly while it rotates more rapidly in azimuth. The antenna is returned to its starting point at the completion of the scanning cycle and typical speeds are a rotation of 6 rpm accompanied by a rise rate of 20degree/minute. Antenna tracking Having acquired a target through a scanning method as just described ,it may then be necessary to locate it very accurately, perhaps in order to bring weapons

to bear upon it. Having an antenna with a narrow, pencil-shaped beam helps in this regard, but the accuracy of even this type of antenna is generally insufficient in itself. The direction of the antenna beam is rapidly switched between two positions in this system, as shown so that the strength of the echo from the target will fluctuate at the switching rate, unless the target is exactly midway between the two directions .in this case the echo strength will be same for both antenna positions, and the target will have been tracked with much greater accuracy than would be achieved by merely pointing the antenna at it. Conical scanning is a logical extension of lobe switching. it is achieved by mounting the parabolic antenna slightly off centre and then rotating it about the axis of the parabola, the rotation is slow compared to the PRF. The conical scan is derived from the surface described in space by the pencil radiation pattern of the antenna , as the tip of the pattern moves in a circle. The same argument applies with regard to target positioning as for sequential lobing, except that the conical scanning system is just as accurate in elevation as in azimuth, whereas sequential lobing is accurate in one plane only.

There are two disadvantages of the use of either sequential lobing or conical scanning. The first and most obvious is that the motion of the antenna is now more complex, and additional servomechanisms are required. The second drawback is due to the fact that more than one returned pulse is required to locate a target accurately (a minimum of four are required with conical scan, one for each extreme displacement of the antenna). The difficulty here is that target cross section is changing, because of its change in attitude or for other reasons, the echo power will be changing also. Hence the effect of conical scanning(or sequential lobing,for that matter)will be largely nullified. From this point of view, the ideal system would be one in which all the information obtained by conical scanning could be achieved with just one pulse. Such a system fortunately exists and is called monopulse. Each of the four feeds produces a slightly different beam from the one reflector, so that in transmission for individual beams stabout into space, being centered on the direction a beam would have had from a single feed placed at the focus of the reflector .as in conical scanning and sequential lobing, no differences will be recorded if the target is precisely in the axial direction of the antenna. However once the target has been acquired, any deviation from the central position. Will be shown by the presence of a vertical difference signal, a horizontal difference signal, or both. The receiver has three separate input channels (one for each of the three signals)consisting of three mixers with a common local oscillator, three IF amplifiers and three detectors. the output of the sum channel is used to provide the data generally obtained from a radar receiver, while each of the difference or error signals feeds a servoamplifier and motor, driving the antenna so as to keep it pointed exactly at the target. Once this has been done ,the output of the sum channel can be used the function of the radar. The advantage of monopulse, as previously is that it obtains with one pulse the information which required several pulses in conical scanning. monopulse is not subject to errors due to the variation in target cross section. It requires two extra for the automatic control of gunnery if that is

receiving channels and a more complex duplexer and feeding arrangement and will be bulkier and more expensive. RADAR DISPLAY The main purpose of radar receiver is to present the output so that an operator can easily and accurately determine the presence of target instead of displaying only detection many surveillance radar display target track vectoralong with auxiliary alphanumeric information to an operator. If display is connected directly with the output of radar receiver without any processing the output is defined as raw video. If receiver output is processed by an detector before displaying it is defined called as synthetic video. 1. A SCOPE DISPLAY A-scope display is the most popular type of system for displaying modulation. it is also indicate the range of the target in a scope display vertical deflection is directly proportional to the amplitude of the receiver output and the horizontal deflection is proportional to range of target .this display is suitable for manual tracking radar. In operation of a scope display, a available to scan the CRT screen horizontally by applying a linear saw tooth voltage to the horizontal deflection plate in synchronism with transmitted pulses. If demodulated echo signal from receiver is applied to the vertical deflection plate, it cause vertical deflection from horizontal line.

2. B-scope display, Display received signal amplitude as a function of azimuth. This intensity modulated display has azimuth angle along the horizontal axis and range along the vertical axis B-scope display is widely used in airbone military radar where the range and angle to the target are more important than concern about distortion in the angle dimension

3. C-SCOPE DISPLAY It is a two angle intensity modulated rectangular display in which azimuth angle indicated by the horizontal coordinate and elevation angle is determine by the vertical coordinate. 4. PLAN POSITION INDICATOR(PPI) The PPI display is an intensity modulation type display, which indicate both range and azimuth angle of the target in polar coordinate system. The echo signal received from receiver is firstly demodulated and than applied to the grid of the CRT tube which is biased slightly beyond cutoff. A beam is made to deflect radiately outward from centre and also continuousaly around the tube at the same angular velocity as that of the antenna. The brightness spot on the screen indicates the presence of target. The distance of the bright spot radiating outward from the centre determine the distance of the target from radar

transmitter. The resolution of screen depends on the bandwidth of the antenna, pulse width and transmitter frequency.

APPLICATIONS OF RADAR
The radar play important role for purpose although it has been employed in civilian application.

MILITARY APPLICATIONS
 Detection and ranging of enemy target at night  In air defense system operation of offensive missiles and other weapons.  Early warning regarding approaching aircrart or ships.

AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL (ATC)

The radar have been employed throughout the world for safely of aircraft and controlling air traffic. It is also used for guiding aircraft to a safe landing during disturbed weather.

REMOTE SENSING
 Weather observation  Planetary observation  Short range below ground probing.  Mapping of sea ice to route shipping OTHER APPLICATIONS

 The radar speed meter is used widely by police for enforcing speed limit.  In ship safety radar is employed to avoid collision when visibility is poor.  The radar are used to indicate region of precipitation height of an aircraft above the terrain to avoid hazards related with them.  The space vehicles have used radar for rendezvous and docking for landing on the moon.

CHAPTER -IV CONCLUSION

Radar is an electromagnetic system which is used for detection and location of objects (targets) like aircraft ships space crafts vehicles and natural environment etc. In operation of radar radio wave are transmitted into space and wave strike on target, signal reflected from target or object is called as echo signal. Signal reflected by target is received by radar receiver. The echo signal that is returned to the radar not only indicates the presence of objects, but gives other target related information. The radar can operate in darkness, fog, rain and show. In typical climate condition radar can measure distance with high accuracy. The different parts of radar structure are:-

a) Transmitter b) Antenna c) Duplexer d) Receiver e) If amplifier f) Detector g) Video amplifier h) Display The radar is generally operated in microwave frequency region. The radar operates at frequencies ranging from about 100MHz to 36 GHz The electromagnetic wave generated by the transmitter travel through a transmission line or a wave guide to antenna. The electromagnetic wave radiated into free space as pulse of radio wave. Antenna can be mechanically steered parabolic reflectors, plannar array or electronically streered phased array The measure of sharpness and directivity of the radiated beam from the antenna is, however dependent on its requirements scanning methods from antenna are:a) Horizontal scan b) Nodding scan c) Helical scan d) Spiral scan The signal from video amplifier is given for threshold decision, which decides whether target is present or not. Display can be further divided into three type a) A-scope b) B-scope c) C-scope d) PPI The radar play important role for military purpose, Air traffic control, remote sensing.

REFRENCES i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. ix. Introduction of radar system;Mc Graw Hill Radar principles ; Nadav levanon Fundamentals of radar signal processing ;Mark A. Richards Understanding radar system; Simon philip kingsley Radar handbook; Merrill I skolnik The discovery of radio waves ;Heinrich Rudolf Understanding radar ;Harry cale www.techradar.com www.radar tutorial.eu

x. xi. xii. xiii.

www.wikipedio.org www.radar.htm www.radar.org.ue Radar.oreilly.com