Plutarch For I am writing biography, not history, and the truth is that the most brilliant exploits often

tell us nothing of the virtues or vices of the men who performed them, while on the other hand, a chance remark or joke may reveal far more of a mans character than the mere feat of winning battles in which thousands fall, or of marshalling great armies, or laying siege to cities. On his fathers side Alexander was descended from Hercules. (to his friends when Philip won any great victory) Boys there will be nothing great or spectacular left for you and me to show the world. He cared nothing for pleasure or wealth but only for deeds of valour and glory. It was Aristotle, I believe, who did more than anyone to implant in Alexander his interest in the art of healing as well as that of philosophyhe was in the habit of tending his friends when they were sickand was devoted to all kinds of learning and was a lover of books. He regarded the Iliad as a handbook of the art of war and took it with him on his campaigns. (later he says that Alexander is brought a valuable casket belonging to Darius, he said he wanted to put his most precious possession into it, his copy of The Iliad). At first Alexander greatly admired Aristotle and became more attached to him than to his father, for the one, he used to say, had given him the gift of life, but the other had taught him how to live wellbut in later years he came to regard Aristotle with suspicionhis friendship for the philosopher lost its original warmth and affection

Alexanders principal object in permitting the sack of Thebes was to frighten the rest of the Greeks into submission by making a terrible example. Certainly he believed that the murder of Cleitus which he committed while drunk, and the cowardly refusal of the Macedonians to cross the Ganges and attack the Indians, which cut short his campaignwere both caused by the anger of the god Dionysus, who wished to avenge the destruction of his favourite city (Thebes). (When asked what he was taking with him after sharing out his wealth among friends) My hopes (Then Perdiccas and some of the others refused to take their gifts too. (Of the crossing of the Granicus) It seemed the act of a desperate madmanto charge into a swiftly flowing river (On Issus) Fortune certainly presented Alexander with the ideal terrain for the battle but it was his own generalship which did most to win the victory. (Alexander after Issus when he sees Dariuss tent) So this, it seems, is what it is to be a king. (Alexander, when Ada, Queen of Caria was giving him too much rich food, on the training given him by Leonidas) a night march to prepare him for breakfast, and a light breakfast to give him an appetite for supper".

(on Alexanders drinking) In fact he was usually talking rather than drinkinghe sat long over his wine because of his fondness for conversationand yet when he was drinking he would sometimes become offensively arrogant and

descend to the level of a common soldiergive way to boasting and be led on by his flatterers.he would sometimes then sleep until midday, and sometimes for the whole of the following day. Fortunehad made his resolve unshakeable and the proud spirit which he carried into all his undertakings had created in him a passion for surmounting obstacles, so that in the end he was able to overcome not only his enemies but even places and seasons of the year. It was only on rare occasions that (with the Greeks) he assumed the manner of a divinity. In one letter to the Athenians he referred to Philip as my so called father, but later accepted him as such and denied that ichor rather than blood flowed in his veins. He did not allow himself to become vain or foolishly conceited because of his belief in his divinity, but rather used it to assert his authority over others. (Darius of Alexander) If the fated time is at hand when the rule of the Persians must ceasegrant that no other man but Alexander shall sit upon the throne of Cyrus. Alexander on the eve of Gaugamela I will not steal my victory. (Alexander before the battle of Gaugamela) Do you not see that we have already won the battle now that.we can meet this Darius who will never stand and fight. (Before Gaugamela, Alexander to his troops) raising his right hand he called upon the gods and prayed that if he were really the son of Zeus they should protect and encourage the Greeks.

(Passing a fallen statue of Xerxes who had led a Persian expedition against Greece) Shall I pass you by and leave you lying thereor shall I set you up again because of yourvirtues in other respects? (The Macedonians helping to burn the palace at Persepolis) did this because they hoped that thissignified that Alexanders thoughts were turning towards home and that he was not planning to settle among the barbarians. (On the burning of the palace) Alexander quickly repented and gave orders for the fire to be put out. (On one letter of Antipater complaining about Olympias) One tear shed by his mother would wipe out ten thousand letters such as this. (Alexander to his friends who were becoming too used to the Persian life of luxury) men who labour sleep more sweetly than those who are laboured forthere is nothing more slavish than a love of pleasure and nothing more princely than the life of toil. It is in fact, astonishing that he could find time to write so many letters to his friends. ( Early on he was extremely fair and just) But later so many accusations were laid before him that he grew harsh and was inclined to believe even the false chargesabove all, If anyone spoke ill of him, his judgement was apt to desert him and his mood would become cruel and merciless. (On a helmet of water brought to him after Gaugamela) , Alexander says to the men) If I am the only one to drink then the rest will lose heart. ( On the death of Bessus) Alexander had the tops of two straight trees bent down so that they met and part of

Bessuss body was tied to each. Then each tree was let go. (On the wearing of Persian dress) He understood that the sharing of race and of customs is a great step towards softening mens hearts. Alternatively this may have been an experiment aimed at introducing obeisance among the Macedonians. (Plutarch says that in Parthia, Alexander was afraid that his men might refuse to go on further and so he rallied his best men and called on them to witness that at the very moment when he was seeking to conquer the whole inhabited world for the Macedonians he found himself deserted and left only with his friends. (then they all cheered and begged him to lead on). (On taking on Persian customs) He believed that if the two traditions could be blendedhis authority would be more firmly established when he was far away since it would rest on good will rather than force". his marriage to Roxane was a love match. (On the killing of Philotas and Parmenio) These actions made him dreaded by his friends. (On the killing of Cleitus) If we consider both the occasion and the cause we may see that it was a misfortune rather than a deliberate act and that it was Cleituss evil genius (evil spirit) that took advantage of Alexanders anger and intoxication to destroy him. (Cleitus to Alexander during the row) It would be better for him to spend his time amongslaves who would prostrate themselves before his white tunic and Persian girdle.

(On Anaxarchus who persuaded Alexander not to feel too guilty on the death of Cleitus) but he made him in many ways more proud and autocratic than before. (On Callisthenes in company, that he often used to ) sit, wrapped in morose silence (i.e. sulking). (Aristotle on Callisthenes) he possessed great eloquence but lacked common sense. (Plutarch on Callistheness stand against proskynesis says that) He behaved like a true philosopherand delivered the Greeks from a great disgrace and Alexander from an even greater one. (On entering India) By this time he was already feared by his men for his relentless severity in punishing any dereliction of duty.

At the Hydaspes he is said to have called out Oh you Athenians, will you ever believe what risks I am running just to earn your praise! Most historians agree that Porus was about 6 foot 3 inches talland his elephant too was very large and showed an extraordinary intelligence and concern for the kings person. (On the death of Bucephalas) Alexander was plunged into grief at his death and felt that he had lost nothing less than a friend (On the Mallian Siege) as he brandished his arms, it seemed to the barbarians as if a dazzling sheet of flame suddenly took shape in front of his body and they scattered and fled.

(The philosopher Dandamis) Why did Alexander come all this way to India? (On the big celebration at Carmania) Alexander feasted continuously, day and night, reclining upon a daisthe whole structure drawn along by 8 horses. Innumerable wagons followed covered with purple canopiesall of his officers crowned with flowers and drinking winetoasting one anothersome sprawled by the waysidenot only drinking but all kinds of bacchanalian license attended this disorderly march (By now) The whole empire was in turmoil and an atmosphere of instability prevailed everywhereat home Olympias had been intriguing against the regent, Antipater.

He is very affected by the inscription on the tomb of Cyrus the Great) I am Cyrus the Great who won the Persians their empire, do not grudge me this little earth that covers my body. A drinking contest is set up by Alexander with a prize of crown, the winner is Promachus who drank 12 quarts (24 pints) of wine, and died (along with 41 others) a few days later. The 30,000 (Persian) boys had now grown into active and handsome menAlexander was delighted with their progressbut the Macedonians were disheartened and deeply disturbed for their own futureso when he arranged tosend the sick and disabled among them to the sea coast, they protested that he wasdeliberately humiliating them turning them away in disgracenow that he had a young corps of ballet-soldiers (At Opis).

( On the death of Hephaestion) Alexanders grief was uncontrollablehe gave orders that all the manes and tails should be cut off the horses demolished the battlements of all neighbouring citiescrucified the unfortunate doctor and forbade the playing of music for a long timehe massacred the whole population of the tribe of the Cossaeansas a sacrifice to the spirit of Hephaestion. The sculptor Stasicrates offered to carve out Mount Athos in Alexanders likeness (a bit like Mount Rushmore in the U.S.), but Alexander refusedbut now he spent time with his engineers and architects planning projects which were even more outlandish and extravagant.

(On the omens before his death) Some ravens falling dead in front of him; an animal sacrificed whose liver had no lobe; an ass kicking a lion to death; the man sitting on his throne wearing his crown; His confidence now deserted him, he began to believe he had lost the favour of the gods, and he became increasingly suspicious of his friends (especially Antipater and his son Cassander). (Cassander, when he sees the Persians at proskynesis) He burst into loud and disrespectful laughter for he had been brought up a Greek and had never seen such a spectacle in his life. Alexander was furious at this insult, seized him by the hair with both hands and dashed his head against the wall (He also threatened Cassander if he and his father were plotting which terrified Cassander so that the mere sight of a statue of Alexander later on would cause him to tremble uncontrollably). Meanwhile Alexander had become so much obsessed by his fears of the supernatural and so overwroughtthat he interpreted everyunusual occurrence as a portentthe place was filled with soothsayers, sacrificers, prophets

unreasoning dread filled his mind with foolish misgivings once he had become a slave to his fears.

Aristobulus tells us that he was seized with a raging fever, that when he became very thirsty he drank wine which made him delirious and that he died on the 30th day of the month Daesius. (10th June 323 BC). Nobody had any suspicion at the time that he had been poisonedbut it is said that five years later some information was givenAccording to some writers it was Aristotle who advised Antipater to arrange the murderthe poison consisted of ice-cold water drawn from a certain cliff near the town of Nonacris where it wasstored in an asses hoofno other vessel could hold the substance it was so cold and pungent that it would eat through any other subsancebut most authorities consider this tale of poisoning to be pure invention. After Alexanders death Roxane had Stateira (Dariuss daughter and Alexanders second wife) murdered together with her sister and their bodies thrown to the bottom of a well.