FOOD TECHNOLOGY SEMINAR

PRODUCTION OF
SAKE WINE BOURBON WHISKEY

SAKE MANUFACTURE
Introduction
SAKE is a rice-based alcoholic beverage of Japanese origin. Sake is also referred to in English as a form of rice wine. However, unlike true wine, in which alcohol is produced by fermenting the sugar naturally present in fruit, sake is made through a brewing process more like that of beer, thus it is more like a rice beer than a rice wine. To make beer or sake, the sugar needed to produce alcohol must first be converted from starch. However, the brewing process for sake differs from beer brewing as well, notably in that for beer, the conversion of starch to sugar and sugar to alcohol occurs in two discrete steps, but with sake they occur simultaneously. Additionally, alcohol content also differs between sake, wine, and beer. Wine generally contains 916% alcohol[1] and most beer is 39%, whereas undiluted sake is 1820% alcohol, although this is often lowered to around 15% by diluting the sake with water prior to bottling.

History
The production of sake began in Japan sometime after the introduction of wetrice culture in the third century B.C.E. The first written record of sake dates from the third century C.E., and the first reference to its manufacture from the eighth century C.E. The history of sake is not well documented and there are a number of theories about how it was discovered. One theory suggests that the brewing of an alcoholic beverage using rice started in China, along the Yangtze River, and was subsequently exported to Japan. Another theory traces sake brewing back to the advent of wet-rice cultivation in the third century B.C.E., when a combination of water and rice, if left untouched for a while, could have resulted in molds and fermentation. The first sake was called kuchikami no sake, or "mouth-chewed sake," and was made by people chewing rice, chestnuts, millet, and acorns, and spitting the mixture into a tub. The enzymes from the saliva allowed the starches to saccharify (convert to sugar). Then this sweet mixture was combined with freshly cooked grain and allowed to naturally ferment. This early form of sake was probably low in alcohol and consumed like porridge. This method was also used by indigenous peoples to manufacture cauim in Brazil and pulque in central Mexico. Chinese millet wine made in this way, is mentioned in inscriptions from the fourteenth century B.C.E. as an offering to the gods in religious rituals. Later, from approximately the eighth century B.C.E., rice wine, with a formula almost exactly like that of the later Japanese sake, became popular in China.

The Sake Brewing Process

Five crucial elements are involved in brewing sake -- water, rice, technical skill, yeast, and land / weather. More than anything else, sake is a result of a brewing process that uses rice and lots of water. In fact, water comprises as much as 80% of the final product, so fine water and fine rice are natural prerequisites if one hopes to brew great sake. But beyond that, the technical skill needed to pull this all off lies with the toji (head brewers), the type of yeast they use, and the limitations entailed by local land and weather conditions. Please visit the links shown above for a detailed review of the crucial ingredients.

Rice Milling
After proper sake rice (in the case of premium sake, anyway) has been secured, it is milled, or polished, to prepare it for brewing good sake. This is not as simple as it might sound, since it must be done gently so as to not generate too much heat (which adversely affects water absorption) or not crack the rice kernels (which is not good for the fermentation process). In the photo on left, the rice in top left corner is unmilled, the rice next to it has only 70% of kernel remaining, while the rice at bottom has been milled so only 35% remains. The photo at top right (with red background) shows rice ground to 50%. The amount of milling greatly influences the taste.

Washing and Soaking

Next, the white powder (called nuka) left on the rice after polishing is washed away, as this makes a significant difference in the final quality of the steamed rice. (It also affects the flavor of table rice; try washing your rice very thoroughly and notice the difference in consistency and flavor.) Following that, it is soaked to attain a certain water content deemed optimum for steaming that particular rice. The degree to which the rice has been milled in the previous step determines what its pre-steaming water content should be. The more a rice has been polished, the faster it absorbs water and the shorter the soaking time. Often it is done for as little as a stopwatch-measured minute, sometimes it is done overnight.

Steaming
Next the rice is steamed. Note this is different from the way table rice is prepared. It is not mixed with water and brought to a boil; rather, steam is brought up through the bottom of the steaming vat (traditionally called a koshiki) to work its way through the rice. This gives a firmer consistency and slightly harder outside surface and softer center. Generally, a batch of steamed rice is divided up, with some going to have koji mold sprinkled over it, and some going directly to the fermentation vat. (Photo at left: rice steaming in koshiki, or vat).

Koji Making (Seigiku)

This is the heart of the entire brewing process, really, and could have several chapters, if not books, written about it. Summarizing, koji mold in the form of a dark, fine powder is sprinkled on steamed rice that has been cooled. It is then taken to a special room within which a higher than average humidity and temperature are maintained. Over the next 36 to 45 hours, the developing koji is checked, mixed and re-arranged constantly. The final product looks like rice grains with a slight frosting on them, and smells faintly of sweet chestnuts. Koji is used at least four times throughout the process, and is always made fresh and used immediately. Therefore, any one batch goes through the "heart of the process" at least four times. (Photo: Koji being cultivated in small trays, and a grain of rice cultavated with koji mold).

The yeast starter

A yeast starter, or seed mash of sorts, is first created. This is done by mixing finished koji and plain steamed white rice from the above two steps, water and a concentration of pure yeast cells. Over the next two weeks, (typically) a concentration of yeast cells that can reach 100 million cells in one teaspoon is developed.

The Mash (Moromi)

After being moved to a larger tank, more rice, more koji and more water are added in three successive stages over four days, roughly doubling the size of the batch each time. This is the main mash, and as it ferments over the next 18 to 32 days, its temperature and other factors are measured and adjusted to create precisely the flavor profile being sought.

Pasteurization
Most sake is then pasteurized once. This is done by heating it quickly by passing it through a pipe immersed in hot water. This process kills off bacteria and deactivates enzymes that would likely adverse flavor and color later on. Sake that is not pasteurized is called namazake, and maintains a certain freshness of flavor, although it must be kept refrigerated to protect it.

Aging
Finally, most sake is left to age about six months, rounding out the flavor, before shipping. Before shipping it is mixed with a bit of pure water to bring the near 20 percent alcohol down to 16 percent or so, and blended to ensure consistency. Also, it is usually pasteurized a second time at this stage. It is somewhat unfair to the sake-brewing craft and industry to reduce sake brewing down to the short explanation above, but excessive detail would soon go beyond the scope of this book. The basics are as explained here.

Changes Over the Years

Over the centuries, naturally there were many adjustments and changes to the sake brewing process. These arose to either make better sake, or to make sake more economically. Sometimes, advances in the economic forum also lead to improved sake quality. One of the most important advances was the improvement in rice-polishing equipment. Originally, rice was stomped on in a vat to remove the husks. Later, water wheels and grinding stones were used. Today, there are great computercontrolled machines that will polish off the specified percentage of the outside of the grains, and do it in a specified amount of time (with longer being better). This minimized damage from friction heat and cracked grains. Another major advance was the use of ceramic-lined or stainless steel tanks, now the standard, over cedar tanks, which were used for hundreds of years. This has drastically improved the quality and purity of sake since the beginning of this century. Then there is the pressing stage. Until the early 1900's, all sake was pressed by pouring the moromi into canvas bags which were then put into a large wooden box called a fune. The lid was then cranked down into the box, squeezing out the sake. Now, almost all sake is pressed with a huge, accordion-like machine that squeezes the moromi between balloon-like inflating panels, making disposal of the lees (called kasu) simple. Almost all breweries will still press some of their best sake in the old way, using a fune. It does indeed make subtly noticeably better sake. But the accordion-like machine (called an Assaku-ki) is so much more efficient, and the fune so labor intensive, that the tradeoffs are only worth it for top-grade sake. Most controversially, however, is the koji making equipment. It is truly amazing how the slightest differences in koji can affect the flavor of the final product. Traditionally, koji is all made by hand in wood-paneled rooms kept warm and humid. As this is such a labor-intensive step, many changes have come about, and a lot of them are rejected later. (It is interesting to note that almost all super premium sake like daiginjo is made using hand-made koji.) There are now large machines that will perform part or all of the koji making process, doing the work of several individuals. There are countless manifestations of these, all attempting to imitate the skill and intuition of the human masters. Other changes include stainless steel instead of wood walls. The risk of the development of unwanted mold is reduced, but humidity is affected. In the end, there are countless arguments for and against these changes. Subtle changes in daily temperature and rice quality may not always

be picked up by machines, but for example sanitation can be greatly improved upon. Naturally, technological progress to some degree is necessary for the industry to survive.

Taste and flavor

The label on a bottle of sake gives a rough indication of its taste. Terms found on the label may include nihonshu-do , san-do (), and aminosan-do. Nihonshu-do indicates the sugar and acid content of the sake. When comparing sake to water, sake that is heavier than water is listed as a negative value, and sake that is lighter (drier) than water is given a positive value. As examples, "+10" is very dry, and "10" is very sweet. San-do indicates the concentration of acid, which is determined by titration. Sake with a high san-do value is dry, and low san-do is sweet. Aminosan-do indicates a taste of umami or savoriness. As the proportion of amino acids rises, the sake tastes more savory. Sake can have many flavor notes, such as apples, bananas, melons, flowers, herbs, spices, rice, chestnuts, chocolates, dry grapes, sherry, caramel sauce, etc. The flavor of apples comes from ethyl caproate, and bananas from isoamyl acetate. These two constituents are contained in many types of sake, such as ginjyoshu

Storage
Sake is sold in volume units divisible by 180 mL (a g), the traditional Japanese unit for cup size: sake is traditional sold by the g-sized cup, or in a 1.8 L (one sh, ten g) sized flask. Today sake is also often sold in 720 mL (four g) bottles note that this is almost the same as the 750 mL standard for wine bottles, but is divisible into 4 g. In general, it is best to keep sake refrigerated in a cool or dark room, as prolonged exposure to heat or direct light will lead to spoilage. In addition, sake stored at relatively high time can lead to formation of dicetopiperazine, a cyclo (Pro-Leu) that makes it bitter as it ages (Lecture Note, Oct. 2011). Sake has high microbiological stability due to its high content of ethanol. However, incidences of spoilage has been known to occur. One of the microoganisms implicated in this spoilage is lactic acid bacteria (LAB) that has grown tolerant to ethanol and is referred to as hiochi-bacteria (Suzuki et al., 2008). Sake stored at room temperature is best consumed within a few months after purchase.[citation needed] After opening a bottle of sake, it is best consumed within 2 or 3 hours.[citation needed] It is possible to store sake in the refrigerator, but it is recommended to finish the sake within 2 days. This is because once premium sake is opened it begins to

oxidize, which affects the taste. If the sake is kept in the refrigerator for more than 3 days, it will lose its "best" flavor. However, this does not mean it should be disposed of if not consumed. Generally, sake can keep very well and still taste just fine after weeks in the refrigerator. How long a sake will remain drinkable depends on the actual product itself, and whether it is sealed with a wine vacuum top.

Varieties
There are two basic types of sake; futs-shu "normal sake"; and tokutei meishshu "special designation sake."Futs-shu does not qualify for any special designation; it is the equivalent of table wine and represents over 75 percent of all sake produced. The tokutei meishshu, or "special designation sake," is distinguished by the degree to which the rice is polished and the added percentage of jz alcohol, or absence of such additives.

Current Market Development

Demand for sake in Japan has been on a declining trend over recent years. Consumption of sake overseas, however, has continued to rise based on an increasing popularity for Japanese food. Australia is no exceptionin particular, both public and private sectors have recently been active in promoting Japanese sake. The recent shift away from sake in the Japanese domestic market is severe. Statistics from the Japan Sake Brewers Association show domestic consumption of refined sake fell to 664,000 kilolitres in 2007, down almost 60 per cent over a ten-year period compared to 1997; this represents around a 40 per cent leveling off from the peak of 1975 (1.675 million kilolitres). The average consumption of 6.4 litres per adult has dived dramatically from 11.5 litres per adult in 1997 further demonstrating the contraction of the Japanese domestic sake market. In contrast to stagnating domestic demand, overseas exports are on the rise. Apart from severely diminishing exports to Taiwan that was once the largest export market, exports are booming to Korea, Hong Kong, China, East Asia and North America on the back of increasing global popularity for Japanese food. While the volume of exports to Australia is still somewhat small in comparison to other countries, the following table shows double-digit growth for three consecutive years since 2005. Figures for 2008 show a 14.4 per cent increase on the previous year to 135 kilolitres.

Shifts in refined sake export volumes per major market Source: Japan Sake Brewers Association

08 ranking 1 2 3 4 5 14

Country/Region USA Taiwan Korea Hong Kong Canada Australia

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2,616 2,997 3,354 3,852 3,843 2,080 2,133 1,991 1,700 1,626 230 987 410 95 399 961 462 81 665 877 490 92 1,069 1,529 1,006 1,213 484 118 530 135

BOURBON WHISKEY

INTRODUCTION
Bourbon is a type of American whiskey a barrel-aged distilled spirit made primarily from corn. The name of the spirit derives from its historical association with an area known as Old Bourbon, around what is now Bourbon County, Kentucky (which, in turn, was named after the French House of Bourbon royal family). It has been produced since the 18th century.[1] While it may be made anywhere in the United States, it is strongly associated with the American South in general, and Kentucky in particular. Bourbon is served straight, diluted with water, over ice cubes, or mixed with soda and into cocktails, including the Manhattan, the Old Fashioned, and the iconic mint julep. It is also used in cooking.
Since 2003, high-end bourbons have seen revenue grow from $450 million to over $500 million, some 2.2 million cases, in the United States. High-end bourbon sales accounted for eight percent of total spirits growth in 2006. Most high-end bourbons are aged for six years or longer.[37] In 2007, United States spirits exports, virtually all of which are American whiskey, exceeded $1 billion for the first time. This represents a 15 percent increase over 2006. American whiskey is now sold in more than 100 countries. The leading markets are the United Kingdom, Canada, Germany,Australia, and Japan. Key emerging markets for American whiskey are China, Vietnam, Brazil,Chile, Romania, and Bulgaria.[38]

Legal requirements
Bourbon's legal definition varies somewhat from country to country, but many trade agreements require the name bourbon to be reserved for products made in the United States. The U.S. regulations for labeling and advertising bourbon apply only to products made for consumption within the United States; they do not apply to distilled spirits made for export.[2] Canadian law requires products labeled bourbon to be made in the United States and to also conform to the requirements that apply within the United States. But in countries other than the United States and Canada, products labeled bourbon may not adhere to the same standards. European Union regulations require bourbon-labeled products to be made in the United States, but do not require them to conform to all of the requirements that apply within the United States. Only whiskey produced in the United States can be called bourbon.[3] The Federal Standards of Identity for Distilled Spirits (27 C.F.R. 5) state that bourbon made for U.S. consumption[2] must be: made from a grain mixture that is at least 51% corn;[4] aged in new, charred-oak barrels;[4] distilled to no more than 160 (U.S.) proof (80% alcohol by volume);[4] entered into the barrel for aging at no more than 125 proof (62.5% alcohol by volume);[4] and be


[5]

bottled (like other whiskeys) at 80 proof or more (40% alcohol by volume).

Bourbon has no minimum specified duration for its aging period, but it must be aged at least briefly.[6] Bourbon that meets the above requirements, has been aged for a minimum of two years, and does not have added coloring, flavoring, or other spirits may (but is not required to) be called straight bourbon.[7] Bourbon that is labeled as straight that has been aged under four years must be labeled with the duration of its aging.[8] Bourbon that has an age stated on its label must be labeled with the age of the youngest whiskey in the bottle (not counting the age of any added neutral grain spirits in a bourbon that is labeled as blended, as neutralgrain spirits are not considered whiskey under the regulations and are not required to be aged at all).[9]

Bourbon that is labeled blended (or as a blend) may contain added coloring, flavoring, and other spirits (such as un-aged neutral grain spirits); but at least 51% of the product must be straight bourbon.[10][11] n practice, almost all bourbons marketed today contain more than twothirds corn, have been aged at least four years, and do qualify as "straight bourbon"with or without the "straight-bourbon" label.[citation needed] The exceptions are inexpensive commodity bourbon brands (aged only three years) and premixed cocktails made with straight bourbon aged for two years. But at least one small distillery markets bourbon aged for as little as three months.[12] Whiskey sold as Tennessee whiskey is also defined as bourbon under NAFTA[13] and at least one other international trade agreement,[14] and is required to meet the legal definition of bourbon under Canadian law,[15] but some Tennessee whiskey makers do not label their product as bourbon and insist that it is a different type of whiskey when marketing their product.

MANUFACTURE PROCESS
The typical grain mixture for bourbon, known as the mash bill, is 70% cornwith the remainder being wheat, rye (or both), and malted barley.[1] A mash bill that contains wheat instead of rye produces what is known as a wheated bourbon. The grain is ground and mixed with water. Usually, though not always, mash from a previous distillation is added to ensure a consistent pH across batchesand a mash produced in that manner is referred to as a sour mash. Finally, yeast is added and the mash is fermented. The fermented mash, referred to as the wash, is then distilled to (typically) between 65% and 80% alcohol. Distillation was historically performed using an alembicor pot still, although in modern production, the use of a continuous still is much more common.

The resulting clear spirit is placed in charred-oak barrels for aging, during which it gains color and flavor from the carmelized sugars in the charred wood. Changes to the spirit also occur due to evaporation and chemical processes such as oxidation. Bourbons gain more color and flavor the longer they mature. Maturity, not a particular age, is the goal. Bourbon can age too long and become woody and unbalanced. After maturing, bourbon is withdrawn from the barrel, usually diluted with water, and bottled to at least 80 US proof (40% abv).[5] Most bourbon whiskey is sold at 80 US proof. Other common proofs are 86, 90, 94, 100, and 107, and whiskeys of up to 151 proof have been sold. Some higher-proof bottlings are marketed as "barrel proof", meaning that they have not been diluted or have been only lightly diluted after removal from the barrels. Bourbon whiskey may be sold at less than 80 proof but must be labeled as "diluted bourbon".

1. Grains The main ingredient in bourbon is corn which varies from 51% to 79% depending on the brand. The other ingredients are rye, malted barley (10-15% each), and in some cases red winter wheat (10%). Distilleries are meticulous about selecting their crops, and once approved by quality control, the grains are stored in silos. The grains are ground in a hammer mille into a fine flour. 2. Mashing The grain is placed in a mash cooker with iron-free water and cooked for approximately 30 minutes. The corn is cooked the longest at a temperature of 220 degrees Fahrenheit (F), the rye at 170F, and the barley 150F. The mix is then transported to a fermentation tank and it is called mash. 3. Fermentation At this stage, the yeast is prepared by placing a nutrient solution below a pear or apple tree. Once the solution has collected the yeast, it is placed in an oven, bred, and then left in stasis at around 95-100F. Only a small amount is removed (a few grams) and added to a malt extract. A mixture of approximately two cups of yeast is added to a large storage container called the "Dona Tub". Once the mash has been cooled to 75-85F, the yeast is added to the fermentation tank. The yeast breaks down the sugar in the mash converting it to alcohol and carbon dioxide over a period of three days. The alcohol is actually beer which is 10% alcohol/volume (20 proof). It is drained from the fermenting tube into a beer well. 4. Distillation To separate the whiskey, the beer is moved to the bottom of a still where it is heated at 200F. The liquid boils at the bottom and moves to the top in the form of a gas. The gas is filtered to a tank called a "thumper" where it is condensed. The liquid is called "low wine" and it is 45-65% alcohol/volume (90-130

proof). The liquid is then condensed again to further refine the flavor and it is now called "White Dog" or "high wine" (50-58% alcohol/volume or 100-116 proof). The White Dog is often sampled and then put in a barrel to mature. 5. Cooperage Bourbon must be stored in new, white oak barrels. The wood is cut into staves which are super heated and bent into ovular form. The barrel is then "toasted" by sending it through a small fire for about 12 minutes to caramelize the sugar in the wood. Next, it is applied to a larger fire for 6 to 12 seconds to burn out the inside and produce a charcoal layer. The charring must cover the barrel evenly so the whiskey has a consistent flavor. Finally the barrel is closed by a "Bung" and transported to the distilleries. Once the barrels have been used, they are often re-sold to age Scotch. 6. Maturity The barrels are transported to warehouses where they are placed using a series of elevators and moveable joints. Each barrel must stay for at least two years, and sometimes more depending on the position in the warehouse. A year consists of one cycle of expansion and contraction. When the temperature rises in the summer, the bourbon expands, and with lower temperatures in the winter, it contracts. This movement gives the bourbon its amber color and oak flavor. After a designated period, someone will open the barrel and taste if the whiskey is ready. If it meets the brand's standards, the barrel is opened, bottled, and shipped.