Comparator, monostable and oscillator circuits 187

1111 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 20111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 30111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 4911

to limit the output of the inverting integrator, serve to stabilize the amplitude of oscillations.

7.4 Waveform generators

Signals with a waveshape other than sinusoidal are sometimes required. Signal generators that provide a variety of waveforms are commonly referred to as function generators. They can be built using op-amps or special linear integrated circuits. The basic waveshapes produced by most function generators are square and triangular. These waves can be shaped by non-linear or limiting ampliers to produce sinusoidal and other waveform shapes. There are two basic functions performed in a waveform generator. The rst is a capacitor charging, which is used to x waveform periods and generate a triangular wave. The second is a comparator function used to sense capacitor voltage and switch between charge and discharge conditions. In the astable multivibrator circuit discussed in Section 7.2.1, both functions are performed by a single op-amp. The astable multivibrator gives a squarewave and a non-linear triangular wave. In order to generate a linear triangular wave, the capacitor must be charged with a constant current. The astable multivibrator can be modied for constant current charging (see Appendix A1, Figure A1.7). One alternative is to use two op-amps; one providing the linear capacitor charging function and the other providing the comparator function.

7.4.1 A basic triangular square wave generator A basic circuit for a triangular square wave generator is given in Figure 7.21. It consists of an integrator and regenerative comparator connected in a positive feedback loop. Precise triangular waves are formed by integration of the square wave that is fed back from the comparators output to the integrators input. With the comparator output at its positive saturation level, the integrator output ramps down at the rate Vo V/s CR

(7.6)

until it reaches the lower trip point of the comparator: Vo R1 R2

The comparator output then switches rapidly to its negative saturation level Vo and the integrator output then ramps up at the rate Vo V/s CR

(7.7)

188 Operational Ampliers

1111 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 20111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 30111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 49111

Figure 7.21 Basic triangular square wave generator When the integrator output reaches the upper trip point of the comparator: Vo R1 R2

the comparator again switches states and the process repeats. The waveform periods are determined by the relationships [Vo Vo] T1 V o CR [Vo Vo] T2 V o CR R1 R2 R1 R2

(7.8)

(7.9)

If the comparator positive and negative output limits have the same magnitude, Vo Vo , T1 T2 and the frequency of the oscillations is determined by the relationship

Comparator, monostable and oscillator circuits 189

1111 R2 1 (7.10) f 2 T1 T2 4R1 CR 3 Equation 7.10 has been derived from the assumption of ideal op-amp action. 4 The performance limits of a practical circuit are determined by comparator 5 slew rate and integrator bandwidth at the higher frequencies and by inte6 grator drift at the lower frequencies. 7 Bias current and input offset voltage give rise to an integrator output drift. 8 This drift increases one integration rate and decreases the other as the output 9 of the comparator changes polarity. The effect at low frequencies is to cause 1011 a lack of symmetry in the generator waveform. 1 The effect of bias current and input offset voltage on the performance of 2 A2 is to introduce an equivalent error voltage at the non-inverting input 3 terminal. This error voltage shifts both comparator trip points an equal 4 amount, which in turn shifts the DC level of the triangular wave but leaves 5 its amplitude unchanged. 6 7 8 7.4.2 Varying the waveform characteristics of the basic generator 9 20111 The waveform characteristics of the basic function generator system of Figure 1 7.21 can be varied during operation by using potentiometers. The circuit 2 shown in Figure 7.22 gives one possible arrangement. This allows adjustment 3 of frequency, waveform symmetry, triangular wave DC offset and triangular 4 wave amplitude. The circuit includes a zener output limiting clamp on the 5 comparator, which sets the square wave amplitude at VZ. 6 Adjustment of the timing resistor R controls the frequency and does not 7 alter other waveform characteristics. Potentiometer P1 applies a voltage V1 8 to the inverting input of the regenerative comparator amplier A2. This shifts 9 is the positive both comparator trip points by an amount V1/ , where 30111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 4911 Figure 7.22 Waveform generator with control of waveform characteristics

190 Operational Ampliers

1111 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 20111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 30111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 49111

feedback fraction determined by the setting of potentiometer P2 . The effect is to shift the DC level of the triangular wave by an amount V1/ . The setting of potentiometer P2 determines the amount of hysteresis in the regenerative comparator. This controls the comparator trip points, and thus controls the triangular wave amplitude. Change of triangular wave amplitude is inevitably accompanied by a change in frequency. A decrease in triangular wave amplitude causes a proportional increase in frequency. Potentiometer P3 applies a DC offset to the integrator. This results in an increase in one timing period and a decrease in the other. This change of timing controls waveform symmetry, but it also affects the frequency. In Figure 7.23 is an alternative circuit that allows control of waveform symmetry without altering the frequency. In the circuit, resistor values R1 and R2, which control the comparator trip points, are chosen so as to give a triangular wave of amplitude approximately 10 V peak-to-peak. This allows a single polarity triangular wave or ramp to be generated by adjustment of the triangular wave offset control potentiometer P1. The traces as given in Figure 7.23 show the control of waveform symmetry obtained by adjusting the symmetry control potentiometer P3.

Figure 7.23 Waveform generator with frequency unaffected by symmetry control

Comparator, monostable and oscillator circuits 191

Note that there is some interaction between the symmetry control poten1111 tiometer and the frequency control potentiometer, at the extreme settings of 2 the symmetry control. This is due to unequal loading of the frequency control 3 potentiometer on the run up and run down portion of the triangular wave. 4 If this interaction is not tolerable, a follower can be used to buffer the output 5 of the frequency control potentiometer. 6 Temperature dependence of the forward voltage drops of diodes D1 and 7 D2, which can be expected to cause frequency instability at the lower levels 8 of frequency, are compensated by diodes D3 and D4. 9 1011 1 7.4.3 Waveform generator with voltage control of frequency 2 3 It is often convenient to be able to control, or modulate, the frequency of a 4 waveform generator with a control voltage. To achieve this in the circuit of 5 Figure 7.21, the magnitude of the current to the integrator must be varied 6 in response to an externally applied control voltage. The sign of the inte7 grator current must change during operation, to allow the integrator output 8 to ramp both up and down. 9 A four-quadrant multiplier (see Chapter 5) could be connected between the 20111 comparator and the integrator. This is shown in Figure 7.24. The multiplier 1 can be used for voltage control of the waveform generators frequency. The 2 multiplier may be thought of as acting as a voltage controlled potentiometer. 3 Assuming that the scaling factor of the multiplier is the normal 1/10, the 4 square wave is multiplied by Vc/10 before being applied to the integrator. The 5 equations for the waveform periods (equations 7.8 and 7.9) are in effect multi6 plied by 10/Vc and the expression for frequency (equation 7.10) is multiplied 7 by Vc/10. If the comparator positive and negative output limits are equal in mag8 nitude the frequency of oscillations given by the circuit in Figure 7.22 is thus: 9 30111 Vc R2 1 f (7.11) 2 10 4R1CR 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 4911 Figure 7.24 Four quadrant multiplier allows voltage control of frequency